ME 601TEGD Unit V - Nozzles Condensers

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES
Name of Faculty: Dr. Arun Wamankar,

Dr.Shankar Kumar,Prof.Aditya
Bhatt,Prof. Deenoo Pawar, Prof.
Manish Dubey
Designation: Asso. Prof.&Asst. Prof.
Department: Mechanical
Subject: TEGD (ME-601)
Unit: V
Topic:Nozzles & Condensers
ME-601 Thermal Engineering and Gas Dynamics
Unit 5-Steam Nozzles
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A nozzle is a flow passage of varying cross-sectional area in which the velocity of fluid
increases and pressure drops in the direction of flow. Thus, in nozzle the fluid enters the
variable cross section area duct with small velocity and high pressure and leaves it with high
velocity and small pressure. During flow through nozzle the enthalpy drops and heat drop in
expansion is spent in increasing the velocity of fluid. Similar to nozzle a duct with variable
cross-section area will be called diffuser if the fluid gets decelerated, causing a rise in
pressure along the direction of flow. Nozzles are generally used in turbines, jet engines,
rockets, injectors, ejectors etc.
Fig. 13.1 General arrangement in nozzle and diffuser
Here in this chapter the one-dimensional analysis of nozzle has been considered.
Different types of nozzles, thermodynamic analysis and different phenomenon in

nozzles are discussed ahead.
Momentum transfer across the control volume may be accounted for as,
[𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣] = 𝑚𝑚′𝐶𝐶
Newton’s law states that resultant force F acting on the control volume equals the
difference between the rates of momentum leaving and entering the control volume
accompanying mass flow.
Momentum equation says;
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚2, 𝐶𝐶2 – 𝑚𝑚1′ 𝐶𝐶1
,
Since at steady state, 𝑚𝑚2 = 𝑚𝑚1′ i.e. continuity equation being satisfied
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚′ (𝐶𝐶2 – 𝐶𝐶1 )
The resultant force F includes forces due to pressure acting at inlet and exit, forces acting on
the portion of the boundary through which there is no mass flow, and force due to gravity.
Nozzles
LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 1

1.2 ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY FLOW IN NOZZLES
Here one dimensional steady flow analysis in nozzle is carried out assuming the
change in cross-sectional area and axis to be gradual and thermodynamic properties being
uniform across planes normal to axis of duct. In general real flow through nozzle is not truly
one-dimensional but this assumption offers fairly correct analysis. Flow through nozzle
occurs at comparatively high velocities in many engineering applications and so exhibits
changes in fluid density. Therefore, it is necessary to first look at the compressible flow
preliminaries.
Compressible flow preliminaries: Let as consider compressible flow and obtain
momentum equation for one dimensional steady flow.
Fig. 1.2
The one dimensional steady flow through a duct is shown above. For control volume
shown the principle of conservation of mass, energy and Newton’s law of motion may be
applied.
By Newton’s law of motion, 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚 × 𝑎𝑎 where F is the resultant force acting on
system of mass ‘m’ and acceleration ‘a’.
Pressure waves and Sound waves: Let us consider a cylindrical duct having
piston on one end for generating the pressure wave. Figure 1.3 shows the arrangement for
producing a pressure wave moving to right with velocity ‘a’. Sound wave is also a small
pressure disturbance that propagates through a gas, liquid or solid with velocity ‘a’ that
depends on the properties of medium.

Fig. 1.3 Propagation of pressure wave (sound wave)
Figure 1.3 shows how the generation of pressure wave causes displacement of fluid
thereby causing rise in pressure, density and temperature by ∆𝑝𝑝, ∆𝜌𝜌 and ∆𝑇𝑇 in respect to the
region on the right of wave (undisturbed region). In the undisturbed region say pressure,
density, temperature and fluid velocity be 𝑝𝑝, 𝜌𝜌, 𝑇𝑇 and C = 0 respectively. Due to piston
movement fluid velocity increases by ∆𝐶𝐶 and other properties also change by elemental
values as shown. For analysing there are two approaches available as shown in Figs. 1.3 (a)
and (b). One approach considers observer to be stationary and gas moving and second
approach considers observer to be moving along with wave i.e. relative velocity of observer
with respect to wave is zero.
Respective values of fluid velocity, wave propagation velocity, pressure, density and
temperature are labelled on figure. For an observer at rest relative to wave (observer moving
with wave) it seems as if the fluid is moving towards the stationary wave from right with
velocity 𝑎𝑎, pressure p, density 𝜌𝜌 and temperature T and moves away on left with velocity
‘𝑎𝑎 – ∆𝐶𝐶’, pressure ‘𝑝𝑝 + ∆𝑝𝑝’, density ‘ 𝜌𝜌 + ∆𝜌𝜌’ and temperature ‘𝑇𝑇 + ∆𝑇𝑇’.
From conservation of mass, applying continuity equation upon control volume we get
𝑚𝑚1′ = 𝑚𝑚2′ = 𝑚𝑚′
𝜌𝜌. 𝐴𝐴. 𝑎𝑎 = (𝜌𝜌 + ∆𝜌𝜌). 𝐴𝐴(𝑎𝑎 – ∆𝐶𝐶)
where A is constant cross section area of duct.
𝜌𝜌. 𝐴𝐴. 𝑎𝑎 = (𝜌𝜌. 𝐴𝐴. 𝑎𝑎) − (𝜌𝜌. 𝐴𝐴. ∆𝐶𝐶) + (∆𝜌𝜌. 𝐴𝐴. 𝑎𝑎) − ∆𝜌𝜌. 𝐴𝐴. ∆𝐶𝐶
Upon neglecting higher order terms and rearranging we get,
(∆𝜌𝜌. 𝑎𝑎) − (𝜌𝜌. ∆𝐶𝐶) = 0
∆𝜌𝜌.𝑎𝑎
or, ∆𝐶𝐶 =
𝜌𝜌
Applying momentum equation to the control volume;
(𝑝𝑝. 𝐴𝐴) – {(𝑝𝑝 + ∆𝑝𝑝). 𝐴𝐴} = {𝑚𝑚′ (𝑎𝑎 – ∆𝐶𝐶)}– (𝑚𝑚′ . 𝑎𝑎)
– ∆𝑝𝑝 . 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑚𝑚′ . (– ∆𝐶𝐶)
for mass flow rate 𝑚𝑚′ we can write, 𝑚𝑚′ = 𝜌𝜌. 𝐴𝐴. 𝑎𝑎
so, ∆𝑝𝑝 . 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜌𝜌. 𝐴𝐴. 𝑎𝑎 . ∆𝐶𝐶
∆𝑝𝑝
or, ∆𝐶𝐶 =
𝜌𝜌.𝐴𝐴
Equating two values obtained for ‘∆𝐶𝐶’ we get

∆𝜌𝜌.𝑎𝑎 ∆𝑝𝑝
=
𝜌𝜌 𝜌𝜌.𝐴𝐴
∆𝑝𝑝
𝑎𝑎 = � ∆𝜌𝜌
Thus, velocity of wave propagation comes out as the square root of the ratio of change
in pressure and change in density.
In case of sound waves the magnitude of changes in pressure, density and temperature
are infinitesimal and so these may also be called as infinitesimal pressure wave. It is also seen
that thermodynamic process occurring across an infinitesimal pressure wave may be
considered nearly isentropic.
Therefore the velocity of sound can be given as square root of derivative of pressure
with respect to density across the wave under isentropic conditions.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑎𝑎 = �� 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 �
𝑠𝑠=𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
−𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
In terms of specific volume values; 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑣𝑣2
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑎𝑎 = �−𝑣𝑣2 � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 �
𝑠𝑠=𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Let us consider fluid to be a perfect gas following isentropic process given by 𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣 𝑘𝑘 =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐. Taking log of both sides and then partially differentiating we get,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 −𝑘𝑘.𝑝𝑝
�� =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑣𝑣
𝑠𝑠
Substituting in expression for sound velocity
𝑎𝑎 = �𝑘𝑘. 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
For ideal gas,
𝑎𝑎 = √𝑘𝑘 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 . In case of air, 𝑎𝑎 = �𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
Using the velocity of sound and fluid velocity a non dimensional parameter called
Mach number can be defined. Mach number is given by the ratio of velocity of fluid (object)
to the velocity of sound. It is generally denoted by M.
𝐶𝐶
𝑀𝑀 =
𝑎𝑎
Based upon Mach no. value flow can be classified as given below.
For
M < 1 flow is called subsonic flow.
M = 1 flow is called sonic flow.

M > 1 flow is called supersonic flow.
Nozzle flow analysis: Let us consider one dimensional steady flow in nozzles. Let us take a
varying cross-section area duct such that velocity increases and pressure decreases from inlet
to exit.
Fig. 1.4
From conservation of mass, upon applying continuity equation, it can be given that,
𝜌𝜌. 𝐴𝐴. 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Taking log of both the sides,
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝜌𝜌 + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝐶 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Differentiating partially we get,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ + =0
𝜌𝜌 𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶
Let us now apply steady flow energy equation assuming no change in potential energy, no
heat interaction and no work interaction during the flow across control volume.
S.F.E.E. yields, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑ℎ + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑(𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾) + 𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)
Applying assumptions,
𝑑𝑑ℎ + 𝑑𝑑(𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾) = 0
𝐶𝐶 2
It can be rewritten for section 1 and 2 as, 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 = 2
𝐶𝐶12 𝐶𝐶22
or ℎ1 + = ℎ2 +
2 2
ℎ𝑜𝑜1 = ℎ𝑜𝑜2
Stagnation enthalpy at section 1 = Stagnation enthalpy at section 2.
𝐶𝐶 2
From differential form, 𝑑𝑑ℎ + 𝑑𝑑 � � = 0
2
𝐶𝐶. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑ℎ + 2. =0
2
𝑑𝑑ℎ = −𝐶𝐶. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
From first and second law combined we know,

𝑑𝑑ℎ = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
Using the adiabatic flow considerations, ds = 0, so
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑ℎ = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 =
𝜌𝜌
Above shows that with increase or decrease in pressure along the direction of flow the
specific enthalpy also change in same way.
From thermodynamic property relations pressure can be given as function of density
and entropy i.e. 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝(𝜌𝜌, 𝑠𝑠).
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
or, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕� . 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � . 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑠𝑠 𝜌𝜌
For isentropic flow considerations
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕� . 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑠𝑠
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
We know from sound velocity 𝑎𝑎 = ��
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑠𝑠
so, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑎𝑎2 . 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Combining two expressions for dh we get
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
– 𝐶𝐶 . 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜌𝜌
. This shows that as pressure increases in direction of flow then velocity
must decrease. Substituting from 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 as obtained above, it yields,

𝑎𝑎2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
– 𝐶𝐶 . 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝜌𝜌
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Or − � 𝐶𝐶 � = 𝐶𝐶 2 � 𝜌𝜌 � ⟹ � 𝜌𝜌 � = − 𝑎𝑎2 � 𝐶𝐶 �
Substituting above in the equation available from continuity equation,

+ + =0
𝜌𝜌 𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶
Or 𝐴𝐴
=− 𝐶𝐶
− 𝜌𝜌
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶 2
= �� 2 � − 1�
𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶 𝑎𝑎
𝐶𝐶
As Mach no. 𝑀𝑀 =
𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
= {𝑀𝑀 − 1}
𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶
Using above relation the effect of area variation upon the flow can be seen in
subsonic, sonic and supersonic flow regimes.

