HISTORY OF TITANIUM

Titanium was asleep in our earth's crust for many years. It was finally discovered as an element
in England about 200 years ago. It was found that this unknown material was an oxide that had unique
characteristics. This new metal element was later given the name titanium, which comes from Greek
mythology. The Titans were giants that were imprisoned underground after losing a war against the
gods on Olympus. In a similar way, titanium elements were "imprisoned" in mineral ore.

In the middle of the 20th century, titanium began to be used for practical applications. Dr. J. Kroll, who
was a metallurgist in Luxembourg, invented the "Magnesium Reduction Method (or Kroll process)"
which made it possible for the industrial mass production of titanium. The Kroll process became widely
used as a smelting technology. Afterwards, titanium was developed and used for its unique
characteristics in the aircraft industry such as for jet engines. Today, nuclear power plants, chemical
plants, marine structures, building roofs, daily commodities such as golf clubs, and medical products
such as artificial joints all use titanium. Clearly, the usages and possibilities for titanium have become
very broad.

Light Titanium's relative density is about half that of

copper and about 60% that of iron.
Strong For its weight, titanium is about six times
stronger than aluminum and about twice as
strong as iron.
Rustproof Titanium has better corrosion resistance against
ocean water than stainless steel.
Heat Resistance Titanium has a much better heat resistance than
aluminum.
Human Friendly Titanium is safe because it is biocompatible and
does not harm the human body.
Earth Friendly Titanium is 100% recyclable and is very friendly to
the environment.
Abundant Availability Titanium is one of the most abundant existing
elements as a practical-use metal behind iron,
aluminum and magnesium. It is referred to as an
inexhaustible resource (titanium mineral ore such
as rutile).

TITANIUM & TANTALUM OR ALLOY EQUIPMENT

A variety of process equipment can be fabricated

of solid titanium, titanium-clad steel, and with
titanium linings. Choice of one construction over
another depends on several factors, among them
the environment, the feasibility of manufacture
and cost.
SOLID TITANIUM
Solid construction is in many cases the most
straight-forward and economical fabrication
approach for titanium equipment. This appears
to be particularly applicable for equipment which
will be subjected to vacuum, when thermal
cycling is frequent, when internals must be
positioned inside a vessel, and when the wall of
the equipment is moderately light, i.e., on the
order of up to 3/4-inch in thickness. It may be
more economical to utilize clad construction for
heavier wall thickness.
CLAD CONSTRUCTION
When pressure and temperature conditions
dictate a need for wall thickness of one inch or
greater, titanium-clad steel may be the desired
approach. Large plates with a thin titanium layer
explosively bonded to steel are available.
With the titanium providing the necessary
corrosion resistance , the lower cost carbon steel
provides strength. Explosive cladding produces a
metallurgical bond which transfers heat far
better than a loose liner. The clad product also
enable thermal cycling without fear of separation
of the two metals. Welding of clad product
requires special techniques which first involves
joining and inspection of the carbon steel
followed by joining of the titanium layer. Care to
prevent contamination of the titanium by iron or
by air must be exercised.
TITANIUM LININGS
Titanium linings can be used in equipment which
will not operate under a vacuum and whose
maximum operating temperature does not
exceed about 400 degrees F. Once again, the
titanium liner provides the corrosion resistance
while a cheaper metal, usually steel, contributes
strength.
In general, lining is not recommended for
equipment to be operated above 400 degrees F.
The thermal expansion of titanium is less than
that of steel. Differential expansion can cause
stresses which on thermal cycling may cause
fracture of the lining, particularly in large
equipment.
 The equipment list is as following:
•Titanium Heat Exchangers
•Titanium Reactor
•Titanium Tank
•Titanium Pressure Vessel
•Titanium Cothode Cytinder for Electrolytic
Copper Foil
•Titanium Pump
•Titanium Standard Parts

Important differences between titanium and steel or nickel-base alloys need to be recognized. These
are:
· Titanium’s lower density
· Titanium’s lower modulus of elasticity
· Titanium’s higher melting point
· Titanium’s lower ductility
· Titanium’s propensity to gall
· Titanium’s sensitivity toward contamination during welding
Compensation for these differences allows titanium to be fabricated, using techniques similar to
those with stainless steel or nickel-base alloys. This article deals with common operations used in
fabricating titanium. The information given is intended to be used as guidelines. It is by no means
exhaustive.
