BENDING

• Members that are slender and supports transverse loading

acts perpendicular to their longitudinal axis are called BEAMS
• Beams are generally long straight prismatic bars having uniform
cross-sections. They are classified as how they are supported.

TYPES OF LOADING

Uniformly distributed Varying distributed

Point Loading
Loading (UDL) Loading (VDL)

Solid Mechanics-I 1 Bending

 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
• Shear Force (SF) is a transverse force, tends to cause shearing of
beam across the section
• Due to different types of loading, product of force into moment
arm is referred as Bending Moment (BM)
• SF and BM diagram is used to design beams. These diagrams gives
the variations in SF and BM graphically, throughout the beam.
• Theses diagrams gives the point of maximum SF and BM, that helps
in proper placement of reinforcement material.
General Rules for SF and BM Diagrams
• For Point loading, SF diagram is comprising of rectangular
horizontal steps while BM diagram contains inclined straight lines.

Solid Mechanics-I 2 Bending

 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
• For UDL, SFD is inclined straight line and BMD is a parabola

• For VDL, SFD is a parabola and BMD is a curve of third degree

• BMD gives maximum or minimum value when SF is zero

• Part of beam where SF is zero BMD has constant value
• BMD passes from zero i.e. changes from concave up to concave
downward or vice versa, is termed as point of contra-flexure or
inflection point
Solid Mechanics-I 3 Bending
PROBLEM-1

Solid Mechanics-I 4 Bending

Solid Mechanics-I 5 Bending
PROBLEM-2

Solid Mechanics-I 6 Bending

Solid Mechanics-I 7 Bending
PROBLEM-3
Draw SF and BM diagram for beam
Shown.

Solid Mechanics-I 8 Bending

Similarly, for sections 3, 4, 5 and 6,
SF and BM will be as follows:

Solid Mechanics-I 9 Bending

 RELATIONSHIP AMONG SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
• Consider section CC’ whose length is ∆x
of a simply supported beam with UDL
• SF and BM in small element are shown in
figure
• Applying equilibrium,

Solid Mechanics-I 10 Bending

PROBLEM-4
Draw SF and BM diagram for beam
Shown.

Solid Mechanics-I 11 Bending

Recall that area under the shear
curve between two points is equal
to the change in bending moment
between the same points. Hence
bending moment will be as follows:

Solid Mechanics-I 12 Bending

Solid Mechanics-I 13 Bending
 FLEXURE FORMULAE
• Stresses caused by the bending
moment are known as flexural or
bending stresses. Consider a beam to
be loaded as shown.
• Consider a fiber at a distance ‘y’ from
the neutral axis, because of the beam's
curvature and bending, the fiber is
stretched by an amount of ‘cd’.
• Since the curvature of the beam is very small, ‘bcd’ and ‘Oba’ are
𝑐𝑑 𝑦
considered as similar triangles. The strain on this fiber is 𝜀 = =
𝑎𝑏 𝜌
𝜎 𝜎 𝑦 𝐸𝑦
• By Hooke's law, 𝜀 = , then = and 𝜎 = which means that the
𝐸 𝐸 𝜌 𝜌
stress is proportional to the distance ‘y’ from the neutral axis.
• Considering a differential area dA, at a distance ‘y’ from N.A., the
𝑦
force acting over the area is 𝑑𝐹 = 𝜎𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸𝑑𝐴
𝜌
Solid Mechanics-I 14 Bending
 FLEXURE FORMULAE
• The resultant of all the elemental moment about N.A. must be
equal to the bending moment on the section.
𝑦
𝑀= 𝑑𝑀 = 𝑦𝑑𝐹 = 𝑦 𝐸𝑑𝐴
𝜌
𝐸
𝑀= 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
𝜌
𝑀 𝐸
• But 𝐼 = 2
𝑦 𝑑𝐴, then =
𝐼 𝜌
Substituting 𝜌 = 𝐸𝑦 𝜎, we get
𝑀𝑦
𝜎=
𝐼
𝑀 𝜎 𝐸
• Hence Flexure formulae is derived as = =
𝐼 𝑦 𝜌
• Where ‘𝜌’ is the radius of curvature of beam in mm (in), ‘M’ is the
bending moment in N·mm (lb·in), ‘𝜎’ is flexural stress in MPa (psi),
‘I’ is the centroidal moment of inertia in mm4 (in4), and ‘y’ is the
distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fiber in mm (in).

Solid Mechanics-I 15 Bending

 FLEXURE FORMULAE
Important Points
• Cross-section of straight beam remains plane when beam deforms
due to bending, produces tensile and compressive stresses. In
between these stresses, there exists a neutral axis (NA), which is
subjected to zero stress.
• Due to deformation, longitudinal strain varies linearly from zero at
the NA to a maximum at outer fibers. Provided material is
homogenous and linear elastic, stress also varies linearly.
• NA passes through the centroid of cross-sectional area.
• Flexure formulae is based on requirement that the resultant
internal moment on cross-section is equal to moment produced by
normal stress distribution about NA.

Solid Mechanics-I 16 Bending

 FLEXURE FORMULAE
Centroid Calculation
𝑦𝐴 Where ‘𝑦’ is centroid, ‘𝑦’ is distance from
𝑦= NA and ‘A’ is the area
𝐴

Polar Moment of Inertia

𝜋 4
Circular cross-section, 𝐼 = 𝑑 ,
64
1
Rectangular cross-section, 𝐼 = 𝑏𝑑 3
12
Parallel Axis Theorem
Moment of inertia about an axis parallel to that axis of center of mass
is given by Parallel axis theorem.

