CELL STRUCTURE

Cells are the basic, fundamental unit of life. So, if we were to break apart an organism to the
cellular level, the smallest independent component that we would find would be the cell.

Explore the cell notes to know what is a cell, cell definition, cell structure, types and functions of
cells. These notes have an in-depth description of all the concepts related to cells.

Cells are the fundamental unit of life. They range in size from 0.0001 mm to nearly 150 mm
across.

Cell Definition

“A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s
processes.”

Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings. A cell can replicate
itself independently. Hence, they are known as the building blocks of life.

Each cell contains a fluid called the cytoplasm, which is enclosed by a membrane. Also present
in the cytoplasm are several biomolecules like proteins, nucleic acids and lipids. Moreover,
cellular structures called cell organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm.The study of cells from
its basic structure to the functions of every cell organelle is called Cell Biology.

All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular), or many
cells (multicellular). Mycoplasmas are the smallest known cells. Cells are the building blocks of
all living beings. They provide structure to the body and convert the nutrients taken from the
food into energy.

Cells are complex and their components perform various functions in an organism. They are of
different shapes and sizes, pretty much like bricks of the buildings. Our body is made up of cells
of different shapes and sizes.

Cells are the lowest level of organisation in every life form. From organism to organism, the
count of cells may vary. Humans have more number of cells compared to that of bacteria.

Cells comprise several cell organelles that perform specialised functions to carry out life
processes. Every organelle has a specific structure. The hereditary material of the organisms is
also present in the cells.

Discovery of Cells

Discovery of cells is one of the remarkable advancements in the field of science. It helps us
know that all the organisms are made up of cells, and these cells help in carrying out various life
processes. The structure and functions of cells helped us to understand life in a better way.

Who discovered cells?

Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665. Robert Hooke observed a piece of bottle cork under a
compound microscope and noticed minuscule structures that reminded him of small rooms.
Consequently, he named these “rooms” as cells. However, his compound microscope had limited
magnification, and hence, he could not see any details in the structure. Owing to this limitation,
Hooke concluded that these were non-living entities.

Later Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed cells under another compound microscope with higher
magnification. This time, he had noted that the cells exhibited some form of movement
(motility). As a result, Leeuwenhoek concluded that these microscopic entities were “alive.”
Eventually, after a host of other observations, these entities were named as animalcules.

In 1883, Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, provided the very first insights into the cell structure.
He was able to describe the nucleus present in the cells of orchids.

Characteristics of Cells

Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:

  Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.
 The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles surrounded by a separate
membrane.
 The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction and
cell growth.
 Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
 Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the energy
transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
 Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
 Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organisation of the cell by
synthesising selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to their
appropriate locations.

Types of Cells

Cells are similar to factories with different labourers and departments that work towards a
common objective. Various types of cells perform different functions. Based on cellular
structure, there are two types of cells:

 Prokaryotes
 Eukaryotes

Prokaryotic Cells

1. Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as bacteria have a
region within the cell where the genetic material is freely suspended. This region is called
the nucleoid.
2. They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea, bacteria, and
cyanobacteria.
3. The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
4. The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.
5. Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction. They
are also known to use conjugation – which is often seen as the prokaryotic equivalent to
sexual reproduction (however, it is NOT sexual reproduction).

Eukaryotic Cells

1. Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a true nucleus.

2. The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.
3. This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.
 4. The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of nutrients and
electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell to cell communication.
5. They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
6. There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For eg., the plant
cell contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids, whereas the animal cells do
not.

Cell Structure

The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry out
life’s processes. These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and
cell organelles. Read on to explore more insights on cell structure and function.

Cell Membrane

 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of substances
in and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell
membrane is present in all the cells.
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such
as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.
 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of
selective substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects
the cellular component from damage and leakage.
 It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its
surroundings.
 Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from
external factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.

Cell Wall

 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of
cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and
other cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.
 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks and
injuries.

Cytoplasm

 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
  Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes,
are suspended in this cytoplasm.

Nucleus

 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
 It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the rest
of the cell.
 The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell structure.

Cell Organelles

Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry out
life’s processes. The different cell organelles, along with its principal functions, are as follows:

Cell Organelles and their Functions

Nucleolus
The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular activities and
cellular reproduction.
Nuclear membrane
The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus and other cell
organelles.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human cells contain 23
pairs of chromosomes.
Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the cell. It plays a
primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids and proteins.
Golgi Bodies
Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of materials within
the cell.
Ribosome
Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell.
Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it produces ATP – the
cell’s energy currency.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and help in cell
renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags.
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment called chlorophyll.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.

Cell Theory

Cell Theory was proposed by the German scientists, Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, and
Rudolf Virchow. The cell theory states that:

 All living species on Earth are composed of cells.

 A cell is the basic unit of life.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
A modern version of the cell theory was eventually formulated, and it contains the following
postulates:

 Energy flows within the cells.

 Genetic information is passed on from one cell to the other.
 The chemical composition of all the cells is the same.

Functions of Cell

A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and development of an organism.
Important functions of cell are as follows:

Provides Support and Structure

All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural basis of all the organisms. The
cell wall and the cell membrane are the main components that function to provide support and
structure to the organism. For eg., the skin is made up of a large number of cells. Xylem present
in the vascular plants is made of cells that provide structural support to the plants.

Facilitate Growth Mitosis

In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus, the cells multiply
and facilitate the growth in an organism.

Allows Transport of Substances

Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes going on
inside the cells. The waste produced by the chemical processes is eliminated from the cells by
active and passive transport. Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol
diffuse across the cell membrane along the concentration gradient. This is known as passive
transport. The larger molecules diffuse across the cell membrane through active transport where
the cells require a lot of energy to transport the substances.

Energy Production

Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is produced by the
cells through a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.

Aids in Reproduction

A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is termed as
the asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to form daughter cells. Meiosis causes the
daughter cells to be genetically different from the parent cells.

Thus, we can understand why cells are known as the structural and functional unit of life. This is
because they are responsible for providing structures