Work Area
The fabrication of titanium demands attention to cleanliness. It is not uncommon for shops which
handle several metals to isolate an area to be used especially for titanium. The area set aside for
titanium should be free of air drafts, moisture, dust, grease and other contaminants which might find
their way into or onto the metal.
Welding Titanium
Titanium and most titanium alloys are readily weldable, using several welding processes. Properly
made welds in the as-welded condition are ductile and, in most environments, are as corrosion
resistant as base metal. Improper welds, on the other hand, might be embrittled and less corrosion-
resistant compared to base metal.
The techniques and equipment used in welding titanium are similar to those required for other high-
performance materials, such as stainless steels or nickel-base alloys. Titanium, however, demands
greater attention to cleanliness and to the use of auxiliary inert gas shielding than these materials.
Molten titanium weld metal must be totally protected from contamination by air. Also, hot heat-
affected zones and root side of titanium welds must be shielded until temperatures drop below 800°F
(427°C).
Titanium reacts readily with air, moisture, grease, dirt, refractories, and most other metals to form
brittle compounds. Reaction of titanium with gases and fluxes makes common welding processes
such as gas welding, shielded metal arc, flux cored arc, and submerged arc welding unsuitable.
Likewise, welding titanium to most dissimilar metals is not feasible, because titanium forms brittle
compounds with most other metals; however, titanium can be welded to zirconium, tantalum and
niobium.
In spite of the precautions, which need to be taken, many fabricators are routinely and economically
welding titanium, making sound, ductile welds at comparable rates to many other high performance
materials. One of the important benefits of welding the commercially pure grades of titanium is that
they are over 99% pure titanium and there is no concern for segregation. The same is true of weld
wire or rod in commercially pure grades.
Welding Environment
Most titanium welding today is done in the open fabrication shop, although chamber welding is still
practiced on a limited basis. Field welding is common. Wherever the welding is done, a clean
environment is necessary in which to weld titanium. A separate area, specifically set aside for the
welding of titanium, aids in making quality welds. This area should be kept clean and should be
isolated from dirt-producing operations such as grinding, torch cutting and painting. In addition, the
welding area should be free of air drafts and humidity should be controlled.
Welding Processes
Titanium and its alloys are most often welded with the gas tungsten-arc (GTA or TIG) and gas metal-
arc (GMA or MIG) welding processes. Resistance, plasma arc, electron beam and friction welding are
also used on titanium to a limited extent. All of these processes offer advantages for specific
situations. However, the following discussion will be concerned primarily with GTA and GMA welding.
Many of the principles discussed are applicable to all processes.
Gas Tungsten-Arc (GTA) and Gas Metal-Arc (GMA) Welding
The GTA process can be used to make butt joints without filler metal in titanium base sheet of up to
about 1/8-inch thickness. Heavier sections generally require the use of filler metal and grooved joints.
Either the GTA or GMA welding process can be used, although GMA welding is more economical for
sections heavier than about one-half inch. If the GTA process is used, care should be exercised to
prevent contact of the tungsten electrode with the molten puddle, thereby preventing tungsten
pickup.
Power Supply
A conventional power supply, connected D.C. straight polarity (DCSP), is used for GTA welding of
titanium. Reverse polarity (DCRP) is used for GMA welding of titanium. A remote controlled contactor
allows the arc to be broken without removal of the torch from the cooling weld metal, thereby
maintaining inert gas shielding. Foot operated current and contactor control, high frequency arc
starting and shielding gas timers are other desirable features.
Welding Torch
A water-cooled welding torch, equipped with a 3/4-inch ceramic cup and a gas lens, is recommended
for GTA welding of titanium. A one-inch cup may be required for GMA welding. Thoriated tungsten
electrodes (usually 2% thoria) are recommended for GTA welding of titanium. Pointed electrodes (end
blunted) help to control arc characteristics. The smallest diameter electrode which can carry the
required current should be used.
