CHAPTER 4.

INTRODUCTION TO WATER TREATMENT

4.1 – Introduction

Water available in various sources contains various types of impurities and cannot be directly used by the public
for various purposes, before removing the impurities. For potability water should be free from unpleasant tastes,
odours and must have sparkling appearance. The water must be free from disease-spreading germs. The amount
and type of treatment process will depend on the quality of raw water and the standards of quality to be
required after treatment.

The surface sources generally contains large amount of impurities therefore they requires sedimentation,
filtration and chlorination(disinfection) as treatment. If the water contains algae or other micro organisms, pre
chlorination has to be done, taste, odour and dissolved gases like CO 2, H2S can be removed by aeration. During
the flood season, the turbidity of the surface water may be high and coagulation and flocculation may become
necessary to remove turbidity.

Ground water which is usually clear may require only disinfection and chemical treatment for the removal of
pathogens, Iron removal, Softening etc. Sometimes ground water contains dissolved gases like hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) carbon dioxide (CO2), which gives very bad odour and requires its removal by aeration. The
process of removing the impurities is called water treatment and the Treated water is called wholesome water.

The following are the requirement of wholesome water

 It should be free from bacteria which may cause diseases
 it should be colorless
 It should be tasty, odor free and cool.
 It should not corrode pipes.
 It should be free from all objectionable matter.
 It should have dissolved oxygen and free carbonic acid that it may remain fresh.

4.2 METHODS OF WATER TREATMENT

The common methods of water treatment (water purification) are

1. Aeration
2. Screening
3. Plain sedimentation
4. Coagulation
5. Filtration
6. Adsorption
7. Softening
8. Disinfection
The degree and methods of treatment depend upon

 nature of the source

 quality of the source
 purpose for which it supplied

1. Aeration
Aeration may be used to remove undesirable gases dissolved in water i.e. CO 2, H2S, etc (degasification) or to
add oxygen to water to convert undesirable substance i.e. Iron (Fe 2+) & Manganese to more manageable form
(oxidation).

The Iron and Manganese may be removed as a precipitate after aeration. Chemically, these reactions may be
written as follows:

4 Fe2+ + O2 + 10 H2O 4 Fe (OH)3+ 8H+

4 Mn2+ + O2 + 2 H2O  2 MnO2  + 4H+

Types of Aerators

1. Gravity aerators
2. Fountain aerators
3. Diffused aerators
4. Mechanical aerators.

Gravity Aerators (Cascades): In gravity aerators, water is allowed to fall by gravity such that a large area of
water is exposed to atmosphere, sometimes aided by turbulence.

Fountain Aerators : These are also known as spray aerators with special nozzles to produce a fine spray, CO2
gas is considerably removed (up to 90 %) in this method.

Injection or Diffused Aerators: It consists of a tank with perforated pipes, tubes or diffuser plates, fixed at the
bottom to release fine air bubbles from compressor unit.
Mechanical Aerators: Mixing paddles as in flocculation are used. Paddles may be either submerged or at the
surface.

2. Screening
Screening usually involves a simple screening operation to remove large solids and floating matter as leaves,
dead animals, etc.

a) Bar screens- with openings of about 75 mm :- A bar screen is a mechanical filter used to remove large
objects, such as rags, leaves, tree branches and plastics, from water or wastewater  to prevent damage and
clogging of downstream equipment, piping, and appurtenances.  It is part of the primary filtration flow and
typically is the first, or preliminary, level of filtration, being installed at the influent to a  water or wastewater
treatment plant. They typically consist of a series of vertical steel bars spaced at about 75 mm apart.

Bar screens come in many designs. Some employ automatic cleaning mechanisms using electric motors and
chains, some must be cleaned manually by means of a heavy rake. Items removed from the influent are called
screenings and are collected and disposed of in landfills.  As a bar screen collects objects, the water level will
rise, and so they must be cleared regularly to prevent overflow.

b) Mesh screens –with opening of 5 to 20 mm

Fine screens have clear openings from 5 mm to 20 mm. They consisted of perforated plates, wire cloth, wedge
wire elements that have smaller openings. They are also used to remove the fine solids present in the primary
effluent.

3. Plain Sedimentation

Sedimentation is the removal of particles (silt, sand, clay, etc.) through gravity setting in basins. No chemicals
is added to enhance the sedimentation process.

By plain sedimentation the following are the advantages.

