Op-Amps

UNIT 3
 Presentation Outline

• What is an Op-Amp?
• Characteristics of Ideal and Real Op-Amps
• Common Op-Amp Circuits
• Applications of Op-Amps
• References
 What is an Op-Amp?

• An Operational Amplifier (known as an “Op-Amp”) is

a device that is used to amplify a signal using an
external power source
• Op-Amps are generally composed of:
• Transistors, Resistors, Capacitors

= + +
 Brief History

• First patent for Vacuum Tube Op-Amp (1946)

• First Commercial Op-Amp available (1953)

• First discreteTransistor Op-Amps (1961)

• First commercially successful Monolithic Op-Amps (1965)

 History Continued…

• Leading to the advent of the modern IC which is still

used even today (1967 – present)

Fairchild μA741 Pin Diagram of μA741

 Op-Amps Characteristics

A traditional Op-Amp:

V+ : non-inverting input
V- : inverting input
Vout : output Vout = K (V+ - V-)
Vs+ : positive power supply
Vs- : negative power supply

• The difference between the two inputs voltages (V+ and V-)
multiplied by the gain (K, “amplification factor”) of the Op-Amp gives
you the output voltage

• The output voltage can only be as high as the difference between the
power supply (Vs+ / Vs-)and ground (0 Volts)
 Saturation
Saturation is caused by increasing/decreasing the
input voltage to cause the output voltage to equal
the power supply’s voltage*

Vout The slope is normally much steeper

than it is shown here. Potentially just a
VS+ few milli-volts (mV) of change in the
Slope = K (“gain of Op- difference between V+ and V- could
Amp”) cause the op-amp to reach the
saturation level
Vin

* Note that saturation level of

VS- traditional Op-Amp is 80% of
supply voltage with exception of
CMOS op-amp which has a
Saturation saturation at the power supply’s
Points
voltage
 Presentation Outline

• What is an Op-Amp?
• Characteristics of Ideal and Real Op-Amps
• Common Op-Amp Circuits
• Applications of Op-Amps
• References
 An Ideal Op-Amp

• Infinite voltage gain (K)

• Infinite input impedance
• Zero output impedance
• Infinite bandwidth
• Zero input offset voltage (i.e., exactly zero out if zero in).
 Ideal versus Real Op-Amps

Parameter Ideal Op-Amp Real Op-Amp

Differential Voltage Gain ∞ 105 - 109
Gain Bandwidth Product (Hz) ∞ 1-20 MHz
Input Resistance (R) ∞ 106 - 1012 Ω
Output Resistance (R) 0 100 - 1000 Ω

Ideal

Real
 Presentation Outline

• What is an Op-Amp?
• Characteristics of Ideal and Real Op-Amps
• Common Op-Amp Circuits
• Applications of Op-Amps
• References
 Basics of an Op-Amp Circuit

• An op-amp amplifies the difference of the inputs V+ and V-

(known as the differential input voltage)
• This is the equation for an open loop gain amplifier:

Vout=K(V+-V-)

• K is typically very large – at around 10,000 or more for IC Op-

Amps
• This equation is the basis for all the types of amps we will be
discussing
 Open Loop vs Closed Loop

• A closed loop op-amp has feedback from the output to the

input, an open loop op-amp does not have feedback.

Open Loop Closed Loop

 Negative vs. Positive Feedback

• Negative feedback connects the output to the inverting input

(-), whereas positive feedback connects the output to the
non-inverting input (+).

Negative Feedback Positive Feedback

 Negative vs. Positive: Output

• Negative feedback op-amps can produce any voltage in the

supply power range.
• Positive feedback op-amps can only produce the maximum
and minimum voltages of the range.

Vout Vout
Vsat+ Vsat+

Vin Vin

Vsat- Vsat-

Negative Feedback Positive Feedback

 Inverting Op-Amp

• Voltage input is connected to inverting

input
• Closed loop op-amp
• Voltage output is connected to
inverting input through a feedback
resistor
• Non-inverting input is grounded
• Amplifies and inverts the input voltage
• Non-inverting input is determined by
both voltage input and output
• The polarity of the output voltage is
opposite to that of the input voltage
 Inverting Op-Amp

• Functionality: to amplify the input voltage to output voltage

with a negative gain.
• Since input resistance of ideal op amp is infinite, no current
will flow in op amp input terminals. Gain K is also infinite.
• The junction of 𝑹𝒊𝒏 and 𝑹𝒇 will be at virtual ground.