Inert Gas Shielding
Protection needs to be provided to titanium weldments on cooling down to about 800°F (427°C) as
well as to the molten weld puddle in order to prevent contamination by air. During GTA and GMA
welding, argon or helium shielding gases of welding grade with dewpoint of -50°F (-46°C) or lower are
used to provide the necessary protection. Separate gas supplies are needed for:
· Primary shielding of the molten weld puddle.
· Secondary shielding of cooling weld deposit and associated heat affected zones.
· Backup shielding of the backside of weld and associated heat affected zones.
Primary Shielding
Primary shielding of the molten weld puddle is provided by proper selection of the welding torch.
Standard water-cooled welding torches equipped with large (3/4 or 1-inch) ceramic cups and gas
lenses, are suitable for titanium. The large cup is necessary to provide adequate shielding for the
entire molten weld puddle. The gas lens provides uniform, nonturbulent inert gas flow.
Argon is generally used in preference to helium for primary shielding at the torch because of better
arc stability characteristics. Argon-helium mixtures can be used if higher voltage, hotter arc and
greater penetration are desired. Manufacturer’s recommended gas flow rates to the torch should be
used. Flow rates in the vicinity of 20 cfh have proven satisfactory in practice. Excess flow to the torch
may cause turbulence and loss of shielding. The effectiveness of primary shielding should be
evaluated prior to production welding. An arc can be struck on a scrap piece of titanium with the
torch held still and with shielding gas only on the torch. The shielding gas should be continued after a
molten puddle forms and the arc is extinguished, until the weld cools. Uncontaminated, i.e., properly
shielded, welds will be bright and silvery in appearance.
Secondary Shielding
Secondary shielding is most commonly provided by trailing shields. The function of the trailing shield
is to protect the solidified titanium weld metal and associated heat-affected zones until temperature
reaches 800°F (427°C) or lower. Trailing shields are generally custom-made to fit a particular torch
and a particular welding operation. Design of the trailing shield should be compact and allow for
uniform distribution of inert gas within the device. The possible need for water-cooling should also be
considered, particularly for large shields. Porous bronze diffusers have provided even and
nonturbulent flow of inert gas from the shield to the weld.
Backup Shielding
The prime purpose of backup devices is to provide inert gas shielding to the root side of welds and
their heat-affected zones. Such devices often look much like trailing shields and may be hand-held, or
clamped or taped into position. Water-cooled copper backup bars (or massive metal bars) may also
be used as heat sinks to chill the welds. These bars are grooved, with the groove located directly
below (or above) the weld joint. About 10 cfh of inert gas flow per linear foot of groove is required for
adequate shielding.
Makeshift shielding devices are often employed very effectively with titanium welds under shop or
field conditions. These include use of plastic to completely enclose the workpiece and flood it with
inert gas. Likewise, aluminium or stainless steel foil “tents,” taped over welds and flooded with inert
gas, are used as backup shields. When such techniques are used, it is important that all air, which will
contaminate welds, be purged from the system. An inert gas purge equal to ten times the volume of
the air removed is a good rule-of-thumb for irregular spaces. A moderate rate of inert gas should be
maintained until the weld is completed.
Argon is generally selected in preference to helium for use in trailing shields and backup devices,
primarily because of cost but also because it is more dense. Helium, with its lower density, is
sometimes used for trailing or backup shielding when the weld is above the device. It is important
that separate flow controls are available for primary, secondary and backup shielding devices. Timer
controlled pre-purge and post-purge of torch shielding, and solenoid valves with manual switches
interlocked with the welding current for secondary and backup shielding are also useful.
Joint Design and Preparation
Weld joint designs for titanium are similar to those for other metals. The joint design selected for
titanium however, must permit proper inert gas shielding of both root and face during welding as well
as post-weld inspection of both sides of the weld. The joint surfaces must be smooth, clean and
completely free of contamination. All burn marks produced by grinding or mechanical filing should be
removed by filing. Likewise, burrs and sharp edges should be removed with a sharp file. The use of
sandpaper or steel wool, which leave particles behind, can be a source of contamination. Good joint
fit-up is important for titanium. Uniform fit-up minimizes burn-through and controls underbead
contour. Poor fit-up may increase the possibility of contamination from air trapped in the joint,
particularly with butt joints on light gauge material. Maintenance of joint opening during welding is
important. Clamping to prevent joint movement during welding is recommended. If tack welds are
used, the same care in cleaning and inert gas shielding must be exercised, as with any and all titanium
welds, to prevent contamination. Any cracked or contaminated tack welds must be removed before
final welding.
