WST Chapter 4 &5 Handout

Water Supply & Treatment Lecture Note 2023
Chapter 4
Water Treatment
4.1. Water treatment: - is a process of removing all those substances whether biological,
chemical or physical which are potentially dangerous or objectionable in the water
supplies for humans & domestic use. It is the process of making water potable,
4.2. Necessity of water treatment.
Objectives of water treatment process:-
a) To remove pathogenic organisms and subsequently prevent water born disease.

b) To remove substances which induce color, taste, or odor to the water
c) To remove excess and undesirable mineral from H2O.
Eg. Hardness has to be removed
d) To regulate essential elements on chemicals which may be in excess or lack in a certain

water supply system,
eg fluoride etc.
e) To remove excess or undesirable gases,

 The purpose of water treatment: - is to provide a continuous supply of safe, palatable
drinking water to the consumers through converting the water taken from raw water into
potable water.
 Ground water can be used for water supply without some treatment; it needs disinfection,
but some ground water needs treatment for reducing hardness, removal of iron, unnecessary
odors,
 But, surface water should never be used for domestic purpose without any treatment.
It often contains turbidity and algae, domestic and industrial waste in addition to disease-
causing organisms. Thus, these constituents must be removed through water treatment process;
most important is the removal of pathogenic organisms and toxic substances such as heavy
metals causing health hazards.
 Other substances may also need to be removed or at least considerably reduced such as:-
 Suspended matter causing turbidity,
 Iron and Manganese compounds giving a bitter taste or staining laundry, and
 Excessive carbon dioxide corroding concrete and metal parts.
4.3. Ground water quality and treatment.

 Sometimes ground water contains excessive amount of iron, manganese and ammonia,
especially in the country of Rift Valley in eastern Africa. Such water is treated with
Civil Eng. 4th yr. OBU Page 1

chemical coagulation and flocculation or dry filtration to render them fit for drinking
and domestic purposes,
 However, for small community water supplies in developing countries these process are
too complicated and should be avoided whenever possible.
5.3 Surface water quality and treatment
 Surface water originates partly from ground water and partly from rain water that has
flowed over the ground to the receiving bodies of surface water, Thus, surface run-off is the
main contributor of turbidity and organic matter as well as pathogenic organisms,
 So, sedimentation is impounded or slow-flowing surface water results in the removal of
suspended solids. Pathogenic organisms will die off due to lack of suitable food,
 Un polluted surface water of low turbidity may be purified by slow sand filtration as a
single treatment process, Or by rapid filtration followed by chlorination only,
 Slow sand filters, particularly in rural areas of developing countries, have the great
advantage that local workman can build them with locally available materials and without
much expert supervision.
 When the turbidity of raw water is high, or when algae are present, slow sand filters would
rapidly clog. A pre-treatment such as sedimentation, rapid filtration or both process in
combination will be needed,
 For colloidal suspended particles, the removal by settling can be greatly improved through
chemical coagulation and flocculation, all these process are required in most instances
where the organic matter content of the raw water is high.
4.4. Types of Water Treatment Processes.
Objectives: To explain different types of water treatment processes depending on nature of
water, operation and design principles.
The type varies depending on the nature of water, and the possible type of water treatment
processes are:-
1) screening and Aeration

2) Plain Sedimentation
3) Sedimentation with coagulation
4) Filtration
5) Water softening Process
6) Disinfection
Treatment Plant layout :
The relative location of all those treatments should be such that:-
i sequence of flow is observed

ii gravity flow should be possible
iii Minimum area of cost
iv future expansion should be considered.
Intake works
Plain sedimentation Sedimentation with Filtration
coagulation
Clear water
Service reservoir Pump sets reservoir Disinfection
Distribution system
4.4.1.Screening and Aeration

Screening:-
 Water when derived from the surface sources, may contain suspended matter which may
range from floating debris such as sticks, branches, leaves, etc. to fine particles such as
sand, silt etc, causing turbidity. Screens serve as a protective device for the remainder of
the plant rather than as a treatment process,
Screens may be of two types:-
1) coarse Screens
2) fine screens
Coarse Screens or Bar Screens

Coarse Screens or Bar screens are intended to intercept only coarse floating material, They are
mostly in the form of bar grill. The bars are generally of 25 cm size and are spaced at 75 to
100mm centers, Mostly bars are kept inclined so that they can be cleaned easily with a rake.
Trash racks are often included in dams and other intake structures,

Fig. section and plan view of screening
Aeration:-
It is one of the important unit operations of gas transfer. The aim of the aeration is to create
extensive, new, and self- renewing interfaces between air (O2) and water,
Objective:-
1) It removes tastes and odors caused by gases due to organic decomposition,

2) It increases the dissolved oxygen content of the water.
3) It removes hydrogen sulphide, and hence odor due to this is also removed
4) It decreases the carbon dioxide content of water, and there by reduce its corrosiveness and
raises its pH value.
5) It converts Fe++ and Mn++ from their soluble states to their insoluble states, so that those can
be precipitated and removed.
6) Due to agitation of water during aeration, bacteria may be killed to some extent.
7) It is also used for mixing chemicals with water, as in the case of disinfection.
Methods of Aerators:-
Aeration is done by the following main types of aerators.
a) Free fall aerators or gravity aerators

i) Cascade aerators

ii) Inclined apron aerators

b) Water is forced through spray nozzles are to thin spray like fountain or
water fall.
4.4.2. Sedimentation /Plain Sedimentation/

Sedimentation is the process in which water is made quiescent for a given period of time so that
suspended and heavy particles are permitted to be deposited or settle on the bottom of the
sedimentation basin or tank.
Objectives /Achievement as a result /
- Turbidity due to sand, silt and other inorganic materials is removed /reduced.
- Substances which cause odor, taste and other inorganic materials are reduced/ removed.
- Bacteria (those of intestinal origin) are greatly reduced because of unfavorable
environment.
Principles of Plain sedimentation
Particles in water are divided in to two
1) Discrete Particles: - are particles which do not alter its size, shape and weight while
rising or settling in any fluid.