1. Plain sedimentation lightens the load on the subsequent process.

2. The operation of subsequent purification process can be controlled in better way.
3. The cost of cleaning the chemical coagulation basins is reduced.
4. Less quantity of chemicals are required in the subsequent treatment processes.

The amount of matter removed by sedimentation tank depends upon the factors.

1. Velocity of flow
2. Size and shape of particles
3. Viscosity of water

The particles which do not change in size, shape or mass during settling are known as the
discrete particles. The velocity of discrete particles with diameter less than 0.1 mm is given by

Vs = 418 (G - 1) d2 3T + 70
---------- ---------------- (1)
100
Where Vs → Settling velocity of discrete particle in mm / sec
G → Specific gravity of the particle
1 → Specific gravity of water
d → diameter of the particle in mm
T → Temperature in °C

If the diameter of the particle is between 0.1mm and 1mm, then the settling velocity is given by

V = 418 (G - 1) d 3T + 70
 ----------- ---------------- (2)
100

In practice settling of the particles governed by the resultant of horizontal velocity of water and the vertical
downward velocity of the particle.

Types of Settling Tanks

 Sedimentation tanks may function either intermittently or continuously. The intermittent tanks also
called quiescent type tanks are those which store water for a certain period and keep it in complete rest.
 In a continuous flow type tank, the flow velocity is only reduced and the water is not brought to
complete rest as is done in an intermittent type.
 Settling basins may be either long rectangular or circular in plan. Long narrow rectangular tanks with
horizontal flow are generally preferred to the circular tanks with radial flow.

Long Rectangular Settling Basin

 Long rectangular basins are hydraulically more stable, and flow control for large volumes is easier.
 A typical long rectangular tank have length ranging from 2 to 4 times their width. The bottom is slightly
sloped to facilitate sludge scraping. A slow moving mechanical sludge scraper continuously pulls the
settled material into a sludge hopper from where it is pumped out periodically.

A long rectangular settling tank can be divided into four different functional zones:
Inlet zone: Region in which the flow is uniformly distributed over the cross section such that the flow through
settling zone follows horizontal path.
Settling zone: Settling occurs under quiescent conditions.
Outlet zone: Clarified effluent is collected and discharge through outlet weir.
Sludge zone: For collection of sludge below settling zone

Inlet and Outlet Arrangement

Inlet devices: Inlets shall be designed to distribute the water equally and at uniform velocities. A baffle should
be constructed across the basin close to the inlet and should project several feet below the water surface to
reduce inlet velocities and provide uniform flow.

Outlet Devices: Outlet weirs or submerged orifices shall be designed to maintain velocities suitable for settling
in the basin and to minimize short-circuiting.

Circular Basins

 Circular settling  basins have  the same functional zones as the long rectangular basin, but the type of
flow is different. When the flow enters at the center and is baffled to flow radially towards the perimeter,
the horizontal velocity of the water is continuously decreasing as the distance from the center increases.
 Sludge  removal mechanisms in  circular  tanks are  simpler and require less maintenance.

DESIGN ASPECTS OF SEDIMENTATION TANKS

The design aspects of sedimentary tanks are
1. Velocity of flow
2. Capacity of tank
3. Inlet and outlet arrangements

(1) Velocity of flow: The velocity of flow of water in sedimentation tanks should be sufficient enough to cause
the settlement of suspended impurities. It should remain uniform throughout the tank and it is generally not
allowed to exceed 15 cm to 30 cm per minute.

(2) Capacity of tank: capacity of tank is calculated by i) detention period ii) Overflow rate

(i) Detention period: The theoretical time taken by a particle of water to pass between entry and exit of a
settling tank is known as the known as the detention period. The capacity of tank is calculated by

C=QxT where C → Capacity of tank

Q → Discharge or rate of flow
T → Detention period in hours

The detention period depends on the quality of suspended impurities present in water. For plain sedimentation
tanks, the detention period is found to vary from 4 to 8 hours.
(ii) Overflow Rate: in this method it is assumed that the settlement of a particle at the bottom of the tank does
not depend on the depth of tank and depends upon the surface area of the tank.

Q
Surface overflow rate, V = ---------
LxB

Where Q → Discharge or rate of flow

L → Length of tank
B → Breadth of tank
V → Velocity of descend of a particle to the bottom of tank

(3) INLET AND OUTLET ARRANGEMENTS

The inlet is a device, which is provided to distribute the water inside a tank, and the outlet is a device, which is
meant to collect outgoing water. These arrangements should be properly designed and located in a such a way
that they do not form any obstruction or cause any disturbance to the flowing water.