Cleaning
Before welding titanium, it is important that weld joints and weld wire be free of mill scale, dirt, dust,
grease, oil, moisture and other potential contaminants. Inclusion of these foreign substances in
titanium weld metal could degrade properties and corrosion resistance. Weld wire is clean as
packaged by the manufacturer. If wire appears to be dirty, wiping with a non-chlorinated solvent,
prior to use, is good practice. In severe cases, acid cleaning may be required. All joint surfaces and
surfaces of base plate for a distance of at least an inch back from the joint need to be cleaned. Normal
pickled mill surfaces generally require only scrubbing with household cleaners or detergents, followed
by thorough rinsing with hot water and air drying. Alternatively, wiping of weld joints and adjacent
areas with nonchlorinated solvents such as acetone, toluene, or methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), using
clean lint-free cloths or cellulose sponges, is acceptable, provided no residue remains. The solvents
are particularly effective in removing traces of grease and oil. Solvent cleaning should be followed by
wire brushing, using a new stainless steel brush. Under no circumstances should steel brushes or steel
wool be used on titanium because of the dangers to corrosion resistance which embedded iron
particles pose.
Light oxide films, as might result from heating in the range 600°-800°F (316-427°) for forming
operations, can be removed by brushing with a new stainless steel wire brush. Light grinding, draw
filing and acid pickling are also effective. An acceptable pickle bath for titanium is 35 vol.% nitric (70%
concentration), and 5 vol.% hydrofluoric acid (48% concentration) used at room temperature. Dipping
of weld joint areas for 1 to 15 minutes (depending on the activity of the bath) should be sufficient.
A cold water rinse to remove acid, followed by a hot water rinse to facilitate drying, completes the
cleaning. Heavy scale and oxygen-contaminated surfaces, such as might be present after a high
temperature heat treatment, are best removed by mechanical means. Grinding, and sand or grit
blasting are commonly used. Molten caustic baths, although useful, require care to minimize the
possibility of hydrogen pickup. After scale removal, an acid pickle should be used to remove all
residue and improve surface appearance.
Once cleaned, joints should be carefully preserved. Handling should be minimized and welding should
commence as soon after cleaning as is possible. When not being worked on, weld joints should be
kept covered with paper or plastic to avoid accumulation of contaminants.
Filler Metal Selection
Titanium welding wire is covered by AWS A5.16-70 Specification (“Titanium and Titanium-Alloy Bare
Welding Rods and Electrodes”). It is generally good practice to select a filler metal matching the
properties and composition of the titanium base metal grade. However, for both commercially pure
grades and alloys, selecting a weld wire one strength level below the base metal is also done. Special
situations may require a different grade of filler wire to give desired combination of joint properties.
Welding Technique
In addition to clean joints and weld wire, proper parameters, and proper inert gas shielding, welder
technique requires attention when titanium is being welded. Improper technique can be a source of
weld contamination. Before starting an arc in welding titanium, it is good practice to prepurge the
torch, trailing shield and backup shield to be sure all air is removed. Whenever possible, high
frequency arc starting should be used. Scratch starting with tungsten electrodes is a source of
tungsten inclusions in titanium welds. On extinguishing the arc, the use of current downslope and a
contactor, controlled by a single foot pedal, is encouraged. Torch shielding should be continued until
the weld metal cools below 800°F (427°C).
Secondary and backup shielding should also be continued. A straw or blue colour on the weld is
indicative of premature removal of shielding gas. Preheating is not generally needed for titanium shop
welds. However, if the presence of moisture is suspected, due to low temperature, high humidity, or
wet work area, preheating may be necessary. Gas torch heating (slightly oxidizing flame) of weld
surfaces to about 150°F (66°) is generally sufficient to remove moisture.
The arc length for welding titanium without filler metal should be about equal to the electrode
diameter. If filler metal is added, maximum arc length should be about 1-1/2 times the electrode
diameter. Filler wire should be fed into the weld zone at the junction of the weld joint and arc cone.