2) Flocculent Particle: - are particles not agglomerate during settling and thus don’t have
constant characteristics.
Thus, plain sedimentation deals with discrete particles. When these are placed in liquid of
lower density, they settle until they come to terminal velocity.
Settling of Discrete particles: -
- Discrete sedimentation is concerned with the settling /removal of none flocculating,

discrete particles from water. When a discrete particles is placed in a quiescent fluid, it will
accelerate until the frictional resistance (called drag force FD) of the fluid equals the impelling
force F (or driving force) acting on the particle.
- At this stage, the particles attains a uniform or terminal velocity and settles down with this
constant velocity known as settling velocity.
- The impelling force( F ) is evidently equal to the effective weight of the particle:-
F  (  s   ) gv
Where  s = mass density of particle
 = Density of fluid

V = Volume of particle = d 3 , where d is the diameter of spherical particle.
6
For the case of FD two concepts are developed:
a) Newton’s Law
The drag force FD depends upon
i) dynamic viscosity 
ii) mass density  of the fluid, and
iii) shape and size of the particle
The drag force is given by Newton’s law for frictional drag in the following form:
v s2
FD = CD* A* …………………………….. (A)
2
Where FD = drag force

CD = drag coefficient

A = Projected area of the particle = d2
4
Therefore equating the two, we get an equation for the settling velocity in the form
4 g  s   
d
Vs = …………………………. (B)
3 CD 
Or Vs =
4 g
 s  1d
3 CD
Where Ss = Specific gravity of the particle.
 For value of CD ,it is based on the value of the Reynolds number:-

1) For Reynolds number R between 0.5 to 104
24 3
CD =   0.34
R R
2) For high Reynolds number (R >103 to 104), CD = 0.4

3) For low, Reynolds number (R<0.5)
24
CD =
R
v * d
Where: R = Reynolds Number = , v is kinematics viscosity

* For R > 103 to 104, taking CD = 0.4, Vs become
 
VS  3.33g  S d
  

This equation is applicable for particles greater than 1 mm diameter. And for Reynolds number
greater than 103 to 104.
b) Stoke’s law
 Stoke’s law for the drag of small settling spheres in a viscous fluid, neglecting the
inertia force is given by
FD = 3  vs d ……….C
Thus, equating this equation (c) to equation (A) indicates (taking) that the drag coefficient in
Newton’s law is given by:
24
CD =
R
 Substituting this value of CD in equation (B) we get

1 g
Vs = ( s   )d 2
18 
1 g
= ( S s  S )d 2
18 v
1 g ………….. (D) Stokles law

Vs = ( Ss  1)d 2
18 v
Where: V= Kinematic Viscosity of water in centistokes which varies with Temperature

of water as given in Table.
S = Specific gravity of the fluid = 1 for water.

Table:- Kinematic Viscosity of water

0 0
Temperature C 5 10 15 20 25
F 32 41 50 59 68 77
V ( Centistokes) 1.79 1.52 1.31 1.15 1.01 0.90
Note: - 1 Centistoke = 0.01 cm2/sec.
* Based on this, there are two velocities which are acting on the particles, are which pulls
in vertical direction, the other the velocity which makes it move forward.
Vh
i.e
Vv
Thus, the application of Newton’s or stoke’s law depends the value of Reynolds number
Table: - Equations for settling Velocities
Applicable range of
Law and Equation Reynolds No (R) d (mm) for Ss = 2.65

and 20oC temp.
1. Turbilent (Newton’s
Law) 103 – 104 >1
 
Vs = 3.33g  s d
  

2. Transition (Newton’s
law )
4 g  s    1-1000 0.1 to 1.0

Vs =  d
3 CD   
24 3
CD =   0.34
4 R
3. Laminar (Stoke’s law )
g  s    2 Up to 1 Up to 0.1
 d
18   
Vs =
Types of Sedimentation Tanks
Depending up on the methods of operation, sedimentation tanks are of two types:
1. The Quiescent or Fill and Draw type

2. The continuous flow type
* Fill and Draw type :-
In this type, the sedimentation tank is first filled with incoming water, and is allowed to rest
for a certain time. During this rest period, the suspended particles settle down at the bottom of
the tank. Generally, a definition time of 24 hours is allowed. At the end of the period, the clear
water is drawn off through the outlet valve. The tank is then cleaned of settled particles and
filled again.

Continuous flow type tanks: Hear the velocity of flow will be controlled, in the continuous
flow type, the water continuously keeps on moving in tank, through with a very small velocity
during which time the suspended particles settle at the bottom before they reach the outlet.
There are two types:
1) Horizontal flow tank

 In this flow type, the tank is generally rectangular in plan having length equal to at least
twice the width. Water flows particularly in the horizontal direction, with a maximum
permissible velocity of 0.3 m/sec.
2) Vertical flow tank:
 Here tanks are generally deep, circular or rectangular rains with hopper bottom.
Design of sedimentation tank
The following factors (basic design parameters) are to be kept in mind on designing
sedimentation tank.
1. Period of Detention /Detention time/

- The term period of detention is equal to the volume of the basin divided by the volumetric
rate of flow through the basin. It is equal to the time required to fill the basin at the given
rate of flow.
If : L = Length of the rectangular basin.
B = breadth >> >> >>

D = depth >> >> >>
Vs = the settling velocity of the particle.
Q = volumetric rate of flow through the basin
T = time taken by the particle to pass through the tank.
Period of detention, T = Volume of basin / volumetric rate of flow
L*B*D
T= 
Q
D
Also, flowing through period, T ………….2
Vs
Therefore From equation (1) & (2), we have;
D L * B *D * Q Q
  Vs = 
Vs Q L*B A
- For very turbid water, a detention period of 3 hours is desirable.
2) The Capacity and number of basin:-
 The net capacity of sedimentation tanks in a plant should be the product of the
detention period and the nominal rate of flow (the rate at which water is supplied to
consumer) on which the plant is designed.
 The number of units to be built in a plant depends upon the cost and the fluctuations in
the detention periods,
 Normally a plant should have two-units and preferably three units to permit the shut
down of one-unit.
3) The velocity of flow / horizontal velocity/
 The nominal velocity of flow in a plain sedimentation basin is equal to the volumetric
rate of flow divided by the vertical cross-sectional area of the basin.
Q
i.e Vh = , where (D*B) is cross - Sectional area.
D*B

The slower the velocity, the more the removal of settling solids, No sedimentation basin should
provide a velocity greater than 0.3 m/min. Mostly the velocity range is between 0.03 to 0.003
m/min.
4. The depth of the basin:-
The most common depths are 3m to 4.5m. These depths include allowance for sludge -
storage. Greater depths from 6m to 7.5 m are found in vertical flow basins.
5. Relation of Length and Width.
The dimension should be selected in such away that the settling efficiency should be
satisfactory and the cost should be economical.
 The width should not exceed 12 meters and not- less than one- fourth of the length.
 Ratio of the length and breadth is kept 2:1 to 3:1.
 This is selected based on efficiency required; the other ratio is b/n length and depth.
i.e L : D or (L/D)  25:1 to 35:1  for large basins
5:1 to 20:1  for smaller basins
6. Inlet and out let Devices:
a) Inlet: - the inlet should be designed in such away that the incoming water is
uniformly distributed on the full width of the tank and these do not cause any
disturbance to the settling particles.
b). Outlet: - It should be designed in such away that the water should be taken out from
the settling tank without causing any disturbance to the water of the settling tank.
7). Cover of roof:-When ever it is possible the pain-sedimentation tank should be kept
uncovered, thus the operation can be controlled in a better way.
8) Provision for cleaning:-
It can be provided for:-
 By making the bottom a series of steep-sided hoppers.

