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Module-1
Operational Amplifier
• Operational amplifiers are linear devices with all the properties

required for nearly ideal DC amplification.
• They are used extensively in signal conditioning and filtering or to
perform mathematical operations such as add, subtract, integration,
and differentiation.
• An operational amplifier is a very high-gain DC differential amplifier

that uses one or more external feedback networks to control its
response and characteristics.
• connect external resistors or capacitors to the op-amp in several

different ways to form basic “building Block” circuits such as Inverting,
Non-Inverting, Voltage Follower, Summing, Differential, Integrator and
Differentiator type amplifiers.
• An Operational Amplifier, or op-amp for short, is

fundamentally a voltage amplifying device designed to
be used with external feedback components such as
resistors and capacitors between its output and input
terminals.
• These feedback components determine the resulting
function or “operation” of the amplifier and by virtue of
the different feedback configurations whether resistive,
capacitive or both, the amplifier can perform a variety
of different operations, giving rise to its name of
“Operational Amplifier”.
• An Operational Amplifier is basically a three-terminal

device which consists of two high impedance inputs.
• One of the inputs is called the Inverting Input, marked
with a negative or “minus” sign, ( – ). The other input is
called the Non-inverting Input, marked with a positive or
“plus” sign ( + ).
• A third terminal represents the operational amplifiers
output port which can both sink and source either a
voltage or a current.
• In a linear operational amplifier, the output signal is the

amplification factor, known as the amplifier gain ( A )
multiplied by the value of the input signal and
depending on the nature of these input and output
signals, there can be four different classifications of
operational amplifier gain.
Operational Amplifier Basics of Classification

• Voltage – Voltage “in” and Voltage “out”
• Current – Current “in” and Current “out”
• Transconductance – Voltage “in” and Current “out”
• Transresistance – Current “in” and Voltage “out”
• The output voltage signal from an Operational Amplifier is

the difference between the signals being applied to its two
individual inputs.
• Operational Amplifiers on their own have a very high open
loop DC gain and by applying some form of Negative
Feedback we can produce an operational amplifier circuit
that has a very precise gain characteristic that is dependant
only on the feedback used.
• the term “open loop” means that there are no feedback
components used around the amplifier so no feedback path
or loop is open.
• The circuit below shows a

generalized form of a
differential amplifier with two
inputs marked V1 and V2. The
two identical transistors TR1 and
TR2 are both biased at the same
operating point with their
emitters connected together
and returned to the common
rail, -Vee by way of resistor Re.
• The circuit operates from

a dual supply +Vcc and -
Vee which ensures a
constant supply. The
voltage that appears at
the output, Vout of the
amplifier is the
difference between the
two input signals as the
two base inputs are
in anti-phase with each
other.
Equivalent Circuit of an Ideal Operational Amplifier
Op Amp Characteristics
Open Loop Voltage Gain(A)

• The open loop voltage gain without any feedback for an
ideal op amp is infinite. But typical values of open loop
voltage gain for a real op amp ranges from 20,000 to 2,
00,000.
• Let the input voltage be Vin. Let A be the open loop
voltage gain. Then the output voltage is Vout = AVin. The
value of a typically is in the range specified above but
for an ideal op amp, it is infinite.
Input Impedance(Zin)
• Input Impedance is defined as the input voltage by the
input current.
• The input impedance of an ideal op amp is infinite.
That is there is no current flowing in the input circuit.
• Input impedance ≥ 2 ∗ 109 ohms
• However, an ideal op amp has a certain current
flowing in the input circuit of the magnitude of a few
pico-amps to a few milli-amps.
Output Impedance (Zout)

• Output impedance is defined as the ratio of the output
voltage to the input current.
• The output impedance of an ideal op amp is zero,
however, real op-amps have an output impedance of 10-
20 kΩ.
• An ideal op amp behaves like a perfect voltage source
delivering current without any internal losses. The
internal resistance reduces the voltage available to the
load.
Bandwidth(BW)
• An ideal op amp has an infinite bandwidth that is it can
amplify any signal from DC to the highest AC
frequencies without any losses.
• So, therefore, an ideal op amp is said to have infinite
frequency response. In real op-amps, the bandwidth is
generally limited.
• The limit depends on the gain bandwidth (GB) product.
GB is defined as the frequency where the amplifier gain
becomes unity.
• Generally, an op-amps output gain decreases linearly as
frequency increases down to “Unity Gain” or 1, at about
1MHz.
• The Gain Bandwidth Product or GBP is a constant
• GBP = Gain x Bandwidth = A x BW = 1MHz
Offset Voltage(Vio)
In an ideal op amp, the offset voltage is zero, meaning
the output voltage is zero if there’s no difference
between the inverting and non-inverting terminals.
If both terminals are grounded, the output voltage
remains zero. However, real op amps do have some
offset voltage

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Module-1

• Operational amplifiers are linear devices with all the properties

• An operational amplifier is a very high-gain DC differential amplifier

• connect external resistors or capacitors to the op-amp in several

• An Operational Amplifier, or op-amp for short, is

• An Operational Amplifier is basically a three-terminal

• In a linear operational amplifier, the output signal is the

Operational Amplifier Basics of Classification

• The output voltage signal from an Operational Amplifier is

• The circuit below shows a

• The circuit operates from

Open Loop Voltage Gain(A)

Output Impedance (Zout)

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