Wire should be fed smoothly and continuously into the puddle. An intermittent dipping technique
causes turbulence and may result in contamination of the hot end of the wire on removal from the
shield. The contaminants are then transferred to the weld puddle on the next dip. Whenever the weld
wire is removed from the inert gas shielding, the end should be clipped back about 1/2-inch to
remove contaminated metal. Interpass temperatures should be kept low enough, such that additional
shielding is not required.
Cleaning between passes is not necessary if the weld bead remains bright and silvery. Straw or light
blue weld discoloration can be removed by wire brushing with a clean stainless steel wire brush.
Contaminated weld beads, as evidenced by a dark blue, grey or white powdery colour, must be
completely removed by grinding. The joint must then be carefully prepared and cleaned before
welding again.
Evaluating Weld Quality
Prior to making production welds on titanium, procedures and techniques should be closely
evaluated. For pressure vessel construction, the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IX
(Welding Qualification), details procedure and performance tests which must be met. Tensile and
bend tests on trial welds made under conditions intended for production are the acceptance criteria.
Impact or notch tensile tests may also be required, particularly for low temperature applications.
Once good procedures are established, as evidenced by tensile and bend tests, they should be strictly
followed in subsequent production welding.
Bend Tests
Bend tests evaluate ductility. For this reason, the bend test made on preproduction trial welds or on
extensions of production welds made for that purpose, provides a good evaluation of weld quality. A
bend sample in which the weld is positioned perpendicular to the bend axis assures uniform straining
of weld metal and heat-affected zones, thereby giving more meaningful results. Table 1 lists weld
bend radii for various titanium alloys.
Table 1. Bend radii for titanium welds
ASTM Grade Weld Bend Radius
1 2T
2 3T
3 4T
 4 4T
5 10T
7 3T
16 3T
11 2T
17 2T
12 5T
Good quality welds should be capable of being bent to the indicated radii without cracking. Problems
with titanium welds are generally a result of contamination due to inadequate shielding. The colour of
welds can be used as an indicator of shielding effectiveness and, indirectly, weld quality. Thus, any
indication of the quality level of a single pass titanium weld is readily apparent to the welder and any
inspector. Weld colours reflect the degree to which the weld was exposed to oxygen (air) at elevated
temperature. A bright silvery metallic lustre generally can be taken as an indication of a good weld,
provided the weld joint was clean and good techniques were followed. The presence of other colours,
as indicated in the Table 2, represents various degrees of surface and weld contamination and require
attention.
Table 2. Irregularities in weld colour and corresponding treatments
Weld Colour Probable Cause and Treatment
Light Straw, Dark Straw, Light Blue Surface oxide. Remove by wire brushing with
new stainless steel wire brush.
Dark Blue, Grey Blue, Grey Metal contamination. Welds should be removed
and done over after corrections in shielding are
made.
White (loose deposit) Metal contamination. Welds should be removed
and done over after corrections in shielding are
made
Hardness measurements on weld vs. base metal are also sometimes used as an indicator of weld
quality. Normally, uncontaminated weld hardness is no more than 30 points greater on the Knoop,
Vickers or Brinell hardness scales (5 points Rockwell B) than the hardness of base metal of matching
composition. It should be recognized that heat-to-heat variation in chemistry, within specifications,
can result in hardness differentials somewhat higher than 30 Knoop or Brinell without any
contamination. In any event, high weld hardness should be cause for concern because of the
possibility of contamination.
The ASME Code suggests that, if titanium weld metal hardness is more than 40 BHN greater than base
metal hardness, excessive contamination is possible. Substantially greater hardness differential
necessitates removal of the affected weld-metal area. The Code further specifies that all titanium
welds be examined by liquid penetrant. In addition, full radiography of many titanium joints is
required by the Code.
Resistance Welding
Resistance spot welding, seam welding and butt welding are performed on titanium in much the same
manner as for other metals. As with arc welding, careful attention to cleanliness of metal surfaces and
to protection of weld metal and heat affected zones from contamination by air are important.
Preparation of titanium for resistance spot or seam welding is similar to that for other metals. The
surface must be clean, free of scale, oxide, dirt, paint, grease, and oil. Cleaning of mill surfaces with
commercial, nonchlorinated solvents which leave no residue is satisfactory. Light oxide scale, such as
is present after elevated temperature forming has been performed, should be removed by acid
pickling or by wire brushing with a clean stainless steel wire brush.
