Chapter One

OP-AMP Fundamentals and

Characteristics

1
Outlines
• Introduction
• Ideal Op-Amp and its characteristics
• Virtual Ground and Virtual Short of Op-Amp
• Operational amplifier types
• Op-amp practical circuits
• Reading assignment

2
Introduction
• An operational amplifier is a direct coupled high gain amplifier
consisting of one or more differential amplifiers, followed by a
level translator and an output stage.
• It is a versatile device that can be used to amplify ac as well as
dc input signals & designed for computing mathematical
functions such as addition, subtraction ,multiplication,
integration & differentiation
• Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are very high gain dc
coupled amplifiers with differential inputs; they are used as a
voltage controlled voltage sources. One of the inputs is called
the inverting input (-); the other is called the noninverting
input (+). Usually there is a single output.
• Most op-amps operate with two dc supply voltages, one
positive and the other negative, although some have a single dc
supply

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Introduction, cont.
• Op-amp symbol and types

4
Applications of Op-Amp

5
Ideal Op-Amp and its characteristics
• The ideal op-amp has characteristics that simplify analysis of op-
amp circuits. Ideally, op-amps have infinite voltage gain, infinite
bandwidth, and infinite input impedance  it does not load the
driving source. In addition, the ideal op-amp has zero output
impedance.
• Ideal Op-Amp Characteristics

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Ideal Op-Amp Properties
•Property No.1: Infinite Open-Loop Gain
• Open-Loop Gain Avol is the gain of the op-amp without
positive or negative feedback
• In the ideal op-amp Avol is infinite (∞)
• But, typical values range from 20,000 to 200,000 in real devices
g Property No.2: Infinite Input Impedance
• Input impedance is the ratio of input voltage to input current

Vin
Zin 
Iin

• When Zin is infinite, the input current Iin=0

• High-grade op-amps can have input impedance in the 𝑇Ω range
• Some low-grade op-amps, on the other hand, can have mA input currents

7
 Ideal Op-Amp Properties, cont.
•Property No. 3: Zero Output Impedance
• The ideal op-amp acts as a perfect internal voltage
source with no internal resistance
• This internal resistance is in series with the load, reducing
the output voltage available to the load
• Real op-amps have output-impedance in the 10-20Ω range
• Example

V R1
VR2
V0 
R1  R 2
V0 R2

8
Ideal Op-Amp Properties, cont.
• Property No.4: Zero Noise Contribution
• In the ideal op-amp, zero noise voltage is produced internally
• This is, any noise at the output must have been at the input as well
• Practical op-amp are affected by several noise sources, such as resistive and
semiconductor noise
• These effects can have considerable effects in low signal-level applications
• Property No. 5: Zero output Offset
• The output offset is the output voltage of an amplifier when both inputs are grounded
• The ideal op-amp has zero output offset, but real op-amps have some amount of
output offset voltage

-
V0
+

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Ideal Op-Amp Properties, cont.
•Property No. 6: Infinite Bandwidth
• The ideal op-amp will amplify all signals from DC to the
highest AC frequencies
• In real opamps, the bandwidth is rather limited
• This limitation is specified by the Gain-Bandwidth product (GB),
which is equal to the frequency where the amplifier gain becomes
unity
• Some op-amps, such as the 741 family, have very limited
bandwidth of up to a few KHz
•Property No. 7: Differential Inputs Stick Together
• In the ideal op-amp, a voltage applied to one input also
appears at the other input

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What is Virtual Ground and Virtual Short of Op-Amp?
• Basic Op-Amp working Rules:
• The Basic Op-Amp working mechanism mainly follows 2 important rules
1. Always the Voltage at Non-Inverting Input and Inverting input of the Op-Amp
should be Equal. The internal Op-Amp design and output feedback resistors
always tend to make them equal in order to maintain the stable Operation Op-
Amp.
2. As per the Op-Amp characteristics, the Op-Amp has higher input impedance and
lower output impedance. So, for ideal Op-Amp operation, the current flow through
Op-Amp input terminals are assumed as “Zero”.
• Virtual Short in Op-Amps

The circuit here is non-inverting Op-

Amp topology which has 1V input and
having the gain resistance of R1 = R2 =
1KΩ. It has some defined equations in
order to find the relation between Input
and Output Voltage relation. Instead of
using those defined formulas, we can
apply the Basic Op-Amp rules in order to
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find the output voltage.
Virtual Short of Op-Amp, cont.