Case 1
For subsonic flow i.e. M < 1
Nozzle: For positive velocity gradient i.e. velocity increases along the direction of flow as in
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
case of nozzle is +ve, it yields as – ve. Negative area gradient means cross section
𝐶𝐶 𝐴𝐴
area decreases along the direction of flow.
Fig. 1.5
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Diffuser: For negative velocity gradient i.e., 𝐶𝐶
is – 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 the velocity decreases along the
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
direction of flow as in case of diffuser, it yields 𝐴𝐴 as +ve. Positive area gradient means duct
has diverging cross section area along the direction of flow.
Case 2: For supersonic flow i.e. M > 1

Nozzle: For positive velocity gradient i.e. 𝐶𝐶
being + ve, it yields 𝐴𝐴 as + ve. It means that in
supersonic flow the nozzle duct shall have diverging cross-sectional area along the direction
of flow.
Fig. 1.6
Diffuser: For negative velocity gradient i.e. 𝐶𝐶
being – 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 it yields 𝐴𝐴 as – 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣. It means in
supersonic flow the diffuser duct shall have converging cross-sectional area along the
direction of flow.
From above discussion it can be concluded that
(i) Nozzle must be of convergent duct type in subsonic flow region and such nozzles
are called subsonic nozzles or convergent nozzles.

(ii) Nozzle must be of divergent duct type in supersonic flow region and such nozzles
are called supersonic nozzles or divergent nozzles.
(iii) For acceleration of fluid flow from subsonic to supersonic velocity the nozzle must
be first of converging type till flow becomes sonic and subsequently nozzle should
be of diverging type in supersonic flow. The portion of duct at which flow becomes
sonic (M = 1) and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is zero i.e. duct is constant cross-section area duct, is called
throat. Thus in this type of flow from subsonic to supersonic the duct is of
converging type followed by throat and a diverging duct. Such nozzles are also
called convergent-divergent nozzles. Throat gives the minimum cross-section area
in convergent-divergent nozzles.
Let us consider the expansion through a nozzle between sections 1 and 2. In nozzle
the velocity of fluid is so high that there is no time available for heat exchange with the
surroundings and the expansion may be considered adiabatic. Also the change in potential
energy may be negligible if the elevation does not change from inlet to exit. Work done
during flow is absent.
Application of steady flow energy equation yields,
𝐶𝐶12 𝐶𝐶22
ℎ1 + = ℎ2 +
2 2
Velocity at exit from nozzle:
𝐶𝐶2 = �2( ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) + 𝐶𝐶12 , m/s
For negligible velocity of fluid at inlet to nozzle, 𝐶𝐶1 = 0
𝐶𝐶2 = �2( ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) + , m/s, where ℎ1 and ℎ2 are enthalpy in J/kg at sections 1 and 2
respectively.
Expansion of fluid on 𝑝𝑝 − 𝑣𝑣 diagram is shown below.
Fig. 1.7 P-V diagram for flow through nozzle

Expansion of gases on T-s diagram is as shown in Fig. 1.8.
Fig. 1.8 T-s diagram for flow through nozzle
Expansion of steam on T-s and h-s diagram for superheated steam and wet steam is shown by
1–2 and 3–4 respectively under ideal conditions.
Fig. 1.9 T-s and h-s representation for steam flow through nozzle
In above representations the isentropic heat drop shown by 1–2 and 3–4 is also called
‘Rankine heat drop’.
Mass flow through a nozzle can be obtained from continuity equation between
sections 1 and 2.
𝐴𝐴1 𝐶𝐶1 𝐴𝐴2 𝐶𝐶2
𝑚𝑚′ = =
𝑣𝑣1 𝑣𝑣2
𝑚𝑚′ 𝐶𝐶2
Mass flow per unit area; =
𝐴𝐴2 𝑣𝑣2
From different from of S.F.E.E.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑ℎ + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑(𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸. ) + 𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃. 𝐸𝐸. )
or, 𝑑𝑑ℎ + 𝑑𝑑(𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸. ) = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑑𝑑(𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸. ) = 0
also as 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0,
so 𝑑𝑑(𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸. ) = – 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

𝐶𝐶22 −𝐶𝐶 21 𝑝𝑝
or = − ∫𝑝𝑝 2 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 1
For the expansion through a nozzle being governed by process 𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,
𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝 𝑣𝑣
𝐶𝐶22 − 𝐶𝐶 12 = 2 �𝑛𝑛−1� 𝑝𝑝1 𝑣𝑣1 �1 − 𝑝𝑝2𝑣𝑣2 �
1 1
or,
Velocity at exit from nozzle 𝐶𝐶2 = �2 �𝑛𝑛−1� 𝑝𝑝1 𝑣𝑣1 �1 − 𝑝𝑝2𝑣𝑣2 � + 𝐶𝐶 12
1 1
For negligible inlet velocity, say 𝐶𝐶1 = 0

Velocity at exit from nozzle
𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝2 𝑣𝑣2
𝐶𝐶2 = �2 � � 𝑝𝑝1 𝑣𝑣1 �1 − �
𝑛𝑛 − 1 𝑝𝑝1 𝑣𝑣1
If the working fluid is perfect gas then 𝑛𝑛 = 𝛾𝛾 and for air 𝛾𝛾 = 1.4. However, if
working fluid is steam a good approximation for 𝑛𝑛 can be obtained from some polytropic
considerations. For steam being dry saturated initially and process of expansion occurring in
wet region the index 𝑛𝑛 can be approximated as 1.135. For steam being initially superheated
and expanded in superheated region the index 𝑛𝑛 can be approximated as 1.3.
Looking at mathematical expression for exit velocity it could be concluded that
maximum exit velocity is possible only when fluid is expanded upto zero pressure. The
maximum velocity is,
𝑛𝑛
𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = �2 �𝑛𝑛−1� 𝑝𝑝1 𝑣𝑣1
Mass flow rate,

𝐴𝐴2 𝐶𝐶2
𝑚𝑚′ =
𝑣𝑣2
Mass flow rate per unit area,
𝑚𝑚 ′ �2 �𝑛𝑛 − 1� 𝑝𝑝1 𝑣𝑣1 �1 − 𝑝𝑝2 𝑣𝑣2 �
1 1
=
𝐴𝐴2 𝑣𝑣2
From expansion’s governing equation, 𝑝𝑝1 𝑣𝑣1𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝2 𝑣𝑣2𝑛𝑛
𝑝𝑝 1/𝑛𝑛
or, 𝑣𝑣2 = �𝑝𝑝1� . 𝑣𝑣1
2
�2�𝑛𝑛−1�𝑝𝑝1 𝑣𝑣1 �1−𝑝𝑝2 𝑣𝑣2 �
𝑚𝑚′ 1 1
= 𝑝𝑝 1/𝑛𝑛
𝐴𝐴2 � 1� 𝑣𝑣1
𝑝𝑝2

This expression for mass flow rate through nozzle depends upon inlet and exit
pressures, initial specific volume and index of expansion. It has been seen earlier that the
mass flow per unit area is maximum at throat and nozzle should be designed for maximum
discharge per unit area. Thus there will be some value of throat pressure (𝑝𝑝2 ) which offers
maximum discharge per unit area. Mathematically this pressure value can be obtained by
differentiating expression for mass flow per unit area and equating it to zero. This pressure at
throat for maximum discharge per unit area is also called ‘critical pressure’ and pressure ratio
with inlet pressure is called ‘critical pressure ratio’.
𝑝𝑝2
Let pressure ratio = 𝑟𝑟, then mass flow per unit area can be re-written as;
𝑝𝑝1
𝑛𝑛+1 1/2
𝑚𝑚′ 𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝
= �2 �𝑛𝑛−1� 𝑣𝑣1 �𝑟𝑟 2/𝑛𝑛 − 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 ��
𝐴𝐴2 1
𝑚𝑚′ 1/2
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝 𝑛𝑛+1
𝐴𝐴2
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �2 �𝑛𝑛−1� 𝑣𝑣1 �𝑟𝑟 2/𝑛𝑛 − 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 ��
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
Here 𝑝𝑝1 , 𝑣𝑣1 are inlet conditions and remain constant. Also n being index of expansion
remains constant so differentiating and putting equal to zero.
2−𝑛𝑛
2 𝑛𝑛+1
𝑛𝑛
. 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 −� 𝑛𝑛
� . 𝑟𝑟 1/𝑛𝑛 = 0
2−𝑛𝑛
2 𝑛𝑛+1
Or 𝑛𝑛
. 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 =� 𝑛𝑛
� . 𝑟𝑟 1/𝑛𝑛
1−𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛+1
𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 =� 2
�
or, Critical pressure ratio,

1−𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛
𝑟𝑟 = � 2
�
Let critical pressure at throat be given by 𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐 or 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 then,

1−𝑛𝑛 1−𝑛𝑛
𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐 𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛
=� � ⟹ =� �
𝑝𝑝1 2 𝑝𝑝1 2
Here subscript ‘c’ and‘t’ refers to critical and throat respectively.