 By sloping the bottom to a gutter or to an outlet through the wall.
- The bottom of the basin should slope not less than 1:50
9) The sludge storage capacity:-

The allowance made for the storage of sludge depends on the period between cleaning and
the amount of material removed form the water.
The quality of sludge to be handled may be roughly estimated by :-
SP
Q=
240P1
Where:- Q = ton’s of wet sludge to be handled per mullion gallons of water treated.
S = suspended matter in raw water ppm
P = %age of suspended solids removed by plain sedimentation
P1 = %age of the solids in the sludge
4.4.3. Coagulation and Flocculation.

Sedimentation with coagulation:-
The efficiency of plain sedimentation is generally very low, especially when water contains
very fine suspended matter and colloidal matter. The coagulants neutralized the negative
protective charge on the colloidal particles and allow them to coagulate.
Defn: - It is a process of adding certain chemicals to water in order to form floc (insoluble
substance) for quick sedimentation and rapid removal of fine particles.
It achieved in three stages:-
1. To addition of measured quantities of chemicals (called coagulants) to water and their

through mixing.
2. formation of precipitate which coagulate and forms a floc, and
3. Sedimentation.
Common Coagulants :-
When coagulants is dissolved in water and thoroughly mixed in it, a thick gelatinous
precipitate, known as floc, is formed. The aluminum and ferric ions of the floc contain +Ve
charge, hence they attract the –vely charged colloidal particles of clay, turbidity and color, thus
helping in the removal of these impunities from water.
The following are common coagulants used:
1. Aluminum sulphate or alum,

2. Chlorinated Copperas.
3. Ferrous Sulphate and lime
4. Magnesium Carbonate,
5. Polyelectrolytes, and
6. Sodium aluminate.
 Aluminum Sulphate or alum
This is most common and universal coagulant used in water work. Its chemical composition is
AO2 (SO4)3. 18H2O. It requires the presence of alkalinity in water to form the floc. Many
waters have bicarbonate alkalinity naturally in them. When used dissolved in water, aluminum
sulphate tends to hydrolyze into aluminum hydroxide, as it evident from the following reaction:
Al2 (SO4)3 18H2O + 3Ca (HC03)2 = 2Al (OH)3 + 3Ca SO4 + 18 H2O + 6 Co2 ….1
Thus, aluminum hydroxide formed above is insoluble in water and is therefore a floc.
 There are two undesirable outcomes of the above reaction:
i) formation of permanent hardness by calcium sulphate,

ii) Formation of carbon dioxide which is corrosive to metal.
If natural alkalinity in water is insufficient to react with alum, lime is also added to water. The
lime CaO unites with water to form calcium hydroxide Ca (OH)2 or hydrated lime which reacts
with alum as follows:
AL2 (SO4)3 18H2O + 3 Ca (OH)2 = 2Al (OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 18H2O …….. 2
Sometimes, sodium carbonate, known as soda ash, is added to form alkalinity. The resulting
reaction is:
Al2 (SO4)3 18H2O + 3 NA2 Co3 = 2Al (OH)2 + 3Na2 SO4 + 3CO3 + 18H2O
Through Soda ash does not cause hardness, it is expensive than lime and is therefore less used.
Example: - At a water treatment plant, 12 million liters of water is treated daily, using alum
dosage of 16mg per liters. Find a) total quantity of alum used daily, b) Amount of carbon
dioxide released.
Solution:-
16  12  106
a) Weight of alum required = = 192 kg
106
b) The chemical reaction is indicated in equation (1). Let as calculate molecular weights of
alum and carbon dioxide.

- Molecular weights of alum (Al2 (SO4)3 18H2O)

= (2* 26) + (3* 32) + 16(4*3 +18) + (36*1)
= 664
- Molecular weight of C)2

= (1*12) + (2*16) = 44
6CO2 = 6*44 = 264
Thus, from equation (1)
664 mg of alum releases 264 mg of CO2
264
192 kg will release = * 192 = 76.34 kg of CO2
664
Flocculation: - is essentially an operation designed to force agitation in the third and induce
coagulation. Basically, flocculation is a slow mixing or agitating process in which destabilized
colloidal particles are brought into intimate contact in order to promote their. Agglomeration.
Example:- A water works treatment 35 × 106 l/day. The water treated by coagulation-
sedimentation tank. The quantity of filter alum is consumed at a rate of 20 mg/l. if the alkalinity
of H2O is equivalent to 4.5 mg/lit of CaCO3, determine the quantity of alum and the quick lime
(containing 80% of CaO) required per month by the H2O works. Molecular weights are given.
Given:- Q = 35 × 106 l/day, These is at 20 mg/l alkalinity
= 4.5 mg/l as CaCO3
Required - Alum & CaO per month = ?
Solution:- quantity of Alum is obtained as:
= 20 mg/l ×35 ×106 l/day
= 20 ×35 ×106/103 =700 kg/day
= 21700 kg /month.
(Assuming 31 days in a month).
- the chemical reaction that happens in water is