The following are the parameters for satisfactory performance.

1. Detention period ….. 4 to 8 hours for plain settling,
2 to 4 hours for coagulant settling

2. Overflow rate ……… 12 – 18 m3/m2/day for plain sed. Tank and

24 – 30 m3/m2/day for sed. Tank with coagulants
3. Velocity of flow…….. 0.15 to 0.9 m/minute
5. L:B ………………….. 1:3 to 1:4 , Breadth of tank……..10 to 12m
6. Depth of tank………. 3 m – 4.5 m
7. Dia of circular tank…. upto 60m
8. Solids removal efficiency….. 50%
9. Turbidity of water after sedimentation – 15 to 20 N.T.U.
11. Free board…………………… 0.5m
12. Sludge Zone…………………. 0.5m

SEDIMENTATION AIDED WITH COAGULATION

When water contains fine clay and colloidal impurities which are electrically charged are continually in motion
and never settle down due to gravitational force. Certain chemicals are added to the water so as to remove such
impurities which are not removed by plain sedimentation. The chemical form insoluble, gelatinous, flocculent
precipitate which absorbs and entangle very fine suspended matter and colloidal impurities during its formation
and descent(come down) through water. These coagulants further have an advantage of removing colour, odour
and taste from the water. Turbidity of water reduced upto 5 - 10 ppm and bacteria removes upto 65%.

4. Coagulation (chemically assisted sedimentation)

Very fine suspend clay particles are not removed by plain sedimentation. In addition, water also contains
electrically charged colloidal matter which are continuously in motion and never settle down due to
gravitational forces, such impurities i.e. fine clay and colloidal matter can be removed by the use of chemicals
followed by sedimentation and such type of water treatment is called Coagulation.

The principle of coagulation can be explained from the following two conditions:

1. Floc formation
When coagulants (chemicals) are dissolved in water and thoroughly mixed with it, they produce a think
gelatinous precipitate. This precipitate is known as floc and this floc has got the property of arresting suspended
impurities in water during downward travel towards the bottom of tank.

2. Electric charges
The ions of floc are found to possess positive charge. Hence, they will attract the negatively charged colloidal
particles and thus they cause the removal of such particles.

3. Flocculation

Flocculation is used to denote the process of floc formation and thus follows addition of coagulants.
Flocculators are slow stirring mechanisms, which form floc. They mostly consist of paddles which are
revolving at very slow speed about 2-3 rpm. The folcculators provide numbers of gentle contacts between the
flocculating particles which are necessary for the successful formation of floc. In this operation the floc which
has been formed above is allowed to settle and is separated from the water by keeping the water in
sedimentation tanks.

Coagulation

mixing Flocculation sedimentation

The following are the most commonly used coagulants:

1) Aluminum sulfate [Al 2(SO4)318H2O] . It is also called Alum

It reacts quite quickly giving excellent stable flocs. It reacts with the natural alkalinity in water & if natural
alkalinity is not sufficient, lime may be added and forms aluminum hydroxide floc.

Chemical Reaction Taking Place

i) Al 2(SO4)3.18H2O + 3Ca (HCO3)22Al(OH)3+3CaSO4+ 6CO2+18 H2O

ii) Al(SO4)3.18H2O+ 3Ca(OH)22Al(OH)3+3CaSO4+18H2O
iii) Al2(SO4)318H2O+3Na2CO32Al(OH)3+3Na2SO4+3CO2+18H2O
5 .Filtration

The effluent obtained after coagulation does not satisfy the drinking water standard and is not safe. So it
requires further treatments. If water is allowed to pass through a bed of sand or fine granular material, the
effluent obtained is clear and sparkling with negligible turbidity. This process is known as filtration. Filtration
also removes bacteria, taste & odor.
 Filtration

Pressure Filters
Gravity Filters

Slow Sand Filter Rapid Sand Filter

SLOW SAND FILTERS

In slow filters a water tight tank is construct either in stone masonry or brick masonry and a layer of sand is
placed over the gravel. The depth of sand varies from 60 to 90 cm. The depth of gravel varies from 30 to 60 cm.

The water is allowed to enter the filter thought the inlet chamber. It descends through the filter media and
during this process, it gets purified.

Cleaning:- The top layer of sand is scrapped or removed through a depth of about 15-25 mm. The water is then
admitted to the filter. When cleaning of filter had been done for a number of times, the effective depth of filter
media of sand is reduced. In order to maintain the efficiency of filter, a fresh layer of about 15 cm depth of
graded sand is then added to the filter.