While designing a nozzle the critical pressure ratio at throat is equal to the one obtained
above.
Critical pressure ratio value depends only upon expansion index and so shall have constant
value. Value of adiabatic expansion index and critical pressure ratio are tabulated ahead;

Table 1.1: Adiabatic expansion index and critical pressure ratio for selected fluids
Critical pressure ratio
𝒏𝒏
Fluid Adiabatic expansion index, n 𝒑𝒑𝒄𝒄 𝟐𝟐 𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏
=� �
𝒑𝒑𝟏𝟏 𝒏𝒏 + 𝟏𝟏
Wet steam 1.135 (𝑛𝑛 = 1.035 + 0.1𝑥𝑥, where x is 0.577

dryness fraction of wet steam)
Superheated steam 1.3 0.545
Air 1.4 0.528
The maximum discharge per unit area can be obtained by substituting critical pressure
ratio in expression for mass flow per unit area at throat section.
2 𝑛𝑛+1
𝑚𝑚′ 𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝1 2 𝑛𝑛−1 2 𝑛𝑛−1
= ��2. � � . �� −� � ��
𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛 − 1 𝑣𝑣1 𝑛𝑛 + 1 𝑛𝑛 + 1
𝑛𝑛+1 1/2
𝑚𝑚′ 2𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝1 2 𝑛𝑛−1 𝑛𝑛 + 1
= �� . .� � � − 1��
𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛 − 1 𝑣𝑣1 𝑛𝑛 + 1 2
𝑛𝑛+1 1/2
𝑚𝑚′ 𝑝𝑝1 2 𝑛𝑛−1
= �𝑛𝑛. . � � �
𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣1 𝑛𝑛 + 1
𝑛𝑛+1
𝑝𝑝1 2 𝑛𝑛−1
Maximum discharge per unit area = ��𝑛𝑛. 𝑣𝑣 . �𝑛𝑛+1� �
1
For this maximum discharge per unit area at throat the velocity at throat can be
obtained for critical pressure ratio. This velocity may also be termed as ‘critical velocity’.
n
𝐶𝐶2 = �2 �n−1� (𝑝𝑝1 𝑣𝑣1 − 𝑝𝑝2 𝑣𝑣2 )
n 𝑝𝑝 𝑣𝑣
At throat 𝐶𝐶t = �2 �n−1� 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡 � 𝑝𝑝1𝑣𝑣1 − 1�
𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
1−n
n 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 n
𝐶𝐶t = �2 �n−1� 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡 ��𝑝𝑝 � − 1�
1
𝑝𝑝
Substituting critical pressure ratio �𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 �
1
n n+1
𝐶𝐶t = �2 �n−1� 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡 �� 2
� − 1�
𝐶𝐶t = �𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡 Hence, critical velocity = �𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡
For perfect gas; 𝐶𝐶t = �𝑛𝑛 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡

For 𝑛𝑛 = 𝛾𝛾, 𝐶𝐶t = �𝛾𝛾. 𝑅𝑅. 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 = a = Velocity of sound.

Thus it can be concluded that for maximum discharge per unit area at throat the fluid
velocity (critical velocity) equals to the sonic velocity. At the throat section mach no. M = 1
for critical pressure ratio.
For perfect gas:
All the above equations obtained for the flow through nozzle can also be obtained for
perfect gas by substituting 𝑛𝑛 = 𝛾𝛾 and 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Velocity at exit from nozzles
γ
𝐶𝐶2 = �2 �γ−1� (𝑝𝑝1 𝑣𝑣1 − 𝑝𝑝2 𝑣𝑣2 )
γ
𝐶𝐶2 = �2 �γ−1� R(𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇2 )
γR
𝐶𝐶2 = �2 Cp (𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇2 ) Since Cp = γ−1
𝐶𝐶2 = �2 (ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
Critical velocity at throat, 𝐶𝐶t = �𝛾𝛾. 𝑅𝑅. 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡

Mass flow rate per unit area,
𝑛𝑛+1 1/2
𝑚𝑚′ 𝛾𝛾 𝑝𝑝1 𝑝𝑝2 2/𝛾𝛾 𝑝𝑝2 𝑛𝑛
= �2 �𝛾𝛾−1� 𝑣𝑣 ��𝑝𝑝 � − �𝑝𝑝 � ��
𝐴𝐴2 1 1 1
Maximum discharge per unit area at throat for critical conditions,

𝛾𝛾+1 1/2
𝑚𝑚′ 𝑝𝑝1 2 𝛾𝛾−1
𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡
= �𝛾𝛾. 𝑣𝑣 . � � �
1 𝛾𝛾+1
Critical pressure ratio,

𝛾𝛾
𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐 2 𝛾𝛾−1
= �𝛾𝛾+1�
𝑝𝑝1
1.3 CHOKED FLOW

Let us consider a converging nozzle as shown in Fig. 1.10 with arrangement for
varying back pressure. A valve is provided at exit of nozzle for regulating the back pressure
at section 2-2. Let us denote back pressure by 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏 . Expansion occurs in nozzle from pressure
𝑝𝑝1 to 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏 .
Initially when back pressure 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏 is equal to 𝑝𝑝1 there shall be no flow through the
nozzle but as back pressure 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏 is reduced the mass flow through nozzle increases. With the
reduction in back pressure a situation comes when pressure ratio equals to critical pressure
ratio (back pressure attains critical pressure value) then mass flow through nozzle is found

maximum. Further reduction in back pressure beyond critical pressure value does not affect
the mass flow i.e. mass flow rate does not increase beyond its’ limiting value at critical
pressure ratio. Thus under these situations flow is said to be choked flow or critical flow.
Fig. 1.10 Flow through a convergent nozzle

A nozzle operating with maximum mass flow rate condition is called choked flow
nozzle. At the critical pressure ratio the velocity at exit is equal to the velocity of sound. If the
back pressure is reduced below critical pressure then too the mass flow remains at maximum
value and exit pressure remains as critical pressure and the fluid leaving nozzle at critical
pressure expands violently down to the reduced back pressure value. Graphical representation
of mass flow rate with pressure ratio and variation of pressure along length of nozzle explain
the above phenomenon. State a refers to the state having back pressure more than critical
pressure, state c refers to the state having back pressure equal to critical pressure and state d
refers to state having back pressure less than critical pressure.
In case of convergent-divergent nozzle also the maximum mass flow through such
nozzle shall be obtained when pressure ratio at throat section equals critical pressure ratio and
velocity at throat equals sonic velocity. The cross-sectional area of throat decides the mass
flow through nozzle for given inlet conditions.

1.4 OFF DESIGN OPERATION OF NOZZLE
Design operation of nozzle refers to the nozzle operating with pressure ratio equal to critical
pressure ratio and maximum discharge rate per unit area then nozzle is said to be operating
under design conditions. If the nozzle does not operate under design conditions then it is
called off design operation of nozzle. Depending upon the back pressure value in reference to
design value of pressure at exit of nozzle, the nozzle can be classified as under-expanding,
over-expanding nozzles.
Fig. 1.11 Off design operation of converging nozzle
Nozzle is called under-expanding if the back pressure of nozzle is below the designed value
of pressure at exit of nozzle. Nozzle is called over expanding if the back pressure of a nozzle
is above designed value of pressure at exit of nozzle. Detail discussion about the off design
operation of nozzle is given ahead for convergent and convergent-divergent nozzle.
Convergent nozzle: Let us look at convergent nozzle having arrangement for varying back
pressure. Fluid enters the nozzle at state 1, say pressure 𝑝𝑝1 . Variation of back pressure using
value at exit of nozzle shows the pressure and velocity variation as shown in Fig. 1.11.
Following significant operating states are shown here.

(i) When back pressure 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏 = 𝑝𝑝1, there is no flow.
(ii) When back pressure is such that back pressure is more than critical pressure i.e. pc <
𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏 < 𝑝𝑝1 , there is flow through nozzle. Here 𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐 is critical pressure at exit. This
operating state of nozzle having back pressure higher than critical pressure is called
over expanding nozzle. In this over expanding nozzle the mass flow rate through
nozzle is less than designed value.
(iii) When back pressure is such that back pressure is equal to critical pressure i.e. 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏 =
𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐 . In this situation the mass flow through nozzle is maximum and nozzle is said to
be choked.
(iv) When back pressure is further lowered such that back pressure is less than critical
pressure i.e. 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏 < 𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐 , the nozzle is said to be under expanding nozzle. In under-
expanding nozzle there is no change in specific volume, velocity and mass flow rate
through exit as that at choked flow state of nozzle. Since back pressure at exit is less
than critical pressure while fluid leaves nozzle at critical pressure so fluid expands
violently and irreversibly upto backpressure outside the nozzle.
Fig. 1.12 Off design operation of convergent-divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent nozzle: Converging-diverging nozzles are generally used for
accelerating flow up to supersonic velocity. Arrangement for varying back pressure is as
shown in Fig. 1.12.
Different operating regime of nozzle is obtained by varying back pressure using valve at exit.
Let us start with back pressure equal to inlet pressure. Following operating states are shown
here;
(i) When back pressure 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏 is equal to inlet pressure 𝑝𝑝1 then there is no flow as shown
by state e on pressure-nozzle length plot.
(ii) When back pressure is reduced and is slightly below 𝑝𝑝1 , then there is some flow
through nozzle shown by state f. The maximum velocity and minimum pressure
occurs at throat section. With further reduction in back pressure from e to h, the flow
rate increases. Flow remains subsonic for back pressure between e to h. In subsonic
region the diverging portion of nozzle acts as diffuser, thereby increasing pressure
and decreasing velocity in the direction of flow. In this regime the convergent-
divergent nozzle is also used as venture-meter for flow rate measurement. Nozzle is
said to be over expanding nozzle.
(iii) With further reduction in back pressure the throat pressure decreases and the throat
velocity increases. Back pressure at which throat velocity becomes sonic and throat
pressure equals to critical pressure 𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐 is shown by state h. Here maximum velocity
occurs at throat so the diverging portion of nozzle still acts as diffuser. Mass flow
rate through nozzle has become maximum as the sonic flow conditions are obtained
at throat. Thus it can be seen that flow through converging duct with subsonic
velocity at inlet can never result in the velocity higher than sonic velocity and
pressure less than critical pressure. This is choked flow state of nozzle.
(iv) Further lowering of back pressure less than critical pressure causes no effect on the
flow in converging portion of nozzle and the pressure at throat remains equal to
critical pressure and velocity at throat remains sonic. Also the flow rate through
nozzle does not change. However, the nature of flow in diverging section of the duct
changes as the breakage of flow occurs.
As pressure is reduced to i and j the fluid passing through the throat continues to
expand and accelerate in diverging portion of nozzle. Flow velocity beyond throat is
supersonic in diverging portion of nozzle. At the section downstream of throat there occurs

discontinuity in the flow due to abrupt irreversible increase in pressure accompanied by
deceleration from supersonic to subsonic velocity. This discontinuity in flow is called shock
and generally plane of discontinuity is normal to direction of flow so it may also be called
normal shock. Flow through shock is of irreversible and steady adiabatic type. Beyond shock
the fluid undergoes further isentropic deceleration as diverging section acts as a subsonic
diffuser.
With further reduction in back pressure 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏 the shock moves downstream till it
approaches nozzle exit plane and 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏 approaches the pressure given by state k. For the back
pressure equal to pressure given by point k i.e. 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 the normal shock reaches at exit end of
nozzle. Here flow within nozzle is isentropic, subsonic in converging portion, sonic at throat
and supersonic in diverging portion. Due to shock the flow leaving nozzle becomes subsonic.
These are all over expanding states of nozzle.
When back pressure is further lowered and back pressure becomes equal to exit plane
pressure as at state l i.e. 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏 = 𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙 , the isentropic expansion occurs throughout nozzle and no
shock is found during flow. Fluid leaving nozzle is supersonic.
(v) Further lowering of back pressure below 𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙 flow remains same as for pressure upto
point j, but the back pressure being less than design pressure causes breaking of flow
at downstream of nozzle exit. An abrupt expansion of irreversible type occurs at
nozzle exit.
Irrespective of reduced back pressure the pressure at nozzle exit does not go below design
pressure 𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙 and mass flow rate and exit velocity also do not change. This operating state of
nozzle is also called under expanding nozzle.
1.5 EFFECT OF FRICTION ON NOZZLE

