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PRODUCING TITANIUM

From Black Sand to a Range of Mill Products

Extracting titanium from the ore For vacuum arc remelting, the titanium sponge
is crushed and blended with the desired alloying
Titanium is the fourth most abundant metallic
elements, such as aluminum, vanadium,
element in the earth’s crust. In its elemental form
molybdenum, tin and zirconium. (The percentage
it occurs primarily as ilmenite (titanium-iron oxide
of each alloying element in the final metal is
— TiFeO3) and rutile (titanium dioxide — TiO2).
expressed as a number in front of its atomic
Although these compounds are found on all seven
symbol. For example, Ti-6Al-4V consists of 90%
continents, Australia is by far the largest supplier
titanium, 6% aluminum and 4% vanadium.) The
of both. Common black beach sand is rich in
composition is then pressed into briquets, which
rutile, which has the highest titanium content of
are welded together to form an electrode. In
any source material. About 95% of all titanium
the VAR furnace, the electrode is “consumable
mined is used to manufacture TiO2, an important
melted” by an arc struck between it and a layer
pigment that adds whiteness, brightness and
of titanium in a water-cooled copper crucible.
opacity to paint, plastic, paper and ink. The
The molten titanium on the outer surface solidifies
other 5% is used to manufacture metal.
on contact with the cold wall, forming a shell or
skull to contain the molten pool. The ingot is not
To produce pure titanium, the ore is converted to
poured, but solidifies under vacuum in the melting
titanium metal “sponge” (so-called for its ocean-
furnace. A second melt insures homogeneity of
sponge-like appearance) in two distinct steps.
the ingot for industrial purposes; a triple melting
First the TiO2 is mixed with coke or tar and charged
operation is used for all metal destined for critical
in a chlorinator, where chlorine gas is passed
applications such as rotating components in gas
through the heated, fluidized bed charge. The
turbine engines. The resultant VAR ingots are
titanium ore reacts with the chlorine to form
cylindrical shapes weighing up to 30,000 pounds,
titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4), a colorless liquid,
which are forged to slabs or billets, then formed
and the oxygen is removed as CO and CO2.
to mill products.
The TiCl4 is then reacted in the Kroll process, which
The alternative sponge melting process uses a
uses magnesium as a reducing agent under an
cold hearth furnace. Here, the crushed sponge
inert atmosphere. The resultant metallic sponge
and alloying elements can also be mixed with
is then either leached, inert-gas swept or vacuum
inexpensive recycled titanium scrap before
distilled to remove the excess magnesium chloride
melting, to reduce costs. The mixture is melted by
and unreacted magnesium metal, which are
either electron beams in a vacuum or by plasma
recycled. Vacuum distillation results in lower levels
arc torches under a positive pressure of helium.
of magnesium, hydrogen and chloride. The pure
The metal flows across the cold hearth, where it
titanium sponge must meet stringent specifications
forms a pool that allows impurities to sink to the
to assure control of the ingot’s composition.
bottom or to be evaporated. Cold hearth melting
removes both hard alpha and high-density inclusions
Melting to Ingot: Vacuum Arc and is the preferred method for producing clean
Remelting and Cold Hearth Melting titanium for aerospace applications. Because it
can use a high percentage of scrap, cold hearth
Melting is the next step. This takes place in either
melting is also used to produce affordable
a vacuum arc remelt furnace, to produce VAR
titanium for industrial and commercial uses.
ingots typically used for aerospace applications,
The molten titanium is direct cast into a near net
or in an cold hearth (electron beam or plasma arc)
shape, which can be a slab intended for further
furnace, to fulfill industrial and some aerospace
processing, or a remelt electrode which can then
requirements, or to produce feedstock for a
be VAR melted to meet aerospace requirements.
subsequent VAR melt.
Combination cold hearth/VAR melts can eliminate
inclusions and defects that even triple VAR melting
cannot remove.

