01-Axioms of Set Theory
01-Axioms of Set Theory
01-Axioms of Set Theory
Axioms of Zermelo-Fraenkel
1.2. Axiom of Pairing. For any a and b there exists a set {a, b} that
contains exactly a and b.
1.5. Axiom of Power Set. For any X there exists a set Y = P (X), the
set of all subsets of X.
1.9. Axiom of Choice. Every family of nonempty sets has a choice func-
tion.
1.11. Russell’s Paradox. Consider the set S whose elements are all those
(and only those) sets that are not members of themselves: S = {X : X ∈
/ X}.
Question: Does S belong to S? If S belongs to S, then S is not a member of
itself, and so S ∈
/ S. On the other hand, if S ∈/ S, then S belongs to S. In
either case, we have a contradiction.
{X : X ∈
/ X}
The Axiom Schema of Separation as formulated above uses the vague notion
of a property. To give the axioms a precise form, we develop axiomatic set
theory in the framework of the first order predicate calculus. Apart from
the equality predicate =, the language of set theory consists of the binary
predicate ∈, the membership relation.
1. Axioms of Set Theory 5
The formulas of set theory are built up from the atomic formulas
x ∈ y, x=y
by means of connectives
ϕ ∧ ψ, ϕ ∨ ψ, ¬ϕ, ϕ → ψ, ϕ↔ψ
∀x ϕ, ∃x ϕ.
ϕ(u1 , . . . , un )
are among u1 , . . . , un (possibly some ui are not free, or even do not occur,
in ϕ). A formula without free variables is called a sentence.
Classes
Although we work in ZFC which, unlike alternative axiomatic set theories,
has only one type of object, namely sets, we introduce the informal notion
of a class. We do this for practical reasons: It is easier to manipulate classes
than formulas.
If ϕ(x, p1 , . . . , pn ) is a formula, we call
C = {x : ϕ(x, p1 , . . . , pn )}
a class. Members of the class C are all those sets x that satisfy ϕ(x, p1 , . . . , pn ):
ϕ(x, p1 , . . . , pn ) ↔ ψ(x, q1 , . . . , qm ).
6 Part I. Basic Set Theory
V = {x : x = x}.
C ∩ D = {x : x ∈ C and x ∈ D},
C ∪ D = {x : x ∈ C or x ∈ D},
C − D = {x : x ∈ C and x ∈/ D},
C = {x : x ∈ S for some S ∈ C} = {S : S ∈ C}.
Extensionality
∀u (u ∈ X ↔ u ∈ Y ) → X = Y.
The axiom expresses the basic idea of a set: A set is determined by its ele-
ments.
Pairing
For any a and b there exists a set {a, b} that contains exactly a and b:
∀a ∀b ∃c ∀x (x ∈ c ↔ x = a ∨ x = b).
1. Axioms of Set Theory 7
(a, b)
It follows that two ordered n-tuples (a1 , . . . , an ) and (b1 , . . . , bn ) are equal if
and only if a1 = b1 , . . . , an = bn .
Separation Schema
For each formula ϕ(u, p), the formula (1.2) is an Axiom (of Separation).
The set Y in (1.2) is unique by Extensionality.
Note that a more general version of Separation Axioms can be proved
using ordered n-tuples: Let ψ(u, p1 , . . . , pn ) be a formula. Then
We can give the Separation Axioms the following form: Consider the class
C = {u : ϕ(u, p1 , . . . , pn )}; then by (1.3)
∀X ∃Y (C ∩ X = Y ).
Thus the intersection of a class C with any set is a set; or, we can say even
more informally
a subclass of a set is a set.
One consequence of the Separation Axioms is that the intersection and the
difference of two sets is a set, and so we can define the operations
X ∩ Y = {u ∈ X : u ∈ Y } and X − Y = {u ∈ X : u ∈
/ Y }.
∅ = {u : u = u}
is a set—the empty set ; this, of course, only under the assumption that at
least one set X exists (because ∅ ⊂ X):
(1.4) ∃X (X = X).
We have not included (1.4) among the axioms, because it follows from the
Axiom of Infinity.
Two sets X, Y are called disjoint if X ∩ Y = ∅.
If C is a nonempty class of sets, we let
C= {X : X ∈ C} = {u : u ∈ X for every X ∈ C}.
Note that C is a set (it is a subset of any X ∈ C). Also, X ∩ Y = {X, Y }.
Another consequence of the Separation Axioms is that the universal
class V is a proper class; otherwise,
S = {x ∈ V : x ∈
/ x}
would be a set.
1. Axioms of Set Theory 9
Union
For any X there exists a set Y = X:
(1.5) ∀X ∃Y ∀u (u ∈ Y ↔ ∃z (z ∈ X ∧ u ∈ z)).
and
(∀z ∈ X) ϕ for ∀z (z ∈ X → ϕ).
the union of X.