𝐼= 𝐼 + 𝐴𝑑2

Where ‘d’ is the distance between two axis (new and center of mass)
Solid Mechanics-I 17 Bending
Solid Mechanics-I 18 Bending
PROBLEM-5

Solid Mechanics-I 19 Bending

 PROBLEM-6
The beam is made from three boards nailed together as shown. If the
moment acting on the cross section is M = 600 Nm, determine the
maximum bending stress in the beam. Sketch a three-dimensional
view of the stress distribution acting over the cross section

Solid Mechanics-I 20 Bending

 PROBLEM-7
If the moment acting on cross section of the beam is M = 4 kip-ft,
determine the maximum bending stress in the beam. Sketch a three-
dimensional view of stress distribution acting over the cross section.
Solution

Solid Mechanics-I 21 Bending

 COMPOSITE BEAMS
• Beams that are made-up of more than one material are called
composite beams.
• Examples are reinforced concrete beam with steel rods, bimetallic
beams made of wood with steel straps at top and bottom etc.
• Flexure formulae was developed for homogenous beams, hence
cannot be applied directly to composite beams.
• Composite beams are designed to save material, reduce size and
weight.
• Consider a beam, made of two materials such that E1>E2. The beam
is transformed into a single material by ‘n’ (Transformation factor),
𝐸1
which is given by 𝑛 =
𝐸2
• Stress is transformed by σ = 𝑛𝜎

Solid Mechanics-I 22 Bending

 PROBLEM-8

Solid Mechanics-I 23 Bending

Solid Mechanics-I 24 Bending
Solid Mechanics-I 25 Bending
 Deflection of Beams
• The deformation of a beam is usually expressed in terms of its
deflection from its original unloaded position.
• The deflection is measured from the original neutral surface of the
beam to the neutral surface of the deformed beam.
• The configuration assumed by the deformed neutral surface is
known as the elastic curve of the beam.

Solid Mechanics-I 26 Bending

 Methods of Determining Beam Deflections
• Numerous methods are available for the determination of beam
deflections i.e. the Equation of Elastic Curve. These methods
include:
1. Double-integration method
2. Area-moment method
3. Strain-energy method (Castigliano's Theorem)
4. Conjugate-beam method
5. Method of superposition

Out of these methods, double integration and Area moment

methods are commonly used.

Solid Mechanics-I 27 Bending

 Double Integration Method
• The double integration method is a powerful tool in solving
deflection and slope of a beam at any point because we will be able
to get the equation of the elastic curve.
• In calculus, the radius of curvature of a curve y = f(x) is given by:
1 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2 3 2
𝜌=
𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2
• In the derivation of flexure formula, the radius of curvature of a
beam is given by:
𝐸𝐼
𝜌=
𝑀
• Deflection of beams is so small, such that the slope of the elastic
curve dy/dx is very small, and squaring this expression the value
becomes practically negligible, hence
1 1
𝜌= 2 2
= ′′
𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑦
Solid Mechanics-I 28 Bending
 Double Integration Method
𝐸𝐼 1
Thus, 𝜌= =
𝑀 𝑦 ′′
′′ 𝑀
𝑦 =
𝐸𝐼
• x and y are the coordinates of the elastic curve of the beam, y is the
deflection of the beam at any distance x.
• E is the modulus of elasticity of beam, I represent moment of inertia
about the neutral axis. The product EI is named as flexural rigidity.
• M represents the bending moment at a distance x from the end.
• The first integration y' yields the slope of the elastic curve and the
second integration y gives the deflection of the beam at any
distance x.
• The resulting solution must contain two constants that must be
evaluated from known conditions concerning the slope deflection at
certain points of the beam.
Solid Mechanics-I 29 Bending
 PROBLEM-9
The cantilever beam AB is of uniform cross-section and carries load
P at its free end A as shown in figure. Determine the equation of the
elastic curve and the deflection and slope at A.

Solution:

It can be seen that at fixed end B we have 𝑥 = 𝐿 and 𝜃 = 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0

1
Hence, above equation gives 𝐶1 = 𝑃𝐿2
2

Solid Mechanics-I 30 Bending

 Integration of above equation gives,

But at fixed end B we have 𝑥 = 𝐿 and 𝑦 = 0. Hence, above equation

1
gives 𝐶2 = − 𝑃𝐿3 . Replacing C1 and C2 in above equation, we get
3
equation of elastic curve.

The deflection and slope 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑

𝐴 𝑥 = 0 , gives

Solid Mechanics-I 31 Bending

 PROBLEM-10
The simply supported beam AB carries uniformly distributed load w
per unit length as shown in figure. Determine the equation of the
elastic curve and the maximum deflection of the beam.

Solution:

Integrating twice will give following equations:

Solid Mechanics-I 32 Bending

 Boundary Conditions
1) Observing at 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0 and at
𝑥 = 𝐿 , 𝑦 = 0 . Hence it gives
𝐶2 = 0
2) Also, at 𝑥 = 𝐿, and 𝑦 = 0 we get
1
𝐶1 = − 𝑤𝐿3
24
Replacing C1 and C2 in above equation, we get equation of elastic
curve.

𝐿
The maximum deflection will occur at 𝑥 = , gives
2

Solid Mechanics-I 33 Bending