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PRODUCING TITANIUM

Typical Production Flow Chart for Titanium Sponge, Mill Products and Castings

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PRODUCING TITANIUM

Diverse Mill Products For Multiple Uses Extrusions

Titanium is cost-effectively extruded into desired
VAR ingots and cold-hearth melted, cast slabs are
near-net shapes by forcing heated metal through
pressed or rotary forged into slabs (rectangular
a die. Extrusions maximize material usage and
shapes) or billets (rough round bar or various other
reduce the need for downstream milling, welding
shapes). Then, hot forming produces forgings,
or assembly.
rollings and extrusions. This can be followed by
cold rolling and common processing techniques
to create mill products — basic structural shapes Fastener Stock and Wire
with desired properties that maximum metal This is limited to rounds with diameter less than
utilization. The majority of aircraft and some or equal to ½”.
industrial components require warm working to
overcome spring back, minimize stresses and Other Common Product Forms
reduce the high forming forces needed for titanium These include weld wire, fasteners, screws, nuts,
alloys. Superplastic forming and diffusion bonding bolts, washers and rod.
under pressure and temperature have recently
found acceptance. All mill products are available Casting: Efficient Production of Near Net Shapes
in the spectrum of alloys and grades. Casting is the most advanced and diversified of
the net shape technologies. It offers greater
Forgings design freedom and significantly reduces the need
The workhorse of the aerospace industry and a for expensive machining or fabrication to attain
feedstock for additional mill products, forgings the desired shape. Commercial casting began
are available in a wide range of sizes. New in the late 1960’s and today the technology has
developments in precision forging now provide matured to routinely supply critical gas turbine
near-net shapes with improved material efficiencies. engine, airframe, chemical process, medical and
marine products.
Billet
Billet can have round, square, rectangular, Both precision investment casting as well as
hexagonal or octagonal shapes. Cross-sectional rammed graphite (sand) molding systems are
area is equal to or greater than 16 square inches employed. The economy of investment casting
and width is less than five times thickness. often favors it as an alternative to fabrications,
hog-outs and sheet metal build up assemblies.
Rod and Bar Investment casting can be used to create large,
tolerance-critical parts such as heat shields, fan
Rounds have diameters greater than ½” and less
frames and missile components, as well as smaller
than or equal to 4½”. Squares have cross sections
parts such as valve bodies. The same pattern
less than 16 square inches. Rectangles have cross-
equipment used to produce steel parts is often
sections less than 16 square inches, thicknesses
used to produce titanium chemical pump and
greater than 3/16" and widths less than or equal
valve components, while aerospace parts normally
to 10 inches.
require their own tooling.
Plate
Mechanical properties of titanium castings are
Hot rolling produces plate, which is generally
generally comparable to their wrought counter-
available in thicknesses greater than 3/16" and
parts. Toughness and crack growth resistance are
width greater than 20". Vacuum creep flattening
generally superior, strength is almost the same,
is widely used to achieve critical plate flatness.
while high cycle fatigue is normally a little lower.
Hot isostatic pressing (HIPPING) is used to eliminate
Sheet and Strip
internal porosity in castings, in order to improve
Sheet is flat-roll product that is typically less
fatigue life.
than 3/16“ thick, and produced by either hot or
cold rolling.
Powder Metallurgy: A Promise of Lower Cost and
Wider Uses
Pipe and Tube
Titanium powder technology may offer lower
Pipe and tube can be manufactured as either
costs in the manufacture of near-net shapes.
welded or seamless product in a variety of standard
Processes under development offer the hope
diameters and wall thicknesses. Titanium pipe,
of low cost powders which could open a wider
fittings and flanges are normally available in
range of applications.
standard schedules and sizes.

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FABRICATING TITANIUM

Conventional Techniques From the Straightforward to the Sophisticated

Conventional metal processing tools and Machining
procedures can be used to form, machine and While titanium presents a unique set of machining
join titanium and its workability is comparable to circumstances, all of the customary methods can
that of ¾ hard stainless steel. The technology of be used and it is no more difficult to machine than
fabricating titanium has also evolved to offer a Type 316 stainless steel, depending on alloy grade.
wide range of highly sophisticated techniques. Titanium’s tendency to gall and its low modulus
End application specifications and economics can be counter-acted by using consistently sharp
should deter-mine which processes are used. tools; heavy, non-stop feeds; rigid set-ups; slow
speeds and an abundance of soluble coolant.
Although Work hardening rate is less than that for stainless
titanium steels. Drilling and cold saw cutting require
is readily sharp, clean tools with good chip removal and
fabricable, ample coolant. Grinding also requires effective
some distinct use of coolant as well as proper wheel and wheel
differences speed selection.
from other
structural Cutting
metals should Torch cutting with oxyacetylene flame can be
be recognized: accomplished on titanium sections up to 6"thick.
lower modulus Water jet and laser cutting are widely practiced.
of elasticity,
higher melting Cladding
point, lower A range of processes is available for cladding,
ductility, primarily for industrial equipment applications.
propensity Explosive bonding and mechanical fastened loose
to gall and lining have been used for years. More recently roll
sensitivity to cladding; resistance weld lining and diffusion
contamination bonding are being used.
in air at temperatures above 800oF (425°C). Also,
consideration must be given to the grade or alloy,
heat treatment and metallurgical condition.

Forming
Titanium can usually be cold worked on
equipment designed for stainless steel or
nickel-based alloys. Although it can be readily
bent, sheared, pressed, deep-drawn and so on,
it is necessary to take into account titanium’s
strong spring back characteristics. Press brakes
(used for forming sheet and plate), shears, cold
rolls, hydro-press forming, drawing and pilgering
equipment can all be used.

Welding
Welding titanium and its alloys is readily
performed in the field, without a vacuum,
but it is necessary to eliminate reactive gases
(including oxygen, nitrogen and air) and to
maintain cleanliness. Welding by means of the
Tungsten Inert Gas process (TIG) using argon
gas shielding is the most common. Plasma, laser,
resistance, electron beam, Metal Inert Gas (MIG),
and friction welding are widely practiced.

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