In spite of the inside surface of nozzle being smooth the frictional losses always
prevail due to friction between fluid and nozzle surface and friction within fluid itself. Due to
friction prevailing during fluid flow through nozzle the expansion process through nozzle
becomes irreversible. Expansion process since occurs at quite fast rate and time available is
very less for heat transfer to take place so it can be approximated as adiabatic.
Frictions prevailing during flow through nozzle causes heat drop by about 10–15%
and reduces the exit velocity. For the flowing fluid to be gas the T-S diagram representation
is as follows:

Fig. 1.13 T-s representation for expansion through nozzle

Non ideal operation of nozzle causes reduction in enthalpy drop. This inefficiency in
nozzle can be accounted for by nozzle efficiency. Nozzle efficiency is defined as ratio of
actual heat drop to ideal heat drop. Nozzle efficiency,
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜂𝜂𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 =
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝐷𝐷𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
ℎ1 − ℎ2′
ℎ1 − ℎ2
𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇2′
ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑇2
In case of working fluid being steam the friction causes heating of steam flowing
through nozzle thereby increasing dryness fraction. The volume of steam at exit also
increases due to increase in dryness fraction. T–s and h-s representation of steam expanding
through nozzle is given in Fig. 1.14.
Fig. 1.14 T-s and h-s representation for steam expanding through nozzle
Due to friction the velocity at exit from nozzle gets modified by nozzle efficiency as given
below.
Velocity at exit, 𝐶𝐶2 = �2 (ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) + 𝐶𝐶12 , for no friction

In case of nozzle with friction the enthalpy drop, (ℎ1 − ℎ2′ ) gives velocity at exit as,
𝐶𝐶2′ = �2 (ℎ1 − ℎ2′ ) + 𝐶𝐶12
𝐶𝐶22 −𝐶𝐶12
or, (ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) =
2
𝐶𝐶22′ − 𝐶𝐶12
�ℎ1 − ℎ2′ � =
2
Substituting in nozzle efficiency,
𝐶𝐶 2′ −𝐶𝐶12
𝜂𝜂𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 2
𝐶𝐶22 −𝐶𝐶12
For negligible inlet velocity i.e., 𝐶𝐶1 ≈ 0

𝐶𝐶 2′
Nozzle efficiency, 𝜂𝜂𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 2
𝐶𝐶22
Thus it could be seen that friction loss will be high with higher velocity of fluid.
Generally frictional losses are found to be more in the downstream after throat in convergent-
divergent nozzle because of simple fact that velocity in converging section upto throat is
smaller as compared to after throat. Expansion upto throat may be considered isentropic due
to small frictional losses. Apart from velocity considerations the significantly high frictional
loss in diverging portion of nozzle compared to converging portion can be attributed to the
contact surface area. Length of converging section upto throat is quite small compared to
length of diverging portion after throat as it has subsonic acceleration which can be
completed in short length. Diverging section of nozzle is designed comparatively longer than
converging section so as to avoid flow separation due to adverse duct geometry (diverging
type). Turbulence losses are also significant in diverging portion compared to converging
portion. Due to the different factors discussed above the frictional losses are found to be more
in diverging portion compared to converging portion.
Normally angle of divergence in divergent portion is kept between 100 and 250 so as
to avoid flow separation. But small divergence angle causes increase in length of diverging
portion therefore increasing frictional losses. Thus a compromise should be striked in
selecting angle of divergence as very small angle is desirable from flow separation point of
view but undesirable due to long length and larger frictional losses point of view. Length of
diverging portion of nozzle can be empirically obtained as below
𝐿𝐿 = �15 ⋅ 𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡
where 𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡 is cross-sectional area at throat.

While designing the nozzle parameters due care should be taken for smoothness of
nozzle profile, surface finish for minimum friction and ease of manufacturing etc. Thus
finally, it can be concluded that nozzle efficiency depends upon nozzle material, size and
shape of nozzle, angle of divergence, nature of fluid flowing and its properties etc.
Coefficient of velocity: The ‘coefficient of velocity’ or the ‘velocity coefficient’ can be

given by the ratio of actual velocity at exit and the isentropic velocity at exit. Thus it
measures the amount of deviation from ideal flow conditions. Mathematically,
𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 =
𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
Coefficient of discharge: The ‘coefficient of discharge’ or ‘discharge coefficient’ is given by
the ratio of actual discharge and the discharge during isentropic flow through nozzle.
Mathematically,
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
Here m refers to discharge rate.
1.6 SUPERSATURATION PHENOMENON IN STEAM NOZZLES

The phenomenon of supersaturation in steam nozzles is also called as supersaturated
flow or metastable flow in steam nozzle. When superheated steam flows through a nozzle and
expands upto the back pressure such that exit state of steam lies in wet region, then during
expansion steam vapours expand isentropically and slowly get condensed up to exit state.
During such expansion steam also passes across saturated steam line or saturation line having
unity dryness fraction. Thus it is obvious that expansion of steam is accompanied by
simultaneous state change from superheated state to wet state. At every point along expansion
line there exist a mixture of vapour and liquid in equilibrium. An expansion process starting
at 1 goes up to state 2 in thermal equilibrium as shown on T-S and h-s diagram.
Fig. 1.15 Expansion of steam on T-s and h-s diagram under equilibrium

Superheated steam undergoes continuous change in state and becomes dry saturated
steam at state 3 and subsequently wet steam leaving steam turbine at state 2. Sometimes
expansion of steam occurs in metastable equilibrium or in equilibrium in which change of
steam state could not maintain its pace with expanding steam. This phenomenon in which
change of steam state could not occur simultaneously with expanding steam in nozzle is
called phenomenon of supersaturation and flow is called supersaturated flow or metastable
flow.
Fig. 1.16 Metastable flow through steam nozzle

In supersaturated flow the condensation of steam lags behind the expansion and so steam
does not condense at the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure. It may be
understood as the shift in state 2 from 2 to 2’ i.e. condensation gets extended up to 2’. The
dry saturated steam state which should be attained at state 3 cannot be realized at 3, but below
3 on vertical expansion line 1–2’. This delayed phase transformation of steam causing
supersaturation phenomenon may be attributed to the following.
(i) Steam flow through nozzle may be so fast that sufficient time is not available for heat
transfer to take place and so the phase change lags behind the expansion. Generally
time available may be of the order of 10–2 second for steam to flow through nozzle
along with its condensation.
(ii) Also the condensation of steam may have inherent requirement of nuclei of
condensation which act as initiators for condensation. These nuclei of condensation
may be provided by foreign particles, solid boundary etc. In the absence of nuclei of
condensation the phase change of steam may get delayed and lags behind.
These could be the factors responsible for supersaturation. Phenomenon of

supersaturation or metastable equilibrium continues up to generally 94–95% dryness fraction.
Beyond this the condensation of steam occurs suddenly at very fast rate irreversibly and the

expansion process attains stable equilibrium. The locci of points up to which metastable
equilibrium is observed is called Wilson line.
Law of expansion for supersaturated flow is considered as 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 1.3 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.

Phenomenon of supersaturation causes increase in discharge by 2–5% because of increase in
density at throat and also the heat drop gets slightly reduced thereby causing reduced velocity
at exit.
Supersaturation causes slight increase in dryness fraction and entropy.
Figure 1.17 shows the supersaturated flow and Wilson line.
Fig. 1.17 Supersaturated flow on T-s and h-s diagram.
Region between saturation line and Wilson line is called supersaturated field. Here 1–
2’ line shows isentropic process. In the absence of supersaturated flow expansion occurs as
1–2 while with metastable flow it gets extended up to 1–2’ as shown on T–s diagram. Meta
stable equilibrium gets settled and stable equilibrium is attained as shown by 2’–2” and then
normal expansion in stable equilibrium continues from 2” to 3.
Thus it is obvious that in supersaturated flow the expansion occurs as if there is no

saturated steam line and state 2’ lies on the extended constant pressure line.
The temperature at 2’ is less than saturation pressure corresponding to p2 due to excess
kinetic energy of steam at the cost of sensible heat.
Metastable flow is characterized by a parameter called “degree of supersaturation”

and “degree of undercooling”. ‘Degree of supersaturation’ refers to the ratio of saturation
pressures corresponding to temperatures of states in stable equilibrium and metastable
equilibrium (i.e. saturation pressures corresponding to 2 and 2’ states). Degree of super
saturation has value more than unity. ‘Degree of undercooling’ refers to the difference of two

temperatures i.e. saturation temperature at state in stable equilibrium and temperature of the
state in unstable equilibrium.
1.7 STEAM INJECTOR

Steam injector refers to the device for injecting water into boiler using steam which
may be available from boiler or exhaust steam from engine.
Fig. 1.18 Steam injector

Schematic for steam injector is shown in Fig. 1.18. Here high pressure steam enters a
converging steam nozzle and leaves with high velocity and low pressure. Water gets
entrained from feed tank and is carried by steam through combining nozzle. In due course
steam gets condensed and the resulting mixture enters the divergent feed water nozzle where
kinetic energy of water gets transformed into pressure head. Pressure head available in feed
water nozzle is sufficiently above boiler pressure so that water can be fed to the boiler.
Surplus water, if any gets discharged from over flow. The steam injector works on its own. It
may be noted that the potential energy removed from live steam is many times more than the
potential energy returned.
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 × 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠.
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 × 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
Difference in the potential energy exists due to large decrease in volume as steam condenses
and this difference is only used for pumping water.