Vout=K(V+-V-)
𝐼
V-=(VoutRin+VinRf)/(Rin+Rf)
Vout=K(0 -V-)
Vout=-VinRf/[(Rin+Rf)/K+(Rin)]

Vout=-VinRf/Rin
 Non-Inverting Op-Amp

• Voltage input connected to non-

inverting input
• Closed loop op-amp
• Voltage output connected to inverting
input through a feedback resistor
• Inverting input is also connected to
ground
• Amplifies the input voltage by a
constant
• Non-inverting input of opamp is only
determined by voltage output
• The polarity of the output voltage is
same
 Non-Inverting Op-Amp

• Functionality: to amplify the input voltage to output voltage

with a positive gain.
Vout=K (V+- V-)

R1/(R1+R2)  Voltage Divider

V-=Vout (R1/(R1+R2) )

Vout=[Vin-Vout (R1/(R1+R2))] K
𝐼
Vout=Vin/[(1/K)+ (R1/(R1+R2))]

As discussed previously assuming, K is very large, we have:

Vout=Vin/(R1/(R1+R2))
 Op-Amp Integrator

• Integrates the inverted input signal

over time
• Closed loop op-amp
• Voltage output is connected to
inverting input through a capacitor
• The resistor and capacitor form an
RC circuit
• Magnitude of the output is
determined by length of time
voltage is present at input
• The longer the input voltage is
present, the greater the output
 Op-Amp Integrator

• Functionality: takes the summation of input voltages over

time and provides that as the output signal
• 𝑽+ = 𝟎 𝑽
• 𝑽− 𝒕 = 𝑹 ∙ 𝑰(𝒕)= 𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝒕)
𝑽 (𝒕) 𝐼(𝑡)
• 𝑰 𝒕 = 𝒊𝒏
𝑹
𝟏 𝒕
• 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = − ∙ 𝟎 𝑰(𝝉)𝒅𝝉
𝑪
𝟏 𝒕
• 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = − ∙ 𝟎 𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝝉)𝒅𝝉
𝑹𝑪
 Op-Amp Integrator
• When the circuit is first connected the capacitor acts as a
short. Gain is less than 1, Vout is 0
• As time progresses, and the capacitor charges, it’s effective
resistance increases. Now Vout is increasing as well
• When the capacitor is fully charged it acts as an open circuit
with infinite resistance. Now Vout goes into saturation
(~80% power supply voltage)
• The rate of voltage output increase depends on the RC time
constant
Vout= - VinRC/Rin
1 t
Vout   Vin  d
RC 0
 Op-Amp Integrator

• An integrating op-amp circuit can create a sawtooth signal

if a square wave is applied at Vin
 Op-Amp Differentiator

• Functionality: takes the rate of change of the inverted input

voltage signal and provides that as the output signal

• 𝑽+ = 𝟎 𝑽
𝟏
• 𝑽− 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝒕) = ∙ 𝑰 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝐼(𝑡)
𝑪
𝒅𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝒕)
• 𝑰 𝒕 =𝑪∙
𝒅𝒕
• 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝑹 ∙ 𝑰(𝒕)
𝒅𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝒕)
• 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝑹𝑪 ∙
𝒅𝒕

Plot the output voltage if the input is a Sinusoidal signal,

square wave and a triangular wave
 Differential Op-Amp

• Functionality: takes the difference

between two signals and provides that
as the output

𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝒇 𝑹𝒈 𝑹𝒇
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽 − 𝑽
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝒈 + 𝑹 𝟐 𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝟏
𝑹𝒇 𝑹𝒈
If = ,
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝒇
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = (𝑽𝟐 −𝑽𝟏 )
𝑹𝟏
Moreover, if 𝑹𝒇 = 𝑹𝟏 ,
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏
 Differential Amplifier

Voltage relations

• The purpose of the differential amplifier is to

produce an output proportional to the difference of
the input voltages
• V+ is given by the voltage divider equation
 Differential Amplifier

Output voltage

Vout as we see is the difference of voltage V1 & V2

multiplied by the resistance R4 & R3 which scales the
difference
 Summing Op-Amp (Adder)

• Functionality: takes the sum of two or

more input voltages and provides an
output voltage proportional to the
negative of the algebraic sum

𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝒏
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝑹𝒇 + + ⋯+
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝒏

If 𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹𝟐 = ⋯ = 𝑹𝒏 ,

𝑹𝒇
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 =− (𝑽𝟏 +𝑽𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑽𝒏 )
𝑹𝟏
 Summing Op-Amp (Adder)

• Moreover, if 𝑹𝒇 = 𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹𝟐 = ⋯ = 𝑹𝒏
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −(𝑽𝟏 +𝑽𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑽𝒏 )