Inert gas shielding of resistance spot and seam welds is often not required. The close proximity of
mating surfaces in combination with the very short duration of the resistance weld cycle and squeeze
pressure all help to exclude air from the weld. If a deep blue, grey or whitish colour develops on the
surface of titanium after resistance spot or seam welding, consideration must be given to altering
weld parameters or providing inert gas shielding.
Equipment and parameters for resistance spot or seam welding titanium are the same as are required
for austenitic stainless steel. As with any welding procedure to be used on titanium, test resistance
spot and seam welds should be made on titanium, prior to production welds. Tension-shear tests will
help to determine quality of the welds made. Once parameters and procedures are verified as
producing quality welds consistently, these should be adhered to strictly during production runs.
Resistance butt welding and a variation, stud welding, are interesting techniques which are
sometimes used on titanium. Clean, oxide-free abutting surfaces are a must. Flow of current through
the workpiece causes arcing and resistance heating, bringing temperature close to the melting point.
At the proper temperature, the workpieces are forced together, pushing molten and plastic metal out
of the joint. Successful welds have been made in air. However, inert gas shielding may be required for
contamination-free welds.
The resistance butt weld technique has been used to successfully join titanium to dissimilar metals
such as copper alloys, steels and stainless steels as well as other titanium alloys. Test welds should be
made and carefully analysed to establish proper parameters to be followed on production welds.
Brazing Titanium
Several brazing techniques are applicable to titanium. These include induction brazing, resistance
brazing and furnace brazing in an argon atmosphere or in vacuum. Torch brazing is not applicable to
titanium. Since brazing techniques have the potential for contaminating titanium surfaces, cleanliness
is important and consideration should be given to argon or helium gas shielding. Alloys for brazing
titanium to itself or other metals are titanium-base (70Ti-15Cu-15Ni), silver-base (various), or
aluminium-base (various). The titanium base alloy requires temperatures in the vicinity of 1700°F
(927°C), whereas the silver and aluminium-base alloys require 1650°F (899°C) and 1100°-1250°F
(593°-677°C) respectively. If corrosion resistance is important, tests should be run on brazed joints in
the intended environment prior to use. The titanium-base alloy reportedly offers superior resistance
to atmospheric corrosion and saline environments.
Heat Treating Titanium
Heat treatment of titanium fabrications is not normally necessary. Annealing may be necessary
following severe cold work if restoration of ductility or improved machinability are desired. A stress
relief treatment is sometimes employed following severe forming or welding to avoid cracking or
distortion due to high residual stresses, or to improve fatigue resistance. Cleanliness of titanium parts
to be heat treated is important because of the sensitivity of titanium to contamination at elevated
temperatures. Titanium fabrications should be cleaned carefully prior to heating, using
nonchlorinated solvents or a detergent wash, followed by a thorough water rinse. Handling following
cleaning should be minimized to avoid potential surface contamination.
Most titanium grades are typically stress-relieved at about 1000°F (538°C) for 45 minutes and
annealed at 1300°F (704°C) for two hours. A slightly higher stress relief temperature [1100°F (593°C),
2 hrs.] and annealing temperature [1450°F (788°C), 4 hrs.] are appropriate for the Grade 5 alloy. Air
cooling is generally acceptable.
Although no special furnace equipment or protective atmosphere is required for titanium, a slightly
oxidizing atmosphere is recommended to prevent pickup of hydrogen. Direct flame impingement for
extended periods, leading to temperatures in excess of 1200°F (649°C), should be avoided because of
the potential for contamination and embrittlement. Hydrogen or cracked ammonia atmospheres,
also, should never be used, because their use would lead to excessive hydrogen pick-up, and
embrittlement.
If a scale removal treatment, following a high temperature (1200°F; 649°C) anneal is not feasible, a
vacuum or inert gas (dry argon or helium) atmosphere is recommended. Superficial surface
discoloration, caused by annealing below 1200°F (649°C), may be removed by acid pickling in a 35%
nitric acid – 5% hydrofluoric acid bath at 125°F (52°C). However, if long heating times or temperatures
above 1200°F (649°C) have been used, a molten caustic bath or mechanical descaling treatment,
followed by nitrichydrofluoric acid pickling, is necessary to remove scale.