The interval between two successive cleanings depends mainly on the nature of impurities present in the water
to be treated. It usually varies from 1 to3 months.

The rate of filtration for a normal slow sand filter varies 100 to200 lit/hr/m2 of fitter area.
 FILTER HEAD

WATER

SAND

GRAVEL

TREATED WATER

UNDER DRAIN CHANNEL

FILTER FLOOR

Fig 5. A Typical Section of Slow Sand Filter.

3. Rapid sand filters

The rapid filter is the most common type used in water treatment to remove non-settlable floc remaining after
chemical coagulation and sedimentation. A typical rapid sand filter bed (figure) is placed in a concrete box with
a depth of about 2.7 m. The sand filter, about 0.6 m deep, is supported by graded gravel layer containing under
drains. During filtration, water passes down ward through the filter bed by a combination of water pressure
from above and suction from the bottom. Filters are cleaned by backwashing (reversing the flow) upward
through the bed. Wash troughs suspended above the filter surface collect the back wash water and carry it out of
the filter box.

Filter operation: - The working and washing of rapid sand filter is controlled by 6 valves, marked in the figure
from 1 to 6.

Valve 1 – is the inlet valve, through which water from secondary sedimentation tank enters the filter unit.

Valve 2 – is the filtered water storage tank valve

Valve 3 – is the wastewater valve to drain water from main drain.

Valve 4 – is the wastewater valve to drain water from inlet chamber.

Valve 5 – wash water storage tank valve

Valve 6 – compressed valve.

Initially valves 1 and 2 are opened, and all are closed for filtration. Valve 1 is opened to permit overflow water
from the settling basin to enter the inlet chamber. Valve 2 is opened to the water to pass through the filter bed
and under drain system to the clear water storage tank. The filter operates under gravity flow, there being 2m
head of water over the bed.

The depth of water above the filter surface is between 0.9 and 1.3m.
 The maximum head available for filtration is equal to the difference between the elevation of the water surface
above the filter and level in the clean water storage tank; this is commonly 2.7 to 3.7 m.

The bed is cleaned by backwashing. Valves 1 and 2 are closed. Open the air valve 6 for 2 to 3 minutes, this will
break up the surface scum and loosen the dirt. Close the air valve and open the wash water valve gradually. The
sand layer expands hydraulically about 50 percent and the sand grains are scrubbed by rubbing against each
other in the turbulent backwash flow. Open the waste water valve 3 and 5 to carry the waste water to drain.
Continue the washing until the waste water appear appears clear. Dirty wash water is collected by troughs and
conveyed to disposal.

Afterwards allow a short period to permit material in the water to settle on the sand and form a very thin sticky
layer. Now open the valve 1 slightly. Open the valve 5 leading the filtered water to wash water drain for few
minutes. Close valve 5 and open valve 2. Open valve 1 fully. The filter now back in service. The total wash
water( filtered water) used should normally not exceed 2% of the treated water.

Difference between Sand Filters and Rapid Sand Filters

Sr.N Item Slow sand filters Rapid sand filters

o
1. Coagulation Not required Essential
2 Area Requires large area for its installation
Requires small area for its
installation
3 Construction simple Complicated
4 Economy High initial cost both for land & Cheap and quite economical
material
 5 Method of Scrapping of top layer of 15 to25 mm Agitation and back washing with
cleaning thickness. Long and laborious or without the help of compressed
method air, short and speedy method
6 Period of 1 to3 months 2 to 3 days
cleaning
7 Rate of 100 to200 lit / hr / m2of filter area 3000 to 6000 lit / hr / m2
filtration
8 Skilled Not essential Essential
supervision
9 Suitability It is suitable for small towns and It is suitable for big cities where
villages where land is cheaply land cost is high
available.
10 Filter media of Effective size: 0.2 to 0.35 mm Effective size: 0.35 to 0.6 mm
sand Cu : 2 to 3 Cu : 1.2 to 1.7
Depth:105cm, reduced to not less Depth:75cm, not reduced by
than 30 cm by scrapping washing
11 Base material of Size: 3 to 65mm Size: 3 to 40mm
gravel Depth: 30 to 75 mm Depth: 60 to 90 mm
12 Skilled Not essential Essential
supervision
13 Efficiency Very efficient in the removal of Les efficient in the removal of
bacteria but less efficient in the bacteria but more efficient in the
removal of colour and turbidity removal of colour and turbidity

6. Adsorption

Adsorption can be defined as the accumulation of substances at the interface between two phases. The material
removed from the water is called the adsorbet, and the material providing the solid surfaces is called
adsorbent.