1. Al2 (SO4)3. 18H2O + 3 Ca (HCO3)2  2Al (OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 18H2O +6CO2

2. CaCO3 + H2O + CO2  Ca (HCO3)2

3. CaO +CO2  CaCO3
To balance the reaction, the molecular weights of the substances are required, molecular weight
of :
Al2 (SO4)3. 18 H2O) = 2 ×27 + 3 (32 +64) + 18(2+16) = 666
CaCo3 = 40 + 12 + 48 = 100
Ca(HCO3)2 = 40 + 2(1+12+ 48) = 162
From the above equation it is clear that 3 ×100 parts of CaCO3 will produce the same alkalinity
(Ca(HCO3)2) consumed by 666 parts of Alum (Al2(SO4)3 18H2O
Therefore, the quantity of CaCO3 required to produce the same alkalinity which is equivalent to
20 mg/l of Alum is:-
666 parts of alum ---- 3 ×100 parts of CaCo3
20 mg/l ----- ? (x)
 3  100  20 
X=   mg/l = 9.009 mg/l
 666 
In order to keep the whole thing in stable condition, for every 20 mg/l of Alum, we need 9.009
mg/l of CaCO3. But the raw water contains the natural alkalinity of 4-5 mg/l. Therefore, the
required alkalinity in form of lime is:
9.009 – 4.5 = 4.509 mg/l as CaCo3 (lime)
Therefore the quantity of quick lime required is:
4.509  56
= 2.525 mg/l of quick lime as CaO.
100
56 gm of CaO produces 100 kgs of CaCo3:
But because quick lime (CaO) is only 80% pure we need the quantity of quick lime as:
2.525  100
= 3.156 mg/l
80
The quantity required per month for treating

3.5* 106 lit/day should be
3.5 × 106 l/day ×3.156 = 110.46 kg/day
= 3318 kg/month
= 3.32 tons/month.
4.4.4. Filtration
Definition: In filtration, water is passed through a filter medium in order to remove the
Particulate matter not previously removed by sedimentation.
During filtration, the turbidity and colloidal matter of non- settle able type is removed. It
precipitates the color, and the chemical characteristics of water are changed. The bacterial
content of water is considerably reduced due the layer of the filtering material.
Theory of Filtration
When water is filtered through the bed of filter media, usually consisting of clean sand, the
following actions take place:
1. Mechanical Straining,
2. Sedimentation,
3. Biological action, and
4. Electrolytic action,
Mechanical Straining: - it is removal of suspended particles usually larger than the pore-space
of the filter media, and hence they are arrested and removed when water passes through the
filter media. The major removal takes place only in the upper few centimeters of the filter
media.
Sedimentation: - the continuous voids of the filter media act as “tube-settlers”, in mechanical
staining; only those particles which are coarser than the void-size are arrested. Finer particles
are arrested by ‘sedimentation action’.
Biological Action:- When raw water is passed through it, during the first few days, the upper
layers of sand grain become coated with reddish brown sticky deposit of partly decomposed

organic matter together with iron, manganese, aluminum and silica. After sometime, there
exists in the uppermost layer of sand a film of algae, bacteria and protozoa etc. know as
Schmutzdecka or “dirty skin”.
This “dirty Skin” acts as an extremely fine meshed straining mat. The organic impurities in
water become food to different micro-organisms residing in the filter beds. The bacteria destroy
each other and maintain balance of life native to the filter.
Electrolytic action: - Another function of the filter is to remove the particular matter by
electrostatic exchange. The change of the filter medium neutralizes the charge of the floc, there
by permitting the floc to be removed. During the process of “back washing”, the electro-
statically neutral material is removed, and the charge of the filter media is replaced.
Classification of filters
Filters are mainly classified into two classes:
1) Slow sand filter

2) Rapid sand filter a) gravity type
b) Pressure type
Filter Media: - the commonly used filter materials are:-
i. Sand
ii. Anthracite /very hard type of coal/
iii. Garnet sand or ilmenite (clear dark sand)
- But sand is the cheapest filter medium, and widely used. It should be free from clay, silt,
loam, suspended matter and other organic matter.
Effective size shall be
a) 0.2 to 0.,3 mm for slow sand filters

b) 0.45 to 0.7 mm for rapid sand filters
D 60
c) Uniformity coefficient Cu = = measure of particle range,
D10
Thus, 1) Cu = 3.0 to 5.0 for slow sand filters
2) Cu = not less than 1.3 not more than 1.7 in rapid sand filters.
Note: - effective size /effective  /
D10 = size represents a size, in mm, such that 10% of the particles are
finer than this size.

D60 = the sand particles finer than D60 size are 60% of the total weight
of the sample.
Slow Sand Filters.
- It is the oldest in its kind, around 1829, used in UK.

Essential features: - a slow sand filter unit consisting of the following parts:
1) Enclosure tank – usually made of concrete or stone masonry usually and rectangular.
2) Filter media
3) base material
4) under drainage system
5) Appurtenances
Enclosure tank: - the floor has a bed slope of 1 in 100 to 1 in 200 towards central drains.
Surface area of the tank varies b/n 50m2 to 1000 m2 .The depth of tank varies from 2.5 to 4m.
Filter media: - it consists of sand layer, 90 to 110 cm thick. The effective size of sand varies
from 0.20 to 0.35, with a common value of 0.3.
Base material: - the filter media is supported on base material consisting of 30 to 75 cm thick
gravel bed. The gravel base is graded, and laid in layers of 15cm with top most layer of finer
size and bottom most layer of coarse size;
i.e. Depth Size
Top most layer 15cm 3mm to 6mm
Intermediate 15cm 6mm to 20mm
Layers 15cm 20mm to 40mm
Bottom Layer 15cm 40mm to 65mm
Under drainage system: - the filter media and the base material are supported over the under
drainage system. This eventually collects the filtered water and delivers it to the clean water
reservoir. Lateral drains are either pipes or perforated pipes of 7.5 to 10cm in diameter.
Appertenances:- are other parts of the unit like inlet & out let chambers, controlling valves,
etc.

