LN5 Geng2340

Electrical and Computing Fundamentals
GENG 2340
Dr. A. Emadi
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
1
Operational Amplifiers
• Operational Amplifiers
• Ideal Op Amp
• Inverting Amplifier
• Noninverting Amplifier
• Summing Amplifier
• Difference Amplifier
• Cascaded Op Amp Circuits
Chapter #5
Images and Texts are from the course textbook @ McGraw-Hill and Wiley, Refer to Syllabus
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits by C. Alexander and M. Sadiku, 7th Edition
Fundamentals of Electric Circuit Analysis by C. R. Paul
2
Introduction
• We are now ready to study an important active circuit element:

• Operational amplifier, or op amp.
• The op amp is an electronic unit that behaves like a voltage-
controlled voltage source.
• Can also be used in making a voltage- or current- controlled current
source.
• Can sum signals, amplify a signal, integrate it, or differentiate it.
• Op amps are popular in practical circuit designs because they
are versatile, inexpensive, and easy to use.
3
• An op amp is an active circuit element designed

to perform mathematical operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division,
differentiation, and integration.
• Can be regarded as a voltage amplifier with a
very high gain.
• The op amp is an electronic device consisting of
a complex arrangement of resistors, transistors,
capacitors, and diodes.
4
(741 Op-Amp Circuit) 5

• Op amps are commercially available in integrated circuit packages in
several forms (below left shows an eight-pin dual in-line package or
DIP).
• The 741 op amp is a very economical design as it uses very few
components.
6
• The circuit symbol for the op amp is the triangle below on right.
• The op amp has two inputs and one output:
• Inputs marked with minus (-) and plus (+) are inverting and noninverting.
• An input applied to the noninverting terminal will appear with the same polarity at
the output, while an input applied to the inverting terminal will appear inverted at
the output.
• Ignore “Balance” or “Offset Null” for now.
7
• Powering the device is very important.
• V+ and V- are the supply voltages:

• often omitted in schematics.
• output can not exceed the supply.
8
• The equivalent circuit model of an op amp is

shown on the right.
• The output section consists of a voltage-
controlled source in series with the output
resistance.
• The input resistance is the Thevenin
equivalent resistance seen at the input
terminals.
• Output resistance is the Thevenin equivalent
resistance seen at the output.
9
• The differential input voltage vd is given by:
vd = v2 - v1
• where v1 is the voltage between the inverting
terminal and ground and v2 is the voltage
between the noninverting terminal and
ground.
10
• Op amp senses the difference between the

two inputs, multiplies it by the gain A, and
causes the resulting voltage to appear at the
output:
vo = Avd = A ( v2 - v1 )
• A is called the open-loop voltage gain
because it is the gain of the op amp without
any external feedback from output to input.
11
• The op-amp input–output relation assuming infinite input resistance and zero
output resistance.
12
Typical Ideal
Parameter
• Table shows typical values of: Range Value
• Voltage gain, A Open-loop gain, A 105 to 108 ¥
• Input resistance, Ri
• Output resistance, Ro Input resistance, Ri 105 to 1013 W ¥W
• Supply voltage, VCC
Output resistance, Ro 10 to 100 W 0W
Supply voltage, VCC 5 to 24 V -
13
• Feedback
• A negative feedback is achieved when the output is fed back to
the inverting terminal of the op amp.
• When there is a feedback path from output to input, the ratio of the
output voltage to the input voltage is called the closed-loop gain.
• As a result of the negative feedback, it can be shown that the closed-
loop gain is almost insensitive to the open-loop gain A of the op amp.
• For this reason, op amps are used in circuits with feedback paths.
14
• A practical limitation of the op amp is that
the magnitude of its output voltage
cannot exceed the power supply voltage.
• Figure shows that the op amp can operate in

three modes, depending on the differential
input voltage vd:
1) Positive Saturation, vo = VCC
2) Linear Region, -VCC < vo < VCC
3) Negative Saturation, vo = -VCC
• Design the op amp to be operative in the