The adsorbent most commonly used in water treatment is activated carbon. It is manufactured from
carbonaceous material such as wood, coal, petroleum residues etc. The activated carbon is used for removal of
taste and odors from water as it has excellent properties of attracting impurities such as gases, finely divided
solid particles and other liquid impurities.

7. Softening

Softening is the removed or reduction of hardness from the water. Hard water causes the following troubles:

1. Requires more soap for washing clothes

2. The precipitate formed by the action of the soap spoils the cloth
3. Choking and clogging troubles of pipe lines due to precipitation of salt causing hardness
4. Formation of scales in boilers
For all these reasons removal of hardness or softening of water is required. There are two methods generally
used for softening of water.

METHODS OF REMOVAL OF HARDNESS

1. Boiling
2. Zeolete process or Ion exchange process.
3. Lime soda process
4. Demineralization or exchange process.

Method 1 is suitable for removal of temporary hardness and remaining methods are suitable for both temporary
and permanent hardness removal. The temporary hardness is removed as follows.

1. Boiling

Ca(HCO3)2 -----------heat-------> CaCO3↓ + CO2↑ +H2O

Calcium bicarbonate Calcium carbonate
(insoluble)

Mg(HCO3)2 -----------heat-----------> MgCO3↓ + CO2↑ +H2O

Magnesium bicarbonate Magnesium Carbonate
(soluble)

When hydrated lime is added to water, following reaction takes place.

MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2 ---------------------> Mg(OH)2 ↓ + CaCO3↓
Hydrated lime Magnesium Carbonate Calcium carbonate
(insoluble) (insoluble)
Since Magnesium Carbonate and Calcium carbonate are insoluble , these two are precipitated and can be
removed.

2. Zeolite process
This is also known as the base-exchange or Ion exchange process. The hardness may be completely removed by
this process. Naturally available Zeolite is green in colour, called green sand.

Na 2 Z = Na2 O Al2O3 x.SiO2 y. H2O = general formula for Hydrated Silicates of Sodium and Aluminium.
Value of x = 2 or more, y = varies

Principle
Zeolites are compounds (silicates of aluminium and sodium) which replace sodium Ions with calcium and
magnesium Ions when hard water is passes through a bed of zeolites. The zeolite can be regenerated by passing
a concentrated solution of sodium chloride through the bed.

The chemical reactions involved are:-

Ca (HCO3) (HCO3 Ca
Na 2 Z + SO4 Na 2 SO4 + Z
Mg Cl2 Cl2 Mg

Sodium zeolite Calcium or Magnesium Sodium salts Calcium or Magnesium

Or salt Which does not or
Active Zeolite cause hardness used Zeolite

Regeneration process:-
 Ca Ca
Z + 2 Na Cl2 Na Z + Cl2
Mg Mg

Used zeolite Sodium Chloride Active Zeolite Calcium or Magnesium

solution Chloride

Advantages
1. In this process, the sludge is not formed hence problem of sludge disposal does not arise
2. It can be operated easily and no skilled supervision required
3. The hardness of water reduces to zero and hence used for boiler and textile industries
4. The process is economical where salt is cheaply available
5. The load on Zeolite can be reduced by combining it with lime or aeration process

Disadvantages
1. The Zeolite process cannot be used for turbid or acidic water
2. The Zeolite process is unsuitable for water containing Iron and Manganese
3. The Zeolite should be operated carefully to avoid injury or damage to the equipment

2) The lime –Soda Process

In the method hardness is removed by using lime [Ca (OH) 2] and soda ash [Na2Co3]. The following are the
reactions taking place:-

1. Ca(HCO3)2+Ca(OH)2CaCO3+2H2O
2. Mg(HCO3)2+Ca(OH)2Mg(OH)2+CaCO3+H2O
3. MgSO4+Ca(OH)2+NaCO3Mg(OH)2+CaCO3+Na2SO4
4. MgCl2+Ca(OH)2+NaCO3Mg(OH)2+CaCO3+2Nacl
7. Disinfection
Disinfection is the process of killing pathogenic microorganisms in order to avoid waterborne diseases