Working in filter:-
 The inlet valve is opened slowly, to prevent disturbance of sand, till the desired water level
is reached.
 The filter is then allowed to stand for at least 12 hours.
 The filter requires cleaning after 20 to 40 days, depending upon impunities in the water.
 The normal rate of flow in slow sand filter may be between 100 to 200 lit/hr/m2 of the filter
area.
 They are expected to remove 98 to 99 % of bacteria in water, under normal conditions.
Guide lines for design of slow sand filters
Description Recommended design value
1. Design period ………………………………………………………10 Yrs
2. Number of filter beds
i) Minimum …………………………………………………………..2
ii) Areas up to 20m2 ……………………………………………….2
iii) A = 20 to 249 m2 …………………………………………………….3
iv) A = 250 to 649 m2 ……………………………………………..4
v) A = 650 to 1200 m2 ………………………………………….. …5
vi) A = 1201 to 2000 m2 ………………………………………… 6

3. Depth of supernatant water …………………………………….... 1m
4. Filtration rate i) Normal operation --------------------------- 0.1m/hr
ii) Max. Over load rate -------------------------- 0.2m/hr
5. Free board -------------------------------------------------------------- 0.2m
6. Depth of filter sand
i) Initial ----------------------------------------------- 1.0m
ii) Final (min) ---------------------------------------- 0.4m
7. Sand specifications
i) Effective size --------------------------------------- 0.2 to 0.3 mm
ii) Uniformity coefficient --------------------------- 5
8. Gravel (3-4 layers) Depth -------------------------------------------- 0.3m
9. Under drains (made of bricks or perforated pipes) --------------- 0.2m
10. Depth of filter box --------------------------------------------------- 2.7m
11. Effluent weir level above sand bed ------------------------------ 20-30mm
Rapid Sand Filter /Gravity Type/
The basic defect of a slow sand filter is its low filtration rate due to which large filter area is
required. A rapid sand filter differs from a slow sand filter in the following aspect:
1. Effective size and uniformity coefficient of filter medium.
2. Rate of filtration and filtration head
3. Method of cleaning the filter, and frequency of cleaning.
Usually, rapid sand filtration is preceded by sedimentation with chemical coagulation.
i.e

The gravity type rapid sand filters use filter medium which is coarser than that used in slow
sand filters. (Most commonly used in water supply project). The operation head are also higher
so that the rates of loading can be about 30 times of those used in slow sand filters.
 The amount of filter sand and the land area required is, therefore, quite small which
economizes the initial cost of construction. Since filters removed large volume of
impunities in a short time and so they get clogged quick and need frequent washing after 24
to 48 hrs.
 There is no opportunity left for the biological impunities to form filtering mat on sand
surface as in the case of a slow sand filter.
Function of Rapid Sand Filter:-
1. It removes color and odor completely from the settled water from coagulated
Sedimentation tanks
2. The suspended matter is removed by this filter
3. The colloidal & pathogenic problem can be completely reduced it pre-chlorination &
Coagulation with chemicals is done before filtration.
 It used for treating municipal water supply, rate of filtration is large, it can filter about
115m3/m2/day
 Because it needs frequent cleaning, there are facilities for back washing.

Features of RSF:-
The depth of filter media:
a) for sand : 0.6m to 0.75m

b) depth of gravel 0.45 to 0.6m
c) effective size (D10) : 0.45 to 0.8
d) Rate of filtration: 1200 to 2250 million lit/ha/day
e) Length of run b/n cleanings 24 to 60 hrs.
f) Amount of wash – water used in cleaning: 1 to 4% of filtered water.
Comparison of Slow sand and rapid filters
/No Item SSF RSF

2
1 Rate of filtration 1000 to 200 lit /hr/m 300 to 600 lit/hr/m2
of filter area of filter area
2 Size of one unit 30m × 60m area 60 m× 8m to 8m ×10m
Varies from 500 to 2000m2 area varies from 40 to 80m2.
3. Depth of Filter media 30cm – gravel 45cm – gravel 75 cm or less
90-105 cm sand sand
4. Effective size of sand 0.25 to 0.35mm 0.45 to 0.8 mm
Cu = 2 to 3 Cu = 1.2 to 1.7
5. Method of cleaning scrapping back washing
6. Frequency of cleaning 3 weeks –month 20 hrs – 5 days (max)
7. Amount of wash water 0.2 to 0.6 % of 2 to 4 %. Water filtered.
4.4.5. Disinfection
The disinfection of potable water and wastewater provides a degree of protection from
contact with pathogenic organisms including those causing cholera, polio, typhoid,
hepatitis and a number of other bacterial, viral and parasitic diseases. Disinfection is a
process where a significant percentage of pathogenic organisms are killed or
controlled
• Dichlorination Wastewater Management
Dichlorination is a process by which some or most of the chlorine is removed as per
the required use. Dichlorination is carried out in many instances, but the most
complicated one of all is wastewater effluent dichlorination because of the need to
reduce the amount of total chlorine residual below 0.01 mg Cl 2/L in the effluent to
reduce toxicity

• Other chemical applications

Other chemicals used in other applications in this process are alum and ferric sulfate
and ferric chloride, aluminum sulfate, among others. A second use of chemicals in
wastewater treatment, is to adjust the pH level. Almost every industrial manufacturing
company and wastewater treatment operation deals with pH Adjustment on some
5. Methods of Distribution
Water is distributed to consumers in several different ways, as local conditions or other
considerations may dictate. These methods are:
 Gravity Distribution
 Distribution by means of pumps with storage (Pumping + Gravity )
 Use of Pumps with out storage ( Direct Pumping)

1. Gravity Distribution. This is possible when the source of supply is a lake or impounding
reservoir at some elevation above the city so that sufficient pressure can be maintained in
the mains for domestic and fire service. This is the most reliable method if the conduit
leading from source to city is adequate in size and well safeguard against accidental breaks.
High pressure for fire fighting, however, may be obtained only by using the motor pumps
of the fire department.
2. Distribution by means of pumps with storage. In this method the excess water pumped
during periods of low consumption is stored in elevated tanks or reservoirs. During periods
of high consumption the stored water is drawn up on to augment that pumped. This method
allows fairly uniform rates of pumping and hence is economical, for the pumps may be
operated at their rate capacity. Since the water stored furnishes a reserve to care for fires
and pump breakdowns, this method of operations fairly reliable. Motor pumpers must
ordinarily be used for higher fire pressure, although it is possible to close the valves leading
to the elevated storage tanks and operate a fire pump at the pumping plant.
3. Use of Pumps with out storage. In this method the pumps force water directly in to the
mains with no other outlet than the water actually consumed. It is the least desirable system,
for a power failure would mean complete interruption in water supply. As consumption
varies, the pressure in the mains is likely to fluctuate. To conform to the varying
consumption several pumps are available to add water output when needed, a procedure

requiring constant attendance. The peak power consumptions of the water plant is likely to
occur during periods of otherwise high current consumption and thus increase power cost.
An advantage of direct pumping is that a large fire service pump may be used which can
run up the pressure to any desired amount permitted by the construction of the mains.
5.3 Service Reservoirs (Function and Capacity)