linear region.
15
Reminder
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑑𝐵 = 10log( )
𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝐵 = 20 log = 20 log
𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
(#$"%&)
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 10
(#$"(&)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 10
16
Example #1 – Operational Amplifiers
The equivalent model of a certain op amp is shown below. What is
the input resistance, output resistance, and voltage gain in dB?
17
The open-loop gain of an op amp is 100,000. Calculate the output
voltage when there are inputs of +10 µV on the inverting terminal
and +20 µV on the noninverting terminal.
18
The output voltage of an op amp is -4 V when the noninverting
input is 1 mV. If the open-loop gain of the op amp is 2M what is the
inverting input?
19
A 741 op amp has an open-loop voltage gain of 2´105, input resistance of 2MW
and output resistance of 50W. The op amp is used in the circuit below. Find the
closed-loop gain (vo/vs). Calculate current i when vs=2V.
20
A 741 op amp has an open-loop voltage gain of 2´105, input resistance of 2MW
and output resistance of 50W. The op amp is used in the circuit below. Find the
closed-loop gain (vo/vs). Calculate current io when vs=1V.
21
Ideal Op Amp
• An ideal op amp is an amplifier with infinite open-loop gain,
infinite input resistance, and zero output resistance.
• 𝐴 ≅ ∞ , 𝑅! ≅ ∞, 𝑅" ≅ 0Ω
• Assuming an ideal op amp provides only an approximate
analysis
• most modern amplifiers have such large gains and input impedances
that the approximate analysis is a good one.
• Unless stated otherwise, we will assume from now on that every
op amp is ideal.
22
Ideal Op Amp
Two important characteristics of the ideal op amp
are:
1) The currents into both input terminals are zero:
i1 = 0 i2 = 0
This is due to infinite input resistance which

implies that an open circuit exists there and
current cannot enter the op amp
• the output current is not necessarily zero
23
Ideal Op Amp
2) The voltage across the input terminals is equal
to zero:
vd = v2 - v1 = 0
v1 = v2
An ideal op amp has zero current into its two

input terminals and the voltage between the
two input terminals is equal to zero, i.e. v1=v2.
These equations are extremely important and
should be regarded as the key handles to
analyzing op amp circuits.
24
Example #6 – Ideal Op Amp
Find vO.
25
Find vO.
26
Rework example #5 using ideal op amp model.
27
Example #9 – Homework
Rework example #4 using ideal op amp model.
28
Inverting Amplifier
• Useful op amp circuits that often serve

as modules for designing more
complex circuits.
• The noninverting input is grounded,
vi is connected to the inverting input
through R1, and the feedback
resistor Rf is connected between the
inverting input and output.
29
Inverting Amplifier
• Obtain the relationship between the input

voltage vi and the output voltage vo
• Apply KCL at node 1:
vi - v1 v1 - vo
i1 = i2 Þ =
R1 Rf
• But v1 = v2 = 0 for an ideal op amp, since the

noninverting terminal is grounded
vi -vo vo Rf
= Þ =- = Av
R1 R f vi R1
30
Inverting Amplifier
• An inverting amplifier reverses the polarity of
the input signal while amplifying it.
• The gain is the feedback resistance divided

by the input resistance, which means that the
gain depends only on the external elements
connected to the op amp.
• Note that there are two types of gains: the

one here is the closed-loop voltage gain Av,
while the op amp itself has an open-loop
voltage gain A.
31
Example #10 – Inverting Amplifier
Find vO and the current through the feedback resistor.
32
Find vO.
33
Find ix.
34
Example #13 – Op Amp
Find vo.
35
Proof.
36
Proof.
37
Noninverting Amplifier
• The input voltage vi is applied directly at

the noninverting input terminal, and the
resistor R1 is connected between the
ground and the inverting terminal.
• Apply KCL at the inverting terminal:
0 - v1 v1 - vo
i1 = i2 Þ =
R1 Rf
• But v1 = v2 = vi
-vi vi - vo vo æ R f ö
= Þ = ç1 + ÷ = Av
R1 Rf vi è R1 ø
38
Noninverting Amplifier
• A noninverting amplifier is an op amp circuit
designed to provide a positive voltage gain.
• Notice that the gain depends only on the

external resistors.
• If the feedback resistor Rf = 0 (short circuit)

or R1 = ¥ (open circuit) or both, the gain
becomes 1.
• Referred to as a “voltage follower” or “unity
gain amplifier” because the output follows
the input -vi vi - vo vo æ R f ö
= Þ = ç1 + ÷ = Av
• vo = vi R1 Rf vi è R1 ø
39
Example #16 – Noninverting Amplifier
Find i0.
40
Find v0.
Solution 1:
41
Find v0.
Solution 2:
42
Determine the output voltage and
determine whether the op amp is in
saturation if Vsat=14V and isat=2mA
43
Solution Cont.:
44
Solution Cont.:
45
Solution Cont.:
46
Find vo.
47
Summing Amplifier
• Op amps can also perform addition and

subtraction.
• A summing amplifier is an op amp circuit
that combines several inputs and produces
an output that is the weighted sum of the
inputs.
• The summing amplifier is a variation of the
inverting amplifier.
• It takes advantage of the fact that the
inverting configuration can handle many
inputs at the same time.
48
Summing Amplifier
• The current entering each op amp input is zero
• Applying KCL at node a gives:
va - vo
i = i1 + i2 + i3 i=
Rf
v1 - va v2 - va v3 - va
i1 = i2 = i3 =
R1 R2 R3
! va = 0
æ Rf Rf Rf ö
vo = - ç v1 + v2 + v3 ÷
è R1 R2 R3 ø
• The output voltage is a weighted sum of the inputs