Unit 5 Steam Condensers
5A.1 INTRODUCTION
Condenser is one of the essential components of steam power plants as it
facilitates condensation of steam at given conditions with minimum expenditure of
energy and minimum loss of heat and finally gives condensate which can be
recirculated by feed pump to boiler for steam generation. Condenser generally
operates at pressure less than atmospheric pressure. In the steam power plant the
use of condenser permits expansion in steam turbine even up to less than
atmospheric pressure and subsequently condensing steam to yield condensate for
recirculation thus improving plant efficiency and output. Expansion in steam
turbine/engine cannot be extended to pressures less than atmospheric in the
absence of condenser.
“Condenser can be defined as device used for condensation of steam at

constant pressure; generally pressure is less than atmospheric pressure”.
Condenser is thus a closed vessel which is generally maintained at vacuum and cold
fluid is circulated for picking heat from steam to cause its condensation. Use of
Condenser offers advantages such as hotter feed water for being sent to boiler’,
‘removal of air and non condensable dissolved gases from feed water’, ‘recovery of
condensate reduces treated water requirement’, ‘expansion up to sub atmospheric
conditions and capital cost is reduced by recycling of feed water’ etc. Increase in
expansion work due to use of condenser is shown in Fig. 5A.1 on p-V diagram.
Fig. 5A.1 p-V diagram showing how condenser increases work output in steam
engine

Steam power plant employing condenser and the condensing plant are shown
in Fig. 5A.2.
Fig. 5A.2 Schematic for steam power plant having condensing plant
Discharge from steam turbine passes into condenser where it is condensed

using cooling water being circulated employing coolant pump. Condensate being at
pressure less than atmospheric pressure is to be sucked out using condensate
extraction pump. Condensate is extracted and sent to hot well from where it is
pumped to boiler using feed pump. Dissolved gases and air etc. if any are extracted
out from condenser using air extraction pump. This air or vapour may be present
because of air leaking into vacuum system and air coming with steam. Cooling water
for supply to condenser is taken either from some river or from cooling tower.
Cooling water requirement may be up to 100 kg water per kg of steam or even more
depending upon the type of condenser and its capacity. Cooling tower cools the hot
cooling water leaving condenser to get cooled by evaporation of water and heat
exchange with air.
Water evaporated or lost in cooling tower is compensated by the makeup

treated water available from feed water treatment plant.

5A.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CONDENSER
Condenser can be broadly classified on the basis of type of heat exchange
i.e. direct or indirect contact condensers.
(i) Direct contact type or mixing type or Jet condenser
(ii) Indirect contact type or Non-mixing type or Surface condenser
(iii) Evaporative condenser
Jet condensers have direct contact between steam and cooling fluid thereby
causing contamination of condensate. Surface condensers have indirect heat
exchange through metal interface and the two fluids do not come in direct contact to
each other. An evaporative condenser use evaporation of water for heat extraction
and is well suited for dry weather so that evaporation is not difficult. Due to direct
contact of two fluids the circulating water requirement is much less in jet condenser
as compared to other types of condensers. Space requirement and size of
condenser etc. are also less with jet condensers.
Surface condenser is advantageous over direct contact type condensers

because any type of cooling fluid can be used in it and also there is no scope of
contamination etc. Different types of condensers are discussed ahead.
(i) Jet condenser: In jet condenser the steam to be condensed and cooling water are
intimately mixed by breaking up of water in the form of spray and allowing small
sized water particles to fall down through the body of steam. The water may also be
discharged out through suitably shaped nozzles into body of steam. Thus it is
desired to atomize water into small sized particles so that increased surface area is
available for heat exchange between hot and cold fluid. Number of arrangements for
flow of steam and water are available such as; counter flow type having steam
entering from bottom and flowing upwards while water enters from top and falls
downwards with air pump connected on top where air is colder etc. Jet condenser
may be further classified based on relative movement of two fluids, and based on
arrangement used for removal of condensate.
Based on relative moment of two fluids jet condenser can be,

(a) Counter flow jet condenser
(b) Parallel flow jet condenser
Based on arrangement for removal of condensate jet condenser can be,
(a) Low level jet condenser

(b) High level jet condenser
(c) Ejector condenser
Fig. 5A.3 Schematic of low level jet condenser
(a) Low level jet condenser: Low level jet condenser is the one which is placed at
low level such that vacuum inside condenser draws cooling water into condenser
from river/pond/cooling tower.
Difference between atmospheric pressure (at which cooling water is available)
and condenser pressure causes flow of cooling water from cooling water reservoir to
condenser i.e. (𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 – 𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ). Flow of steam and cooling water could be parallel flow
or counter flow type. Counter flow type and parallel flow type low level jet
condensers are shown in Fig. 5A.3. There is provision for extraction of air and
dissolved gases from top of condenser by using air extraction pump. Condensate
extraction pump is used for taking out condensate from condenser and sending it to
hot well.
Cooling water supplied to jet condenser has generally a large percentage of
dissolved air which gets liberated due to atomization of water, vacuum and heating

of water and is extracted out. Low level jet condenser suffers from inherent drawback
that in the event of failure of condensate extraction pump condenser shall be flooded
with cooling water.
(b) High level jet condenser: High level jet condenser is the one which is placed at a
height more than that of water and water is to be injected into condenser using a
pump and the condensate will flow out of condenser because of gravity. Here no
condensate extraction pump is required; instead pump is required for pumping water
up to condenser inlet. High level jet condenser is also called as ‘barometric
condenser’. High level jet condenser is placed at suitable height depending upon
efficient drainage and capacity of sump (hot well) into which tail pipe of condenser
discharges out. Mathematically, it could be said that jet condenser placed above
hotwell by 10.36 m shall be high level jet condenser or barometric condenser. High
level jet condenser may also be of counter flow type or parallel flow type depending
upon the direction of flow of steam and cooling water. Figure 5A.4 shows counter
flow high level jet condenser.
High level jet condenser do not pose problem of flooding of condenser in the
event of failure of pump as it is in case of low level jet condensers. But high level jet
condensers are costlier than low level jet condenser. Also there is loss of vacuum
between turbine and condenser in case of high level jet condenser.

Fig. 5A.4 Schematic of high level condenser
Fig. 5A.5 Ejector condenser

Ejector condenser: Ejector condenser has water jet discharging through the series of
guide cones which guide steam on to the surface of water jet. Discharge of water
through these convergent nozzles causes partial vacuum due to conversion of
potential energy into kinetic energy. Subsequently water jet enters the diffuser nozzle
where kinetic energy is converted into the pressure head and water is discharged
against the vacuum pull. Ejector condensers are well suited for moderate vacuum
only.
Steam is injected in condenser with non return valve in between and is
condensed by the mixing with cooling water. Condensation of steam further
increases vacuum.
Ejector condenser does not require air pump because of air entraining effect
of water jet itself. Here condensing jet has number of nozzles arranged
concentrically and have their axis inclined at such an angle that water jet assumes
the form of inverted cone. Around the water jet the guide cones are arranged with
increasing area from bottom to top. Water will be colder in upper part of condensing
cone as compared to lower down. The temperature difference between steam and
water at top will be greater than at lower end and so the condensation is greatest at
top and gradually diminishes to zero at bottom.
In case of failure of cooling water supply water may be sucked from hot well to
go into steam pipe, but this is prevented by non-return valve in steam supply line.
(ii) Non mixing type or surface condensers: Surface condensers are the most
common types of condenser and offer great advantage in terms of no contamination
of feed water. In these condensers the steam to be condensed and cooling fluid
(water) do not come in contact with one another, instead the heat transfer occurs
between two fluids through surface in between. Generally, cooling water flows
through the pipes/tubes and steam surrounds them. These condensers are preferred
in the locations where large quantity of poor quality cooling fluid (impure water) is
available and condensate is to be re-circulated. Surface condensers can be
classified based on number of passes of condenser i.e. single pass or multipass.
Number of times the cooling water crosses any transverse section is called a pass.
Surface condensers may be of ‘down flow type’ or ‘central flow type’ depending on
the type of flow of condensate and tube arrangement. Typical surface condenser

having two passes, down flow type and central flow type arrangement are shown in
Fig. 5A.6.
Fig. 5A.6 Surface condenser
Two pass surface condensers has cooling water entering from one end and
coming out after twice traversing through the tubes (generally, brass) containing
water and surrounded by steam to be condensed. Condensate gets collected at
bottom and is subsequently sucked by condensate extraction pump. Steam is
admitted from the top. Cooling water may be picked directly from river/pond/cooling

tower. For extraction of air the provision is made for air pump. Thus, this type of
condenser has three pumps i.e. one for circulating cooling water, second for
condensate extraction and third for air extraction.
In surface condenser the space occupied by tubes in shell is about 10% of

shell volume. Steam is not passed through the tubes because at this steam pressure
the specific volume of steam is large requiring large number of tubes.
Down flow condenser has steam and air entering from top and flowing downwards
across the bundle of tubes having cooling water flowing through them. Air is
extracted from bottom and before being handled by air pump it is flown through air
cooler so as to reduce the temperature of air. Low temperature of air enhances the
air handling capacity of pump. With the flow of steam down and simultaneous heat
exchange the condensate is taken out by condensate extraction pump.
Central flow condenser has air cooling section in the centre of condenser.
Steam enters from top and passes over the tube banks of similar type as in case of
down flow condenser. As air is being sucked from centre so the flow of steam is
radially inwards towards the centre. During this flow steam passes over tubes.
Condensate is collected from bottom. In this type of condenser there is better contact
between steam and tubes because of radial flow of steam in whole of condenser,
thus arrangement is better as compared to down flow condenser.
In different designs of condenser it is always attempted to have maximum

heat transfer between two fluids. Also air extraction should be done effectively.
Thus designer of condenser should keep following things in consideration for making
a better design surface condenser.
(i) Steam should be uniformly distributed over cooling water tubes. i.e.
cooling surface.
(ii) Distribution of steam should be such that there is minimum pressure loss.
(iii) Number of tubes should be minimum. Water must be flown inside tubes
and steam should surround them.
(iv) Tubes should be cleaned from inside and outside both. Although on
external surface the steam surrounding tubes prevents deposition. For
internal cleaning of tubes mechanical or chemical means of cleaning be
used at frequent intervals.

(v) Leakage of air into condenser (due to vacuum) should be prevented as it
reduces the work output. Also this reduces the heat transfer rate. Even if
there is leakage of air, arrangement should be made for quick and
effective removal of air with minimum work input.
(vi) Air should be cooled to maximum extent inside condenser before being
thrown out as this shall cause condensation if possible within condenser
and thus reduce loss of condensate. Also the cool air shall enhance air
handling capacity of pump.
(vii) Rate of circulation of cooling water should be such that the range of
temperature variation in cooling water lies near the optimum temperature
range. Generally, the cooling water temperature rise is limited to 10°C for
having maximum heat exchange between two fluids.
(viii) Material of tubes is generally taken as brass. Tube material should be

such as to offer maximum heat transfer rate i.e. high thermal conductivity.
Generally, surface condensers are bulky and require large space.
(ix) Cost of surface condenser should be kept low. Capital cost, running and
maintenance cost should be maintained as low as possible. Generally,
these costs are high in case of surface condenser as compared to other
types of condensers.
(iii) Evaporative condenser: Evaporative condensers are generally used where the
availability of water is very poor. Figure 5A.7 shows the schematic of such type of
condenser where water falls from top through the nozzles over the condenser coil.
Water picks up heat from the steam flowing through condenser coil and gets warmed
up. This water is recirculated by circulation pump. Air flow inside condenser is
maintained by using exhaust fan. This flow of air across condenser coil may be
natural or forced to enhance the cooling rate.