5.3.1 Functions
A service reservoir has four main functions:
1. To balance the fluctuating demand from the distribution system, permitting the source
to give steady or differently phased output.
2. Provide a supply during a failure or shutdown of treatment plant, pumps or trunk main
leading to the reservoir.
3. To give a suitable pressure for the distribution system and reduce pressure fluctuations
therein.
4. To provide a reserve of water to meet fire and other emergency demands.
It is seldom possible or economic for a source to give a fluctuating out put in step with demand.
Filtration plants need to be run 24 hours a day with only infrequent, carefully controlled
changes of out put. Pumps need to be run near their design point for maximum efficiency,
whilst electricity tariffs may influence their running times; it is not economical for a long
supply main to have an overlarge capacity simply to meet the peak demand of a few hours
duration. A technical and economic study of the capital and operating costs of the various
options available, including possible silting for a service reservoir is necessary before deciding
service reservoir requirements.
During the summer months the evening peak may be higher and more prolonged due to garden
watering. There will be a slightly different pattern of demand at weekends and on holidays. In
the winter there will also be a higher rate through out if a severe frost causes many pipes burst
on consumers’ premises.
Position and Elevation of Reservoirs

If the service reservoir is to be of maximum value as a safeguarded against break down of the
supply to consumers then it should be positioned as near as possible to the area of demand.
From the service storage the distribution system should spread directly with such
interconnection of mains that, should a break of any one main occur, a supply may be
maintained by rerouting the water. It is, of course, not always possible to find a high point
which in the center of the distribution area and the best must be done in the circumstances. If
the high point is remote from the area of demand the aim should be to feed the demand area by
two major mains from the service reservoirs which are interconnected at appropriate points. If
there is some high ground which is not quite high enough, then a water tower or several water
towers may meet the demand. It is also usually necessary to site the reservoir at such elevation
that a steady pressure is maintained at all points of the distribution system, sufficient to give an
adequate flow to the top most storey of three or four storey buildings.
The elevation at which it is desirable to position a service reservoir depends up on both the
distance of the reservoir from the distribution area and the elevation of the highest building to
be supplied.
If the distribution area varies widely in elevation it may be necessary to use two more service
reservoirs at different levels, so that the lower area do not receive an unduly high pressure.
Wherever possible the use of non-stand pipes for high pressures should be avoided as such
pipes are expensive.
Pressure control valves are some times installed in inlet mains from service reservoirs in order
to reduce the pressure to low laying zones, or to limit increase of pressure at night to reduce
leakage. In making a decision to install pressure control devices it should be borne in mind that
if the device fails to operate, which it will do if the equipment is not properly maintained, then
the downstream mains will be subjected to a sudden increase of pressure and may burst. In
addition, excessive wastage of water may also take place through consumers’ ball valves
unaccustomed to working at high heads.
Break pressure tanks give better protection to low laying zones and are preferable to pressure
reducing devices; however the use of them or pressure reducing valves in pumping schemes
represent a direct wastage of pumping energy and more economic alternative should be sought.
Types of Service Reservoirs

Generally, there are two types of service reservoirs:
1. Surface reservoir (Ground Reservoir or Non-elevated)
2. Elevated reservoir ( Over head Tank)

Accessories of Service Reservoirs

The service reservoirs are to be provided with the following accessories:
1. Inlet Pipe : For the entry of water
2. Ladder : To reach the top of the reservoir and then to the bottom of the reservoir, for
inspection and cleaning
3. Lightening Conductor : In case of elevated reservoirs for the passage of lightening
4. Manholes : For providing entry to the inside of reservoir for inspection and cleaning
5. Outlet pipe: For the exit of water
6. Outflow Pipe : For the exit of water above full supply level
7. Vent pipes : For free circulation of air
8. Washout pipe : For removing water after cleaning of the reservoir
9. Water level indicator: To know the level of water inside the tank from outside.
LIGHTENING CONDUCTOR
MANHOLE
LADDER
WATER LEVEL INDICATOR
OVER FLOW PIPE
WASH OUT PIPE
INFLOW PIPE
OUTLET PIPE
DITCH
Design Capacity of Service Reservoirs

The three major components of service storage are:
i) Equalizing or operating storage
ii) Fire reserve

iii) Emergency reserve

Equalizing or operating capacity can be obtained from a mass curve of water consumption rates
and pumping supply rates.
1) The capacity can be analytically determined by finding out maximum cumulative
surplus during the stage when pumping rate is higher than water consumption rate and
adding to this maximum cumulative deficit which occurs during the period when the
pumping rate is lower than the demand rate of water.
2) The above figure can be obtained by drawing mass curves of water consumption rates
and water pumping supply rates.
Depth and Shape of Service Reservoirs

The following are some notes on the salient features of service reservoirs and the alternatives
that may be adopted.
A. Depth
There is an economical depth of service reservoir for any given site. For a given quantity of
water either a shallow reservoir having long walls and a large floor area may be constructed or,
alternatively. A deep reservoir may be constructed with high retaining walls and a smaller floor
area. Depths most usually used are as follows:
Size (m3)
Up to 3500
3500 to 15,000
Over 15,000
Depth of water (m)
2.5 to 3.5
3.5 to 5.0
5.0 to 7.0

These figures don’t apply to water towers or pre-stressed concrete reservoirs. Factors
influencing depth for a given storage are:
1. Depth at which suitable foundation conditions are encountered
2. Depth at which the out let main must be laid
3. Slope of ground, nature and type of back fill
4. The need to make the quantity of excavated material approximately equal to the amount
required for backing, so as to reduce unnecessary carting of surplus material to tip.
5. The shape and size of land available
B. Shape
Circular reservoir is geometrically the most economical shape, giving the least amount of
walling for a given volume and depth: it has the attraction of allowing construction of a thin
reinforced concrete dome shaped roof, free of all supporting columns, resting on ring beam
fixed to the top of the wall for diameters of up to about 60m.
However, this shape is seldom adopted. It is unsuitable for division in to two compartments,
which would allow one half to be drained for maintenance without taking the whole reservoir
out of service.
 Its shape frequently does not permit best use of available land, and
 Problems of design will arise if it is to be partially buried in sloping ground
A rectangular reservoir with a length to width ratio 1.2 to 1.5:
 Usually proves most economical when division walls are incorporated
 Floors and roof should be sloped to not flatter than 1:250 for drainage ( such slopes
should be parallel to maintain uniform column and wall heights)
 The total depth of the reservoir must be sufficient to allow the maximum inflow
assumed in the design calculation to pass over the over flow weir, with a safety
margin of at least 150mm below the under side of roofing beam.
 It is good practice to set the over flow weir slightly higher, say by 50mm, than the top
water level at which the supply is cut off by a ball valve or an electrode.
5.4. Pipes Used in the Water Distribution System