• Circuit is called a summer
• Can have more than three inputs
49
Example #21 – Summing Amplifier
Find v0.
Solution:
50
Find v2 if vO = -16.5 V.
51
Find vo and iO.
52
Design a circuit to sum three voltages in the proportion:
v0=3v1+2v2-4v3
Use only inverting amplifiers.
53
Difference Amplifier
• A difference amplifier (or subtractor) is a device
that amplifies the difference between two inputs
but rejects any signals common to the two
inputs.
• The current entering each op amp input is zero.
• Applying KCL at node a and b gives:
v1 - va va - vo v2 - vb vb - 0
= =
R1 R2 R3 R4
æ R2 ö R2 R4
vo = ç + 1÷ va - v1 vb = v2
è R1 ø R1 R3 + R4
54
• But va = vb, therefore:
æ R2 ö R4 R2
vo = ç + 1÷ v2 - v1
è R1 ø R3 + R4 R1
R2 (1 + R1 R2 ) R2
vo = v2 - v1
R1 (1 + R3 R4 ) R1
• Difference amplifier must reject a signal common

to the two inputs
• Must have the property that vo = 0 when v1 = v2
• This only happens when R1/R2 = R3/R4
55
• When the op amp circuit is a difference
amplifier:
R2
vo = ( v2 - v1 )
R1
• If R1 = R2 and R3 = R4, then the difference

amplifier becomes a subtractor:
vo = v2 - v1
56
Example #25 – Difference Amplifier
Design a difference amplifier to have a gain of 2 and a common-
mode input resistance of 10 W at each input; What are R1, R2, R3 &
R4?
57
Example #26 – Difference Amplifier
Determine R1, R2, R3 & R4 to have an output of 5v2-10v1.
58
Cascaded Op Amp Circuits
• Op amp circuits are modules or building blocks for designing
complex circuits.
• It is often necessary in practical applications to connect op amp
circuits in cascade (i.e. head to tail) to achieve a large overall
gain.
• In general, two circuits are cascaded when they are connected
in tandem, one behind another.
• A cascade connection is a head-to-tail arrangement of two or
more op amp circuits such that the output of one is the input of
the next.
59
• When op amp circuits are cascaded, each circuit in the string is called a
stage:
• the original input signal is increased by the gain of the individual stage.
• Op amp circuits have the advantage that they can be cascaded without
changing their input-output relationships.
• This is due to the fact that each (ideal) op amp circuit has an infinite input
resistance and zero output resistance
60
• Circuit below is a block diagram representation of three op amp circuits in
cascade.
• Since the output of one stage is the input to the next stage, the overall gain of
the cascade connection is the product of the gains of the individual op amp
circuits, or A = A1A2A3.
• Although the cascade connection does not affect the op amp input-output
relationships, care must be exercised in the design of an actual op amp
circuit to ensure that the load due to the next stage in the cascade does not
saturate the op amp.
61
Example #27 – Cascaded Op Amp Circuits
Calculate the gain of the op amp circuit.
62
Determine vO.
v1
63
Design a cascade amplifier that has an input resistance of 10kW,
overall gain of 20, and whose output is in phase with its input. Use an
op amp with Vsat =14V, isat=2mA, when the load resistance is 500W
and peak input voltage is 50mV.
64
Solution Cont.:
65
Solution Cont.:
66
Find vo and io.
67
Example #31 – Op Amp Circuits
Find vo if v1=1V and v2=2V.
68
Instrumentation Amplifier
It is an amplifier of low-level signals used in process control or
measurement applications and commercially available in single-
package units.
• Small differential signal superimposed on large
common-mode voltages.
• Isolation amplifiers
• Thermocouple amplifiers
• Data acquisition systems
69

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Electrical and Computing Fundamentals

• We are now ready to study an important active circuit element:

• An op amp is an active circuit element designed

(741 Op-Amp Circuit) 5

• Powering the device is very important.

• V+ and V- are the supply voltages:

• The equivalent circuit model of an op amp is

• The differential input voltage vd is given by:

• Op amp senses the difference between the

Supply voltage, VCC 5 to 24 V -

• Figure shows that the op amp can operate in

• Design the op amp to be operative in the

1) The currents into both input terminals are zero:

This is due to infinite input resistance which

An ideal op amp has zero current into its two

• Useful op amp circuits that often serve

• Obtain the relationship between the input

• But v1 = v2 = 0 for an ideal op amp, since the

• The gain is the feedback resistance divided

• Note that there are two types of gains: the

• The input voltage vi is applied directly at

• Notice that the gain depends only on the

• If the feedback resistor Rf = 0 (short circuit)

• Op amps can also perform addition and

• The output voltage is a weighted sum of the inputs

• Difference amplifier must reject a signal common

• If R1 = R2 and R3 = R4, then the difference

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