Fig. 5A.7 Evaporative condenser
Water gets evaporated and evaporated vapours are taken by air leaving
condenser. Heat required for evaporation is extracted finally from the steam flowing
inside tubes and thus causing its phase transformation. For preventing the exit of
water vapours with air going out the separator/eliminator is put on the top before the
final exit by which water vapour are recovered up to certain extent. Evaporative
condensers are named so because the technique of evaporation is used for realizing
the cooling. Amount of water to be sprinkled on condenser tubes should be just
sufficient to maintain tube surface in thoroughly wet state. In case of air being humid
the vapourising capacity of wet air gets reduced compared to dry air and so the
performance of evaporative condenser deteriorates when humidity in atmosphere is
high.
Evaporative condenser is advantageous over the surface condenser as the

vacuum maintained in evaporative condenser is not very high and the water
requirement is small. These condensers are generally used in small capacity power
plants where shortage of water supply is there.

5A.3 AIR LEAKAGE
Generally, inside the condenser pressure less than atmospheric pressure is
maintained, thereby increasing the chances of air leakage into condenser. Leakage
of air occurs due to leaking joints, packings, glands etc. along with air in dissolved
form coming with feed water. This leakage of air accounts up to 0.005% and 0.5% of
steam condensed in case of jet type condenser and surface condensers
respectively. Thus, leakage of air is practically always there in the condensers. Air
leakage causes the reduction in work done per kg of steam as it increases the back
pressure. Also the quantity of water required for condensation of steam is increased
due to lowering of partial pressure of steam due to pressure of air. At low pressure
the latent heat of steam to be released is more than at higher pressure. Air (having
lower conductivity) when present between water and steam hampers the heat
exchange and also takes away a portion of heat. Because of this reason also the
more quantity of cooling water is required. Hence, leakage of air reduces the
condenser efficiency and auxiliary devices such as reciprocating pump, rotary pump,
steam ejector or air pumps etc. are required. Also the presence of air increases
corrosive action as the corrosion depends largely upon the oxygen content.
Since air leakage in condenser is quite damaging to the performance of

condenser so air leakage should be detected and subsequent extraction of air being
done. Air leakage is detected by isolating condenser from the rest of plant after the
steady states are attained in it i.e. pressure and temperature become steady. After
isolation of condenser from plant by stopping the steam and cooling fluid pump, if the
vacuum gauge and thermometer readings change then it shows that there is air
leakage. For identifying location of leak points, the soap bubble test is carried out in
which the bubble formation occurs at leak point if soapy water is put on that after
filling condenser with air. Thus, for soap bubble test condenser needs to be emptied
and filled with high pressure air. This test has drawback that condenser is to be
made non functional and running of plant suffers till the test is performed.
For locating the sources of air leakage during the operational state of
condenser peppermint oil test may be used. In this peppermint oil is applied at
suspected sources of leak point and in case of leakage at the joint peppermint oil
fumes enter the condenser and will come out with the air. Odour of peppermint could
be felt in the air leaving condenser. Leak joints can also be detected by passing
candle flame over the probable joint. In case of leakage the flame gets distorted.

5A.4 CONDENSER PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT
The vacuum inside the condenser can be quantified by looking at barometer
reading which gives atmospheric pressure and vacuum gauge reading and taking
their difference to get absolute pressure inside condenser.
Thus, Absolute pressure (in cm) in condenser

= (Barometric head in cm of Hg) – (Vacuum pressure in cm of Hg)
Generally, this barometric head depends upon the atmospheric conditions and so
the absolute pressure also keeps on changing depending upon it. In order to take
care for these variations a pressure head called as corrected vacuum in condenser
is being defined. This corrected vacuum pressure is defined in reference to 76 cm of
mercury which is the standard barometric head as below,
Corrected vacuum pressure (in cm of Hg) = 76 – Absolute pressure in
condenser (in cm of Hg).
Therefore, the corrected vacuum pressure is used in cases where barometric head
differs from 76 cm of mercury.
By the Dalton’s law of partial pressures, the absolute pressure inside

condenser is the sum of partial pressures of steam and air inside it. The partial
pressure of steam shall be equal to the saturation pressure corresponding to
entering steam temperature. This partial pressure of steam could be seen from
steam table. Mathematically, absolute pressure in condenser (pc), as per Dalton’s
law;
pc = pa + ps
Where pa is partial pressure of air and ps is partial pressure of steam.
Theoretically the vacuum in condenser can be given as, pv, th = pb – ps where

pv, th is theoretical vacuum is condenser and pb is barometric pressure. It could be
understood that the leakage of air into condenser shall disturb the vacuum inside the
condenser and actually due to this air leaked into condenser the condenser pressure
is always greater than the theoretical condenser pressure.
In the absence of air leakage and with air leakage there is loss in performance of
condenser and so we need to quantify this effect. ‘Vacuum efficiency’ of condenser
is such parameter which is defined by the ratio of actual vacuum to theoretical

vacuum inside condenser. Actually vacuum in condenser in the presence of air
leakage can be given by;
𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣,𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏 – (𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎 + 𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 )
Actual vacuum in condenser 𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣,𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
Theoretical vacuum in condenser�p𝑣𝑣,th �
Here, partial pressure of air (pa) shall be zero in the absence of air leakage
and vacuum efficiency shall be 100%. If we look at mathematical expression of
efficiency, it is obvious that vacuum efficiency increases with reduction in partial
pressure of air.
Also the vacuum efficiency shall increase with decrease in barometric

pressure for constant exit steam pressure and condenser actual pressure. In case of
less cooling water the condenser pressure increases and reduces the vacuum
efficiency of condenser for other pressures remaining same. Designer always wishes
to have condenser with highest vacuum efficiency i.e. close to 100%.
‘Condenser efficiency’ is another condenser performance parameter. It is

given by the ratio of actual rise in cooling water temperature to the maximum
possible temperature rise. Condenser facilitates heat exchange between two fluids
and under ideal conditions the steam should only reject latent heat to cooling water
so as to yield condensate at saturated liquid condition. Thus, there should be no
undercooling of condensate in ideal condenser. Therefore, ideal condenser may be
defined as condenser in which steam rejects only latent heat to cooling fluid and
condensate is available without any undercooling. Ideal condenser requires
minimum quantity of cooling water and shows maximum gain in cooling water
temperature so as to condense the steam. Mathematically,
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
Here, the maximum possible temperature rise
= {(Saturated temperature corresponding to condenser

pressure) – (Cooling water inlet temperature)}
5A.5 COOLING TOWER

Cooling tower is similar to evaporative condenser where water used for
cooling is being cooled effectively. Water used for cooling becomes hotter after
extracting heat from condenser steam and needs to be cooled down if it is to be
recycled. Cooling towers are preferably used where the water supply is limited and
cooling water has to be recirculated without being thrown out.
Cooling tower is such an arrangement made of wood or metal structure

having baffles inside to facilitate better heat exchange between hot water falling
down and atmospheric air blowing across it.
Generally, hot water is admitted from top and is broken into small size
(atomized) while falling down. Air enters tower at bottom and flows upward either
due to natural draught or forced draught as the case may be. Air picks up heat by
intimate contact with hot water particles and leaves cooling tower from exit passage
at top. Cooled water falls down and is collected in a tank at bottom of cooling tower.
The heat transfer from hot water to air occurs due to evaporative cooling of water
and convective heating of air both. The effectiveness of cooling tower diminishes in
humid weather conditions due to reduced capacity of air. Dry air shall offer better
cooling effectiveness as compared to moist air. During cooling there occurs some
loss of water as it is carried away by air. This water loss may be from 1 to 4% due to
evaporation and drift losses.
Typical values for a 500 MW steam power plant indicate that this plant has
exhaust of steam at the rate of 3.6 kg/kWh at full load, requiring 18 x 107 kg per hour
of cooling water and to cool this cooling water air requirement is about 30 x 106 kg
per hour in cooling tower.
Figure 5A.8 shows schematic of different cooling towers. The performance of

cooling tower depends largely upon the duration of contact between water particle
and air, surface area of contact between water particle and air, humidity of air and
relative velocity of air and water flow etc.

Fig. 5A.8 Cooling tower

ME-601
Thermal Engineering and Gas Dynamics
Unit-5 Steam Condenser Numericals
1. In a condenser the vacuum of 71 cm of Hg is maintained with barometer reading of 76 cm in Hg.

Temperature in condenser is 35°C while hot well is at temperature of 30°C. The cooling water is
circulated at the rate of 800 kg/min and condensate is available at 25 kg/min. The temperature of
cooling water at inlet and outlet are 15°C and 25°C. Determine the mass of air in kg/m3 of
condenser volume, dryness fraction of steam entering condenser and vacuum efficiency. Take
mercury density as 0.0135951 kg/cm3, g = 9.81𝒎𝒎/𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 .
Solution:
Absolute pressure in the condenser
𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 = (76 – 71) × 10–2 × 0.0135951 × 106 × 9.81 = 6668.396 𝑁𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 = 6.67 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Partial pressure of steam in condenser
=Saturation pressure of steam corresponding to 35°C
(From steam table)
𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 = 5.62 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Partial pressure of air, 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎 = 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 – 𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 = 6.67– 5.63 = 1.04 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Mass of air per 𝑚𝑚3 of condenser volume can be obtained from gas equation,
𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎 𝑉𝑉 1.04×1
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 = = (273+35)×0.287 = 0.012 kg/m3
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Let the enthalpy of steam entering condenser be ℎ𝑠𝑠 so by heat balance,

𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 × 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤 × (𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤𝑜𝑜 – 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖 ) = 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 × (ℎ𝑠𝑠 – 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤 × 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 )
𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 = 800 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 = 25 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤𝑜𝑜 = 25°𝐶𝐶, 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖 = 15°𝐶𝐶, 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 = 30°𝐶𝐶
800 × 4.18 (25 – 15) = 25 (ℎ𝑠𝑠 – 4.18 × 30)
ℎ𝑠𝑠 = 1463 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Let dryness fraction of steam entering be x.
ℎ𝑠𝑠 = 1463 = ℎ𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 35°𝐶𝐶 + 𝑥𝑥 . ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 35°𝐶𝐶
1463 = 146.68 + 𝑥𝑥 × 2418.6
x = 0.5442
(76− 5) 0.0135951×104 ×9.81
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = (76×0
0135951×104 ×9.81)−5.63 103
= 0.9891 or 98.91%
Mass of air in kg/m3 of condenser volume=0.012 kg/m3,
Dryness fraction of steam entering = 0.5442,
Vacuum efficiency = 98.91% Ans.

ME-601
2. A condenser has vacuum of 70 cm of Hg when barometer reading is 76 cm. Condenser has

temperature of 30°C. Air leaks into condenser at the rate of 1 kg air per 2500 kg steam. Calculate
(i) the capacity of air pump per kg of steam for removal of air from steam entering condenser, and
(ii) the mass of water vapour accompanying this air.
Solution:
Absolute pressure in condenser = (76 – 70) cm of Hg
= 6 × 0.0135951 × 104 × 9.81 = 8002.67 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 = 8.003 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Partial pressure of steam, 𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 = Saturation pressure corresponding to 30°C from steam table
Partial pressure of air, 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎 = Total pressure in condenser – Partial pressure of steam
𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎 = 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 – 𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 = 3.757 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
1
Mass of air accompanying per kg steam due to leakage = kg
2500
= 0.0004 kg
Using gas equation, 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎 . 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Volume of air per kg of steam =
𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎
0 0004 × 0.287×( 273+30)
=
3.757
= 9.26 × 10–3 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Capacity of air pump = 9.26 × 10–3 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 steam Ans.
Volume of water vapour accompanying air shall be equal to the volume of air.
So volume of water vapour accompanying air = 9.26 × 10–3 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Specific volume of dry steam at condenser temperature of 30°C
= 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 30°𝐶𝐶 = 32.89 × 10–3 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
9.26×10−3
Mass of water vapour accompanying air =
32.89
= 2.82 × 10–4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Mass of water vapour accompanying air = 2.82 × 10–4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 Ans.

ME-601
3. During the trial on a condenser it is seen to have vacuum of 67 cm of Hg while barometer reading
is 75 cm of Hg. The mean condenser temperature is 40°C and temperature of hot well is 35°C.
Circulating water flows at 1000 kg/min for giving condensate at the rate of 50 kg/min.
Temperature of cooling water at inlet and exit are 10°C and 25°C. Determine, (i) the vacuum
corrected to standard barometer reading of 76 cm. (ii) the vacuum efficiency of condenser, (iii) the
undercooling of condensate, (iv) the condenser efficiency, (v) the state of steam entering
condenser, (vi) the mass of air per m3 of condenser volume, and (vii) the mass of air per kg of
uncondensed steam.
Solution:
Vacuum corrected to standard barometer reading of 76 cm
= 76 – (75 – 67) = 68 cm Hg
Corrected vacuum = 68 cm Hg Ans.
Absolute pressure in condenser = 75 – 67 = 8 cm of Hg

or (8 × 0.0135951 × 104 × 9.81 = 10.67 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)
or, 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 = 10.67 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Partial pressure of steam, 𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 = Saturation pressure at 40°C from steam table
Partial pressure of air, 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎 = 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 – 𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 = 3.286 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
Vacuum efficiency = 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
(75−8) 0.0135951×104 × 9 81
= (75×0.0145951×104×9.81)−7.384×103
= 0.9645 or 96.45%
Vacuum efficiency = 96.45% Ans.
Undercooling of condensate = 40 – 35 = 5°C

Undercooling = 5°C Ans.
(𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 −𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 )
Condenser efficiency =
�𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 − 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 �
Saturation temperature corresponding to absolute pressure in condenser, 40.01 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘.

𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 = 46.9°C, from steam table.
𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 25°C, 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 10°C
25−10
Condenser efficiency = = 0.4065 or 40.65%
46.9−10
Let us consider enthalpy of steam entering be h kJ/kg and dryness fraction be x. By applying heat
balance,
𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 × �ℎ – 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 . 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 � = 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 . 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 . (𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤𝑜𝑜 – 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖 )
𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 = 50 kg/min, 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 = 1000 kg/min
50 × (ℎ – 4.18 × 40) = 1000 × 4.18 (25 × 10)
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
ℎ = 1421.2 = ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 40°𝐶𝐶 + 𝑥𝑥 . ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 40°𝐶𝐶
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

ME-601
1421.2 = 167.57 + 𝑥𝑥 × 2406.7
x = 0.5209
Dryness fraction of steam entering = 0.5209 Ans.
𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎.𝑉𝑉 3.286×1
Mass of air per m3 of condenser volume 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐
= 0.287× (273+40)
= 0.0366 kg/m3
Volume of per kg of uncondensed steam = 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 40°𝐶𝐶 = 19.52 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Mass of air in one kg of uncondensed steam = Mass of air in 19.52 m3 volume
3.286×19.52
= 0.287×(273+40)
= 0.714 kg
Mass of air/m3 of condenser volume = 0.0366 kg/m3 Ans.
Mass of air in per kg of uncondensed steam = 0.714 kg

ME-601
4. In a surface condenser operating with steam turbine the vacuum near inlet of air pump is 69 cm of Hg
when barometer reading is 76 cm of Hg. Temperature at inlet of vacuum pump is 30°C. Air leakage occurs
at the rate of 60 kg/hr. Determine,
(i) The capacity of air pump in m3/hr and mass of vapour extracted with air in kg/hr.
(ii) The dimension of reciprocating air pump cylinder if it runs at 240 rpm and L/D ratio is 1.5.
Solution:
Absolute pressure at inlet to air pump =(76 – 69) = 7 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻, or
= 7 × 0.0135951 × 104 × 9.81
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 30°𝐶𝐶 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 30°𝐶𝐶
Volume of 60 kg air at pressure of 89.112 kPa
60 × 0.287 × (273 + 30)

𝑉𝑉 = = 1025.1 𝑚𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟𝑟
5.09
Capacity of air pump in m3/hr = 1025.1 m3/hr Ans.
𝜋𝜋
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑚𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟𝑟 = × 𝐷𝐷2 × 𝐿𝐿 × 𝑁𝑁 × 60 = 1025.1
4
𝜋𝜋
1025.1 = × 1.5 𝐷𝐷3 × 240 × 60
4
D = 0.3924 m or 39.24 cm
L = 58.86 cm
𝑉𝑉 1025.1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Mass of water vapour going with air = = = 31.17
𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 30° 𝐶𝐶 32.89 ℎ𝑟𝑟
Bore = 39.24 cm, Stroke = 58.86 cm

Mass of water vapour extracted with air = 31.17 kg/hr Ans.

ME-601
5. A steam condenser is supplied with 1000 kg/min steam in 0.9 dry state. The pressure at suction of air
extraction pump on condenser is 70 cm of Hg and barometer reads 77 cm of Hg. Temperature in
suction pipe is 30°C and air leaks at the rate of 5 _ 10–4 kg per kg of steam. Cooling water
temperature gets increased by 15°C. Determine the mass handled by dry air extractor and cooling
water circulation rate in kg/min.
Solution:
Absolute pressure in condenser = (77– 70) = 7 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (7 × 0.0135951 × 104 × 9.81)
𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 = 9.34 𝑘𝑘𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎
Partial pressure of steam, 𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 30°𝐶𝐶 = 4.246 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Rate of air extraction per minute = 5 × 10–4 × 1000 = 0.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 0.5 × 0.287×(273 + 30)
Volume of air extracted per minute = =
𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎 5.094
= 8.54 m3/min
Specific volume corresponding to 30°C, 𝑣𝑣 𝑔𝑔 = 32.89 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Volume of air extracted = Volume of mixture sucked per minute = 8.54 m3/min
8.54
Mass of steam extracted in mixture handled per minute = = 0.2596 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
32.89
Therefore, mass handled by air extraction pump = 0.5 + 0.2596 = 0.7596 kg/min
Mass handled by air pump = 0.7596 kg/min Ans.
Enthalpy of steam entering condenser, ℎ = ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 30°𝐶𝐶 + 0.9 × ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 30°𝐶𝐶
= 125.79 + (0.9 × 2430.5)
= 2313.24 kJ/kg
Mass flow rate of circulating water can be obtained by energy balance on condenser,
𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 × 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 × (∆𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 ) = 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 × (ℎ − 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 × 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 )
𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 × 4.18 × 15 = 1000 × (2313.24 – 4.18 × 303)
𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 = 16693.78 kg/min
Water circulation rate = 16693.78 kg/min Ans.

ME-601
6. In a surface condenser vacuum of 70 cm Hg is maintained when the barometric pressure is

76 cm Hg. Steam enters 0.85 dry into condenser at the rate of 300 kg/min. Temperature of
condensate is 30°C and the rise in circulating water temperature is 20°C. For sending water
through condenser and piping a pressure head of 5 m is required. For surface condenser determine,
(i) The flow surface area required when water flows at 50 m/min,
𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
(ii) The cooling surface area required when heat transfer rate is 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟓 . 𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉 °𝑪𝑪.
𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐
(iii) The total head required to be developed by pump

Solution:
Absolute pressure in condenser = 76 – 70 = 6 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻,
Or = (6 × 0.0135951 × 104 × 9.81) 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
Partial pressure of steam, 𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 30°𝐶𝐶 = 4.246 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Applying heat balance on condenser,
𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 × 4.18 × 20 = (ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 30°𝐶𝐶 + 0.85 × ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 30°𝐶𝐶 – 4.18 × 30) × 300
𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 = 7415 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
7415 3
Volume flow of water = 𝑚𝑚 /𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 7.415 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
1000
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 7.415
Flow surface area requirement = =
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 50
= 0.1483 𝑚𝑚2
Flow surface area required = 0.1483 m2 Ans.
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

Cooling surface area required =
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
300 × �ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 30°𝐶𝐶 + 0.85 × ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 30°𝐶𝐶 – 4.18 × 30� × 60

=
15 × 105
= 0.413 × 60
= 24.79 𝑚𝑚2
Cooling surface area required = 24.79 m2 Ans.
1 50 2 1
Velocity head present = ×� � × = 0.0354 m
2 60 9.81
Total head required = Pressure head + Velocity head

= 5 + 0.0354 = 5.0354 m
Head required = 5.0354 m Ans.

ME-601
7. A jet condenser has steam entering at 350 kg/min when vacuum of 680 mm is maintained in it and
the barometer reads 760 mm. Air mass going into condenser is 0.05% of steam mass entering.
Water at 20°C enters the condenser to condense the steam such that temperature of condensate is
30°C. Volume of water required is 0.02 m3 per kg steam. The volume of air dissolved in the water
injected may be considered as 5% of volume of water at atmospheric pressure. Determine the
volume handling capacity of air pump for removing air and condensate when pump has volumetric
efficiency of 90%.
Solution:
Absolute pressure in condenser = (76 – 68) = 8 cm of Hg
or, = (8 × 0.0135951 × 9.81 × 104 × 10–3 )
Partial pressure of steam,
𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 = Saturation pressure corresponding to 30°C
𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 = 4.246 kPa
Partial pressure of air, 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎 = 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 – 𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 = 10.67 – 4.246 = 6.424 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Volume of cooling water required per minute = 350 × 0.02 = 7𝑚𝑚3 /𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
350× 0.05
Mass of air going into condenser with steam per minute = = 0.175 kg/min
100
7×5
Volume of air entering per minute with cooling water =
100
= 0.35 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Mass of air with cooling water, using 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚,
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑚𝑚 =
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Here p = atmospheric pressure = 101.3 kPa, V = 0.35 𝑚𝑚3, R = 0.287 kJ/kg K

T = 273 + 20
= 293 K
101.3×0.35
Mass of air with cooling water =
0.287×293
= 0.422 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Thus, total mass of air inside condenser per minute
= (Mass of air with steam + Mass of air with cooling water)
= 0.175 + 0.422 = 0.597 kg/min
0.597×0.287×(273+30)
Volume of air corresponding to 0.597 kg/min = 6.424
Volume of steam condensed (condensate) = 350 × 𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 30°𝐶𝐶
= 350 × 0.001004 = 0.3514 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Total capacity of air pump (wet air pump) = Volume of condensate/min + Volume of air/min
+ Volume of cooling water/min.

ME-601
= 0.3514 + 8.08 + 7
= 15.4314 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
15.4314
Actual capacity of air pump =
0.9
Capacity of air pump = 17.15 m3/min Ans.

ME-601
8. A barometric jet condenser has steam entering at the rate of 20 kg/min and 12 kg cooling water per
kg of steam is supplied into it for condensation. After condensation the cooling water and
condensate leave at 40°C. Cooling water enters the condenser at 20°C. Vacuum of 650 mm Hg is
maintained inside condenser while barometer read 760 mm Hg. An air pump is put for extracting
air from condensate at the rate of 2m3 of wet mixture per minute. At the suction side of air pump a
vacuum of 660 mm Hg and temperature of 35°C is observed.
Determine,
(i) The dryness fraction of steam entering condenser,
(ii) The mass of air entering condenser per minute,
(iii) The effective pressure head at tail of barometric condenser.
Solution:
Absolute pressure in condenser, 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 = (760 – 650) × 10–1 = 11 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
or, 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 = 11 × 104 × 0.0135951 × 9.81 × 10–3 , 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Partial pressure of steam, 𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 40°𝐶𝐶
= 7.384 kPa
Cooling water required = 12 × 20 = 240 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Let the dryness fraction of steam entering condenser be x and enthalpy h.
Heat balance on condenser yields;
𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 × ℎ + 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 × 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 × 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = (𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 + 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 ) 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 _ 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
20 × ℎ + (240 × 4.18 × 20) = (20 + 240) × 4.18 × 40
ℎ = 1170.4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = ℎ𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 40°𝐶𝐶 + 𝑥𝑥 × ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 40°𝐶𝐶
1170.4 = 167.57 + (𝑥𝑥 × 2406.7)
𝑥𝑥 = 0.4167
Dryness fraction of steam entering = 0.4167 Ans.
Absolute pressure at suction of air pump = (760 – 660) × 10–1 = 10 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
Or (10 × 0.0135951 × 104 × 9.81 × 10–3 = 13.34 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)
Partial pressure of steam at suction of air pump = Saturation pressure at 35°C.
𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠′ = 5.628 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Partial pressure of air, 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎′ = 13.34 – 5.628 = 7.712 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Now, at suction of pump volume of air will be equal to the volume of mixture.
Volume of mixture = Volume of air = 2 𝑚𝑚3
′ 𝑉𝑉
𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎
Mass of air entering =
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎′
7.712×2
=
0.287×(273+35)

ME-601
= 0.1745 kg/min
Effective pressure head tail of barometric condenser = Head corresponding to (Barometric pressure –
Absolute pressure in condenser)
(101.3 − 14.67) × 103
=
9.81 × 0.0135951 × 106
= 0.649 m
Mass of air entering = 0.1745 kg/min Ans.
Head = 0.649 m

ME-601
9. A steam condenser has steam entering at 35°C and condensate being removed at 34°C. Condenser
has two pumps one for extracting air and other for extraction of condensate. Air is removed at
temperature of 33°C. The air leaks into condenser at the rate of 3 kg/hr. consider the pressure
inside condenser to remain uniform and neglect change in pressure due to air at steam inlet.
Determine the volume of air handled by air pump in kg/hr and also determine the volume to be
handled if a combined air and condensate pump is being used.
Solution:
Partial pressure of steam at 35°C = Saturation pressure corresponding to 35°C.
𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 = 5.628 kPa
If the pressure of air at inlet is neglected then the total pressure in condenser,
𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 = 𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 = 5.628 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘.
At the suction of air pump, partial pressure of steam= Saturation pressure corresponding to 33°C
𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠′ = 5.075 kPa
Partial pressure of air, 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎′ = 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 – 𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠′ = 5.628 – 5.075 = 0.553 kPa
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎′ 3×0.287×(273+ 33)
Volume of air handled by air pump = ′ =
𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎 0.553
= 467.43 𝑚𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟𝑟

In case the air and condensate mixture is to be handled by same pump then,
Partial pressure of steam = Saturation pressure corresponding to 34°C
𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠′′ = 5.352 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Partial pressure of air, 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎′′ = 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 – 𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠′′ = 5.628 – 5.352 = 0.276 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
3×0.287×(273+34)
Volume of air = Volume of mixture handled by pump =
0.276
= 957.71 𝑚𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟𝑟
Volume of air handled = 467.43 m3/hr Ans.
Volume of mixture handled = 957.71 m3/hr

ME-601
10. In a surface condenser the vacuum at inlet is seen to be 72 cm Hg and at outlet it is 73 cm Hg.The
barometer reading is 76 cm and the dryness fraction of steam at inlet is 0.92. Cooling water
entering the condenser is at 20°C. Considering no air in the condenser and the temperature rise in
cooling water to be maximum determine.
(i) the minimum amount of undercooling.
(ii) the amount of cooling water required per kg of steam.
Solution:
Inlet pressure in condenser = (76 – 72) cm Hg = 4 cm Hg.
= 4 × 104 × 0.0135951 × 9.81 × 10–3
= 5.335 kPa
Outlet pressure in condenser = (76 – 73) cm Hg = 3 cm Hg
= 3 × 104 × 0.0135951 × 9.81 × 10–3
= 4.001 kPa
Since there is no air in condenser so the 5.335 kPa and 4.001 kPa will be the pressure of steam. Saturation
temperature corresponding to above pressures gives temperature at inlet and outlet respectively.
Saturation temperature at inlet = 33.87°C, (from steam table at 5.335 kPa)
Saturation temperature at outlet = 28.96°C, (from steam table at 4.001 kPa)
Thus, steam will leave at maximum temperature of 28.96°C
The minimum amount of undercooling = 33.87 – 28.96 = 4.91°C
For maximum temperature rise of cooling water the temperature of cooling water outlet will be equal to the
temperature of steam at inlet of 33.87°C.
Therefore, the maximum rise in cooling water temperature
= 33.87 – 20 = 13.87°𝐶𝐶
Enthalpy of steam entering, ℎ = ℎ𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 33.87°𝐶𝐶 + 0.92 × ℎ𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 33.87°𝐶𝐶
ℎ = 141.97 + (0.92 × 2421.33) = 2369.59 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Let mass of cooling water required be m kg per kg steam.
Heat balance on condenser yields,
𝑚𝑚 × 4.18 × 13.87 = 1 × (2369.59 – 4.18 × 28.96)
m = 38.78 kg water per kg of steam
Undercooling = 4.91°C Ans.
Cooling water requirement = 38.78 kg/kg steam

ME 601TEGD Unit V - Nozzles Condensers

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ME 601TEGD Unit V - Nozzles Condensers

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LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES

Name of Faculty: Dr. Arun Wamankar,

Fig. 13.1 General arrangement in nozzle and diffuser

Different types of nozzles, thermodynamic analysis and different phenomenon in

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 1

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 2

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 3

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 4

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 5

must decrease. Substituting from 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 as obtained above, it yields,

Substituting above in the equation available from continuity equation,

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 6

has diverging cross section area along the direction of flow.

Case 2: For supersonic flow i.e. M > 1

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 7

Expansion of fluid on 𝑝𝑝 − 𝑣𝑣 diagram is shown below.

Fig. 1.7 P-V diagram for flow through nozzle

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 8

Fig. 1.8 T-s diagram for flow through nozzle

From different from of S.F.E.E.

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 9

For negligible inlet velocity, say 𝐶𝐶1 = 0

Mass flow rate,

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 10

or, Critical pressure ratio,

Let critical pressure at throat be given by 𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐 or 𝑝𝑝𝑡𝑡 then,

Here subscript ‘c’ and‘t’ refers to critical and throat respectively.

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 11

Wet steam 1.135 (𝑛𝑛 = 1.035 + 0.1𝑥𝑥, where x is 0.577

For perfect gas; 𝐶𝐶t = �𝑛𝑛 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 12

For 𝑛𝑛 = 𝛾𝛾, 𝐶𝐶t = �𝛾𝛾. 𝑅𝑅. 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 = a = Velocity of sound.

Critical velocity at throat, 𝐶𝐶t = �𝛾𝛾. 𝑅𝑅. 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡

Maximum discharge per unit area at throat for critical conditions,

Critical pressure ratio,

1.3 CHOKED FLOW

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 13

Fig. 1.10 Flow through a convergent nozzle

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 14

Fig. 1.11 Off design operation of converging nozzle

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 15

Fig. 1.12 Off design operation of convergent-divergent nozzle.

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 16

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 17

1.5 EFFECT OF FRICTION ON NOZZLE

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 18

Fig. 1.13 T-s representation for expansion through nozzle

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 19

𝐶𝐶2′ = �2 (ℎ1 − ℎ2′ ) + 𝐶𝐶12

For negligible inlet velocity i.e., 𝐶𝐶1 ≈ 0

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 20

Coefficient of velocity: The ‘coefficient of velocity’ or the ‘velocity coefficient’ can be

1.6 SUPERSATURATION PHENOMENON IN STEAM NOZZLES

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 21

Fig. 1.16 Metastable flow through steam nozzle

These could be the factors responsible for supersaturation. Phenomenon of

LNCT GROUP OF COLLEGES, BHOPAL MP 22

Law of expansion for supersaturated flow is considered as 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 1.3 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.

Fig. 1.17 Supersaturated flow on T-s and h-s diagram.