12
Virtual Short of Op-Amp, cont.

13
Virtual Short of Op-Amp, cont.

14
The virtual ground

15
Using the two conditions we can calculate the gain 𝐴0

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Using the two conditions we can calculate the gain 𝐴0, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡.

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Using the two conditions we can calculate the gain 𝐴0, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡.

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Open-loop versus closed-loop configurations
• Open-loop Op-Amp Open-loop Op-Amp

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Closed-loop Op-Amp

example of closed Op-Amp

20
Open loop Vs Closed loop Op-Amp

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The Practical Op-Amp
• Practical op-amps have characteristics that often can be treated as ideal
for certain situations, but can never actually attain ideal characteristics.
• Characteristics of a practical op-amp are very high voltage gain, very
high input impedance, and very low output impedance
• In addition to finite gain, bandwidth, input impedance, and noise
generation, they have other limitations like voltage and current.

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Practical Op-Amp
Equivalent circuit of Op-Amp

23
Primary op-amp terminals
• Inverting input
• Non-inverting input
• Output
• Power supply
• Offset null

From [Car91]

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Operational amplifier types
• General-Purpose Op-Amps
• These devices are designed for a very wide range of applications
• These op-amps have limited bandwidth but in return have very good stability (they are called
frequency compensated)
• Non-compensated op-amps have wider frequency response but have a tendency to oscillate
• Voltage Comparators
• These are devices that have no negative feedback networks and therefore saturate
with very low (μV) input signal voltages
• Used to compare signal levels of the inputs
• Low Input Current Op-Amps
• Op-amps with very low (pico-amp) input currents, as opposed to μA or mA input
currents found in other devices
• Low Noise Op-Amps
• Optimized to reduce internal noise
• Typically employed in the first stages of amplification circuits
• Low Power Op-Amps
• Optimized for low power consumption
• These devices can operate at low power-supply voltages (I.e., ±1.5VDC)
• Low Drift Op-Amps
• Internally compensated to minimize drift caused by temperature
• Typically employed in instrumentation circuits with low-level input signals 25
Operational amplifier types, cont.
• Wide Bandwidth Op-Amps
• These devices have a very high GB product (i.e., 100MHz) compared to
741-type op-amps (0.3-1.2MHz)
• These devices are sometimes called video op-amps
• Single DC Supply Op-Amps
• Devices that operate from a monopolar DC power supply voltage
• High-Voltage Op-Amps
• Devices that operate at high DC power supply voltages (i.e. ±44VDC)
compared to most other op-amps (± 6V to ± 22V)
• Multiple Devices
• Those that have more than one op-amp in the same package (i.e., dual or
quad op-amps)
• Instrumentation Op-Amps
• These are DC differential amplifiers made with 2-3 internal op-amps
• Voltage gain is commonly set with external resistors
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Families of operational amplifiers

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Op-amp practical circuits
• Voltage comparator
+VCC Vout
-
Vout time
Vin Vin
+
Vout  VCCsinVin  -VCC

• Voltage follower
• What is the main use of this circuit?
• Buffering

-
Vout Vout  Vin
Vin +

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Inverting and non-inverting amplifiers
• Non-inverting amplifier  R 
R2 Vout   1 2 Vin
 R1 
R1
-
Vout
Vin +

• Inverting amplifier
R2 R2
Vout   Vin
R1
R1
Vin -
Vout
+

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Summing and differential amplifier
• Summing amplifier
R1 Rf
V1
R2
V2 -

RN Vout
VN +

 Rf R R 
Vout 
  V1  V2 f  ⋯  VN f 
 R1 R2 RN 

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Differential amplifier

Differential Amplifier Applications

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Integrating and differentiating amplifier
• Integrating amplifier
C

R
Vin -
1 1
Vout Vout  
j CR
Vin  
RC  Vindt
+

• Differentiating amplifier
R

C
Vin -
R dV
Vout Vout   Vin  RC in
1 dt
+
j C

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Current to voltage conversion
• Current-to-voltage
R

Iin
-
Vout Vout  IinR
+

R
• Voltage to current
R
-
Vin
R IL 
V2 +
R
R
IL
RL

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Voltage Follower Circuit

Example on Buffered Voltage Divider

Circuit

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Reading assignment
• Discuss on the respective applications of the following Op-Amp
types
• Voltage comparator
• Voltage follower
• adding/summing
• Differential
• Integrator
• Current to voltage and voltage to current convertor op-amps

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