𝑹𝒇 𝟏
• By setting = , the summing op-
𝑹𝟏 𝒏
amp can be used as an averaging
operator:
𝟏
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = − (𝑽𝟏 +𝑽𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑽𝒏 )
𝒏
 Summing Op-Amp (Adder)

Output voltage

The summing amplifier does exactly as the name suggests by adding

up the voltages given to it and producing an output voltage which is
the sum of the input voltages scaled by the feedback resistance and
input resistance
 Presentation Outline

• What is an Op-Amp?
• Characteristics of Ideal and Real Op-Amps
• Common Op-Amp Circuits
• Applications of Op-Amps
• References
 Applications

• Active filters
• Signal processing
• Digital Image processing
• Strain gauges
• Control circuits
• PID controllers
• PI controllers for temperature measurement circuitry
• And much more…
 Applications - Filters

Types:

•Low pass filter

•High pass filter

•Band pass filter

•Band stop filter

 Low-Pass Filter

• Attenuates frequencies above the cutoff frequency.

• Cutoff frequency (Hz):
𝟏
• 𝒇𝒄 =
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝟐 𝑪

• Gain in the passband:

𝑹𝟐
• 𝑮= −
𝑹𝟏
 High-Pass Filter

 Attenuates frequencies
below the cutoff frequency.
 Cutoff frequency (Hz):
𝟏
 𝒇𝒄 =
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝟏 𝑪

 Gain in the passband:

𝑹𝟐
 𝑮=−
𝑹𝟏

𝑹2 𝑹1
𝑯 𝒔 = −
𝒔+ 1 𝑹 𝑪
1
Bandpass Filter
Band Stop (Notch) Filter
Strain Gauge

• Strain gauges consist of a pattern of resistive

foil mounted on a backing material.
• As the foil is subjected to stress, the resistance
of the foil changes in a defined way.
• This results in an output signal directly related
to the stress value, typically a few millivolts.
• Op-Amps are utilized to amplify the output
signal level to 5~10 V, a suitable level for
application to data collection systems.
Strain Gauge Applications

Use a Wheatstone bridge

to determine the strain of
an element by measuring
the change in resistance of
a strain gauge

(No strain) Balanced Bridge

R #1 = R #2

(Strain) Unbalanced Bridge

R #1 ≠ R #2
 Strain Gauge Applications
Half-Bridge Arrangement Op amp used to
amplify output from
R + ΔR
strain gauge
Rf
R
Vref + Vcc
+ -
- +
+
R - Vcc
V0

__
R - ΔR
Rf

Using KCL at the inverting and non-

ε ~ Vo = 2ΔR(Rf /R2)
inverting terminals of the op amp we
find that 
 PID Controller

• A proportional-integral-derivative (PID)
controller is a generic feedback
mechanism widely used in industrial
control systems.
• It calculates an “error” value as the
difference between a measured process
variable and a desired setpoint.
• Using this error, it calculates a control
input using tuning parameters 𝑲𝒑 , 𝑲𝒅 ,
and 𝑲𝒊 to drive the error to zero.
𝒖 𝒕
𝒕
𝒅
= 𝑲𝒑 𝒆 𝒕 + 𝑲𝒊 𝒆 𝝉 𝒅𝝉 + 𝑲𝒅 𝒆(𝒕)
𝟎 𝒅𝒕
 PID Controller – System Block Diagram

VSET VERROR Output VOUT

I Process

D
VSENSOR
Sensor

•Goal is to have VSET = VOUT

•Remember that VERROR = VSET – VSENSOR
•Output Process uses VERROR from the PID controller to adjust Vout
such that it is ~VSET
 PID Controller

• So where do op-amps come in?

• The error is calculated using a Summing Op-Amp.
• Using this error voltage:
• The derivative of the error is calculated using a Derivative Op-Amp.
• The integral of the error is calculated using an Inverting Op-Amp.
• The tuning parameters 𝑲𝒑 , 𝑲𝒅 , and 𝑲𝒊 can be selected by appropriate
selection of resistors and capacitors.
 And much more…

• Comparators
• Detectors
• Threshold detector
• Zero-level detector
• Oscillators
• Wien bridge oscillator
• Relaxation oscillator
• Level shifters
 Outline Presentation

• Introduction

• Characteristics of Ideal and Real Op-Amps

• Basic Circuits of Op-Amps

• Applications

• Exercise
 Exercise

• Consider the circuit above running for 5 seconds.

Find 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (5) when:
• 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 0 = 0
• 𝑉𝑖𝑛 t = 3t
• 𝑅 = 5𝑀Ω, 𝐶 = 5𝜇, 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 10𝑘Ω, 𝑅𝑓 = 20𝑘Ω