5.4.1. Pipe Materials
For use in transmission and distribution systems, pipe materials must have the following
characteristics:
Adequate tensile strength and bending strength to withstand external loads.
High bursting strength to withstand internal water pressure
Ability to resist impact loads to water flow suitable for handling and joining facilities
Resistance to both internal and external corrosion
The types of pipes used for distributing water include:
1. Cast iron pipe 3. Concrete pipe

2. Steel pipe 4. Plastic pipe

5. Asbestos cement pipe 7. Lead pipe

6. Copper pipe
A pipe material is selected based on various conditions:
 Cost
 Type of water to be conveyed
 Carrying capacity of the pipe
 Maintenance cost
 Durability, etc.
Asbestos cement pipes
Advantages Disadvantage
 The inside surface of pipe is smooth  The pipes are brittle
 The joining of pipes is very good  The pipes are not durable
and flexible  The pipes are not laid in exposed
 The pipes are ant-corrosive and places
cheap in cost  The pipes can be used only for very
 Light in weight to handle and low pressure
transport
Cast iron pipes

Advantages
 The cost is moderate
 The pipes are easily joined
 The pipes are not subjected to corrosion
 The pipes are strong and durable
 Service connections can be made easily
Disadvantage
 The breakage of this pipe is large
 Carrying capacity decreases with increase in life
 The pipes become heavy and uneconomical when their sizes increase (especially
beyond 1200mm)
Cement Concrete Pipes
Advantages o The pipes can be cast in place(in

o The inside surfaces of the pipes can site)
be made smooth o Due to high weight (heaviness) the
o The maintenance cost is very low pipes can resist force of buoyancy
o Under normal conditions the pipes when placed under water even when
are durable they are empty

o Pipes can resist normal traffic loads o The pipes are likely to crack during
when placed below roads transport and handling
o There is no danger of rusting and o The repair of these pipes are
incrustation difficult
o These pipes are affected by acids,
Disadvantage alkaline, and salty waters
o These pipes are likely to cause
o If no reinforcement is provided they leakage due to porosity
cannot resist high pressure
o The pipes are and difficult to
transport
Galvanized Iron Pipes
Advantages
 The pipes are cheap

 Light in weight and easy to handle and transport
 Easy to join
Disadvantage
 These pipes are liable to incrustation (due to deposition of some materials inside part of
pipe)
 Can be easily affected by acidic or alkaline water
Short useful life
Plastic Pipes
Advantages
 The pipes are cheap
 The pipes are flexible and possess low hydraulic resistance (less friction)
 They are free from corrosion
 The pipes are light in weight and it is easy to bend, join and install them
 The pipes up to certain sizes are available in coils and therefore it becomes easy to
transport
Disadvantage
 The coefficient of expansion for plastics is high, the pipes are less resistant to heat
 Some types of plastics may impart taste to the water

5.4.2. Determination of Pipe Sizes

The size of the pipe is determined by considering the discharge through the pipe and
permissible velocity of the flow in the pipe.
Q = A*V
Where, Q = discharge (m3/s)
V = permissible velocity (0.6 to 1.50m/s)
A = Cross sectional area of pipe (m2)
The size of the pipe used in the water distribution system can be determined by one of the
following formulas:
2
1. Darcy –Weisbach formula; h f  fLV
2 gD
2. Hazen-Williams formula; Q  0.278CD 2.63 S 0.54 , S  h f
L
2/3 1/ 2
3. Manning’s Formula; Q
1AR S
n
* The most common pipe flow formula used in design and evaluation of a water distribution
system is the Hazen-Williams’ formula.
5.4.3. Energy Losses in Pipes

Energy loss (head loss) in pipes can be found by one of the following formulas:
 Darcy-Weisbach formula
fLV 2
hf 
2 gD
Where, hf = head loss (m)
F = friction factor (which is related to the relative roughness of the pipe material & the fluid
flow characteristics)
L = length of pipe (m)
V = velocity of flow (m/s)
D = diameter of pipe (m)
G = Acceleration due to gravity (9081m/s2)
The term hf represents the energy loss that occurs in any distribution system. The major loss of
energy is due to friction between the moving water and pipe material; however, energy losses
also occur from flow disturbance caused by valves, bends in pipes line, and changes in
diameter.
5.4.4. Pipe Appurtenances
Valves. Used to isolate and drain pipe line sections for test, inspection, cleaning and repair

i) Gate valves. Are installed in every main and sub-main to isolate a portion of the
network system during a repair.
ii) Check-valves (Non-Return valves). Are generally used to prevent reversal of flow
when a pump is shot down
iii) Air-Relief Valves. In long pipes lines air will accumulate in the high points
(summits) of the line and may interfere with the flow. It is necessary, therefore, to
place air relief valves at those points where trouble is expected.
iv) Pressure regulating valves. These valves automatically reduce pressure on the d/s
side to any desired magnitude and are used on lines entering low areas of a city,
without such reductions pressures would be too high.
v) Sluice Gates. Are vertically sliding valves which are used to open or close openings
in to walls.
vi) Fire hydrants. It is used on mains to provide a connection for fire hazards to fire
fighting
vii) Water meters. In most cities, the water furnished to a consumer is measured, and the
consumer charged accordingly to the amount of water consumed.
5.5. Pipe Systems

4.5.1 Methods of Laying Distribution Pipes.
There are two basic types of networks of pipes which used to distribute water in a city.
1) Branched (Dead-end) pattern
2) Grid-Iron pattern
1. Branching Pattern. This is also known as the tree system of lay out and it consists of one
supply main from which sub-mains are taken. The sub-mains again divided in to several
branch lines from which service connections are given to the consumers.
BRANCH
DEAD-END
MAIN
SUB-MAIN
Advantages
 The design calculations are simple
 Cut off valves required are comparatively less in number
 The system is cheap and economical
 Laying the water pipes is simple
Disadvantages
 During repair, a large portion of the distribution system is affected

 The pipes terminate at the dead-end and no circulation of air (due to stagnation,
pollution may occur)
 Common in small scale rural water supply schemes
2. Grid Pattern. In this pattern, the main, sub-mains and branches are interconnected with
each other.
LOOP
Advantages
 Flow can occur in more than one direction and stagnation does not occur
 In case of repairs, a very small portion of the distribution area will be affected
 When a fire occurs plenty of water is available for fighting purposes.
Disadvantages
 The cost of laying the system is high
 The procedure for calculating the sizes of pipes and for working out pressures
are complicated
 A large number of valves are required.
Pipe networks (Grid Pattern)