Now we can define
X ∪ Y = {X, Y }, X ∪ Y ∪ Z = (X ∪ Y ) ∪ Z, etc.,
and also
{a, b, c} = {a, b} ∪ {c},
and in general
{a1 , . . . , an } = {a1 } ∪ . . . ∪ {an }.
We also let
X
Y = (X − Y ) ∪ (Y − X),
the symmetric difference of X and Y .
Power Set
For any X there exists a set Y = P (X):
∀X ∃Y ∀u (u ∈ Y ↔ u ⊂ X).
A set U is a subset of X, U ⊂ X, if
∀z (z ∈ U → z ∈ X).
P (X) = {u : u ⊂ X},
Using the Power Set Axiom we can define other basic notions of set theory.
The product of X and Y is the set of all pairs (x, y) such that x ∈ X and
y ∈ Y:
X × Y ⊂ P P (X ∪ Y ).
Further, we define
X × Y × Z = (X × Y ) × Z,
and in general
Thus
X1 × . . . × Xn = {(x1 , . . . , xn ) : x1 ∈ X1 ∧ . . . ∧ xn ∈ Xn }.
We also let
Xn = X × . . . × X .
n times
An n-ary relation R is a set of n-tuples. R is a relation on X if R ⊂ X n .
It is customary to write R(x1 , . . . , xn ) instead of
(x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ R,
xRy
for (x, y) ∈ R.
If R is a binary relation, then the domain of R is the set
x ≡ x,
x ≡ y implies y ≡ x,
if x ≡ y and y ≡ z then x ≡ z.
A family of sets is disjoint if any two of its members are disjoint. A par-
tition of a set X is a disjoint family P of nonempty sets such that
X = {Y : Y ∈ P }.
Let ≡ be an equivalence relation on X. For every x ∈ X, let
[x] = {y ∈ X : y ≡ x}
(the equivalence class of x). The set
X/≡ = {[x] : x ∈ X}
is a partition of X (the quotient of X by ≡). Conversely, each partition P
of X defines an equivalence relation on X:
x≡y if and only if (∃Y ∈ P )(x ∈ Y and y ∈ Y ).
If an equivalence relation is a class, then its equivalence classes may be
proper classes. In Chapter 6 we shall introduce a trick that enables us to
handle equivalence classes as if they were sets.
Infinity
There exists an infinite set.
To give a precise formulation of the Axiom of Infinity, we have to define
first the notion of finiteness. The most obvious definition of finiteness uses the
notion of a natural number, which is as yet undefined. We shall define natural
numbers (as finite ordinals) in Chapter 2 and give only a quick treatment of
natural numbers and finiteness in the exercises below.
In principle, it is possible to give a definition of finiteness that does not
mention numbers, but such definitions necessarily look artificial.
We therefore formulate the Axiom of Infinity differently:
∃S (∅ ∈ S ∧ (∀x ∈ S)x ∪ {x} ∈ S).
We call a set S with the above property inductive. Thus we have:
1. Axioms of Set Theory 13
Replacement Schema
For each formula ϕ(x, y, p), the formula (1.7) is an Axiom (of Replace-
ment):
Exercises
1.1. Verify (1.1).
Let T
N = {X : X is inductive}.
N is the smallest inductive set. Let us use the following notation:
1.15. Instead of Union, Power Set, and Replacement Axioms consider the following
weaker versions:
S
(1.8) ∀X ∃Y X ⊂Y, i.e., ∀X ∃Y (∀x ∈ X)(∀u ∈ x) u ∈ Y ,
(1.9) ∀X ∃Y P (X) ⊂ Y , i.e., ∀X ∃Y ∀u (u ⊂ X → u ∈ Y ),
(1.10) If a class F is a function, then ∀X ∃Y F (X) ⊂ Y .
Then axioms 1.4, 1.5, and 1.7 can be proved from (1.8), (1.9), and (1.10), using the
Separation Schema (1.3).
1. Axioms of Set Theory 15
Historical Notes
Set theory was invented by Georg Cantor. The first attempt to consider infinite sets
is attributed to Bolzano (who introduced the term Menge). It was however Cantor
who realized the significance of one-to-one functions between sets and introduced
the notion of cardinality of a set. Cantor originated the theory of cardinal and
ordinal numbers as well as the investigations of the topology of the real line. Much of
the development in the first four chapters follows Cantor’s work. The main reference
to Cantor’s work is his collected works, Cantor [1932]. Another source of references
to the early research in set theory is Hausdorff’s book [1914].
Cantor started his investigations in [1874], where he proved that the set of
all real numbers is uncountable, while the set of all algebraic reals is countable.
In [1878] he gave the first formulation of the celebrated Continuum Hypothesis.
The axioms for set theory (except Replacement and Regularity) are due to
Zermelo [1908]. The Replacement Schema is due to Fraenkel [1922a] and Skolem
(see [1970], pp. 137–152).
Exercises 1.12 and 1.13: Tarski [1925a].