The disinfection of water can be done by one of the following methods:

a) by the boiling of water

b) by ultra – violate rays
c) by the use of iodine and bromine
d) by the use of ozone O3
e) by the use of excess lime
f) by the using potassium permanganate [KMnO4]
g) by the use of chlorine
The most common method of disinfection is the use of chlorine i.e. chlorination. The various chlorine
compounds which are available in the market and used as disinfectants are

1. Calcium hypochlorite [ Ca(OCl)2] – power form

2. Sodium hypochlorite [NaOCl] –liquid form
3. Free chlorine Cl2- Gaseous form
WHAT IS CHLORINATION?

Microorganisms can be found in raw water from rivers, lakes and groundwater. While not all microorganisms
are harmful to human health, there are some that may cause diseases in humans. These are called pathogens.
Pathogens present in water can be transmitted through a drinking water distribution system, causing waterborne
disease in those who consume it.

In order to combat waterborne diseases, different disinfection methods are used to inactivate pathogens. Along
with other water treatment processes such as coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration, chlorination creates
water that is safe for public consumption.

Chlorination is one of many methods that can be used to disinfect water. This method was first used over a
century ago, and is still used today. It is a chemical disinfection method that uses various types of chlorine or
chlorine-containing substances for the oxidation and disinfection of what will be the potable water source.

HOW DOES CHLORINE INACTIVATE MICROORGANISMS?

Chlorine inactivates a microorganism by damaging its cell membrane. Once the cell membrane is weakened, the
chlorine can enter the cell and disrupt cell respiration and DNA activity (two processes that are necessary for
cell survival).

WHEN/HOW DO WE CHLORINATE OUR WATERS?

Chlorination can be done at any time/point throughout the water treatment process - there is not one specific
time when chlorine must be added. Each point of chlorine application will subsequently control a different
water contaminant concern, thus offering a complete spectrum of treatment from the time the water enters the
treatment facility to the time it leaves.

Pre-chlorination is when chlorine is applied to the water almost immediately after it enters the treatment facility.
In the pre-chlorination step, the chlorine is usually added directly to the raw water (the untreated water entering
the treatment facility), or added in the flash mixer (a mixing machine that ensures quick, uniform dispersion of
the chlorine). Chlorine is added to raw water to eliminate algae and other forms of aquatic life from the water so
they won’t cause problems in the later stages of water treatment. Pre-chlorination in the flash mixer is found to
remove tastes and odours, and control biological growth throughout the water treatment system, thus preventing
growth in the sedimentation tanks (where solids are removed from the water by gravity settling) and the
filtration media (the filters through which the water passes after sitting in the sedimentation tanks). The addition
of chlorine will also oxidize any iron, manganese and/or hydrogen sulphide that are present, so that they too can
be removed in the sedimentation and filtration steps.

Disinfection can also be done just prior to filtration and after sedimentation. This would control the biological
growth, remove iron and manganese, remove taste and odours, control algae growth, and remove the colour
from the water. This will not decrease the amount of biological growth in the sedimentation cells.

Chlorination may also be done as the final step in the treatment process, which is when it is usually done in
most treatment plants. The main objective of this chlorine addition is to disinfect the water and maintain
chlorine residuals that will remain in the water as it travels through the distribution system. Chlorinating filtered
water is more economical because a lower CT value is required. This is a combination of the concentration (C)
and contact time (T). The CT concept is discussed later on in this fact sheet. By the time the water has been
through sedimentation and filtration, a lot of the unwanted organisms have been removed, and as a result, less
chlorine and a shorter contact time is required to achieve the same effectiveness. To support and maintain the
chlorine residual, a process called re-chlorination is sometimes done within the distribution system. This is done
to ensure proper chlorine residual levels are maintained throughout the distribution system. 

IS CHLORINE ALL THE SAME?

The chlorination process involves adding chlorine to water, but the chlorinating product does not necessarily
have to be pure chlorine. Chlorination can also be carried out using chlorine-containing substances. Depending
on the pH conditions required and the available storage options, different chlorine-containing substances can be
used. The three most common types of chlorine used in water treatment are: chlorine gas, sodium hypochlorite,
and calcium hypochlorite.

CONCLUSION

Chlorination is a very popular method of water disinfection that has been used for many years. It has shown to
be effective for killing bacteria and viruses, but not for some protozoan cysts. With the concern about
trihalomethanes, a carcinogenic disinfection by-product, many communities have become hesitant in the
continuation of this process.

Although chlorination does have some drawbacks, it continues to be the most popular, dependable, and cost-
effective method of water disinfection.

Lime