A group of interconnected pipes forming several loops or circuits is called a network of pips.
Such networks of pipes are commonly used for municipal water distribution systems in cities.
The main problem in a pipe network is to determine the distribution of flow through the various
pipes of the network such that all the conditions of flow are satisfied and all the circuits are
then balanced.
The conditions to be satisfied in any network of pipes are as follows:
1. According to the principle of continuity the flow into the junction must be equal to the
flow out of the function.
2. In each loop, the loss of head due to flow in clock wise direction must be equal to the loss
of head due to flow in anti-clock wise direction.
3. The Darcy – Weisbach equation must be satisfied for flow in each pipe.
 Minor losses may be neglected if the pipe lengths are large. However, if the minor
losses are large , they must be taken into account by considering them interims of the
head lost due to friction in equivalent pipe lengths
 according to Darcy- Weisbach equation the loss of head hf though any pipe
discharging at the rate of Q can be expressed as:

H L  KQ n --------------------(1)
Where K = proportionality factor which can be determined for each pipe, knowing the friction
factor f, length L, and the diameter D of the pipe.
fL
K ----------------------- (2)
12.1D 5
n = an exponent having a numerical value ranging from 1.72 to 2.0.
For any pipe if Qo is the assumed discharge and Q is the corrected discharge, then:
Q  Qo  Q ---------------------- (3)
and the head loss for each pipe is
H L  KQ n  K (Qo  Q) n ---------------------- (4)

Thus for the complete circuit:
 H L   KQ n   K (Qo  Q) n------------------------- (5)

By expanding the terms the terms in the brackets:
 KQ n   K (Qo n  nQon1Q  ...) ------------------------- (6)
If Q is small, compared with Qo, all terms of the series after the second one may be dropped.
Thus,
 KQ n   KQo n   KnQon1Q -------------------------- (7)
For the correct distribution the circuit is balanced and hence  KQ n  0 .
Therefore,
 KQo n  Q KnQo n1  0 --------------------- (8)
In the above expression Q has been taken out of the summations as it is same for all the pipes
in the circuit. Solving for Q:
Q  
 KQo n

 hL ------------------ (9)
 KnQo n 1
hL
n ( )
Q
 In the above expression for the correction the denominator is the sum of absolute terms
and hence it has no sign.
 Further if the head losses due to flow in the clock wise direction are more than the head
losses in the due to flow in the anti-clock wise direction, then according to the sign
convention adopted, Q will be negative and hence it should be added to the flow in the
anti-clock wise direction and subtracted from the flow in the clock wise direction.
 For pipes common to two circuits or loops a correction from both the loops will be
required to be applied.
 With the corrected flow in all the pipes, a second trial calculation is made for all the
loops and the process is repeated till the correction becomes negligible.

Procedures can be expressed as follows:

1. Assume any internally consistent distribution of flow. The sum of the flows entering
any junction must equal the sum of the flows leaving
2. Compute the head losses in each pipe by means of an equation or diagram.
Conventionally, clockwise flows are positive and produce positive head losses.
3. with due attention to sign, compute the total head loss around each circuit:
hL = KQn.
4. Compute, with out with out regard to sign, for the same circuit, the sum of: KnQn-1.
5. Apply the corrections obtained from equation (9) to the flow in each line. Lines
common to two loops receive both corrections with due attention to sign.

39

WST Chapter 4 &5 Handout

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

WST Chapter 4 &5 Handout

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

WST Chapter 4 &5 Handout

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Water Supply & Treatment Lecture Note 2023

a) To remove pathogenic organisms and subsequently prevent water born disease.

d) To regulate essential elements on chemicals which may be in excess or lack in a certain

e) To remove excess or undesirable gases,

4.3. Ground water quality and treatment.

Civil Eng. 4th yr. OBU Page 1

5.3 Surface water quality and treatment

1) screening and Aeration

The relative location of all those treatments should be such that:-

i sequence of flow is observed

Civil Eng. 4th yr. OBU Page 2

ii gravity flow should be possible

iii Minimum area of cost

iv future expansion should be considered.

4.4.1.Screening and Aeration

Coarse Screens or Bar Screens

Civil Eng. 4th yr. OBU Page 3

Fig. section and plan view of screening

1) It removes tastes and odors caused by gases due to organic decomposition,

Aeration is done by the following main types of aerators.

a) Free fall aerators or gravity aerators

Civil Eng. 4th yr. OBU Page 4

ii) Inclined apron aerators

4.4.2. Sedimentation /Plain Sedimentation/

Objectives /Achievement as a result /

Principles of Plain sedimentation

Particles in water are divided in to two

Civil Eng. 4th yr. OBU Page 5

Settling of Discrete particles: -

- Discrete sedimentation is concerned with the settling /removal of none flocculating,

Where  s = mass density of particle

For the case of FD two concepts are developed:

Where FD = drag force

Civil Eng. 4th yr. OBU Page 6

Where Ss = Specific gravity of the particle.

 For value of CD ,it is based on the value of the Reynolds number:-

2) For high Reynolds number (R >103 to 104), CD = 0.4

* For R > 103 to 104, taking CD = 0.4, Vs become

Civil Eng. 4th yr. OBU Page 7

 Substituting this value of CD in equation (B) we get

1 g ………….. (D) Stokles law

Where: V= Kinematic Viscosity of water in centistokes which varies with Temperature

S = Specific gravity of the fluid = 1 for water.

Civil Eng. 4th yr. OBU Page 8

Table:- Kinematic Viscosity of water

V ( Centistokes) 1.79 1.52 1.31 1.15 1.01 0.90

Note: - 1 Centistoke = 0.01 cm2/sec.

Table: - Equations for settling Velocities

Law and Equation Reynolds No (R) d (mm) for Ss = 2.65

Law) 103 – 104 >1

Civil Eng. 4th yr. OBU Page 9

4 g  s    1-1000 0.1 to 1.0

3. Laminar (Stoke’s law )

Types of Sedimentation Tanks

Depending up on the methods of operation, sedimentation tanks are of two types:

1. The Quiescent or Fill and Draw type

Civil Eng. 4th yr. OBU Page 10

There are two types: