ME 3604: Machine Design

Load & Stress Analysis

Dr. Faraz Junejo

DISPLACEMENT AND DEFORMATION
• Total movement of a point with respect to a
fixed reference frame is called displacement.

• Deformation is the relative movement of a

point with respect to another point on the
same body.
 Strain
 Strain is a non-dimensional measure of the
deformation resulting from the stresses acting upon
a solid material.
 There are two types of strain:

 Normal Strain Є where it measures the change in

length resulting from normal stress
 Shear Strain γ where it measures the angular
distortion (the change in angle) resulting from shear
stress.
 Direct or Normal Strain
• When loads are applied to a body, some
deformation will occur resulting to a
change in dimension.

• Consider a bar, subjected to axial tensile

loading force, F. If the bar extension is dl
and its original length (before loading) is L,
then tensile strain is:
 Direct or Normal Strain (Contd.)

F F
L dl

• Direct Strain (  ) = Change in Length

Original Length
i.e.  av= dl/L
Where, ε is the Greek symbol epsilon used
to designate average normal or direct strain
 Another example !
• Following figure shows a line on the surface of a
balloon that grows from its original length L0 to its
final length Lf as the balloon expands.

• The change in length Lf− L0 represents the deformation of the

line.
• Average normal or direct strain is the intensity of deformation
defined as a ratio of deformation to original length.
 Direct or Normal Strain (Contd.)

• As strain is a ratio of lengths, it is

dimensionless.

• Similarly, for compression by amount, dl:

Compressive strain = - dl/L

• Note: Strain is positive for an increase in

dimension and negative for a reduction in
dimension.
 Elastic Strain
• Hooke’s law

• E is Young’s modulus, or modulus of elasticity

• For axial stress in x direction,

• The constant of proportionality v is Poisson’s ratio

• See Table A-5 for values for common materials.
 Elastic Strain (contd.)
• For a stress element undergoing x, y, and z,
simultaneously,
 Shear Strain
 The change in angle between two line segments that
were originally perpendicular when subjected to
pure shear stress.
 Another example !
• Figure shows an elastic band with a grid attached to
two wooden bars using masking tape.
• The top wooden bar is slid to the right, causing the
grid to deform. As can be seen, the angle between
lines ABC changes.
 Another example !
• The measure of this change of angle is defined by
shear strain, usually designated by the Greek letter
gamma (γ ).
• The average shear strain is therefore defined as the
change of angle from a right angle:

• where the Greek letter alpha (α) designates the final

angle measured in radians (rad), and the Greek letter
pi (π) equals 3.14159 rad.
 Positive & Negative Shear strain
• Decreases in angle (i.e. α < π / 2), as in this example result in
positive shear strains.

• Whereas, an increases in angle (α > π / 2) result in negative

shear strains.

Normal strain causes only a change

in volume.
On the other hand, shear strain
causes only change in shape.
 Elastic Strain
• Hooke’s law for shear:

• G is the shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of

rigidity.
• For a linear, isotropic, homogeneous material, the
three elastic constants are related to each other by
 Example: 1
• The displacements in the x direction of the rigid plates in Figure
due to a set of axial forces were observed as given. Determine the
axial strains in the rods in sections AB, BC, and CD.
 Example: 1 (contd.)
• We first calculate the relative movement of rigid plates in
each section. From this we can calculate the normal strains:

Or

Or

Or

 This example brings out the difference between the displacements,

which were given, and the deformations, which we calculated
before finding the strains.
 Example: 2
A bar of hard rubber is attached to a rigid bar,
which is moved to the right relative to fixed base
A as shown in Figure. Determine the average
shear strain

at point A.
 Example: 2 (contd.)
• The rectangle will become a parallelogram as the rigid bar
moves. We can draw an approximate deformed shape and
calculate the change of angle to determine the shear strain.

Point B moves to point B1, as

shown in Figure. The shear strain
represented by the angle between
BAB1 is
Example: 3
Average shear strain
 3mm 
 tan 
1

 248mm 
0.69306
0.69306 
180
0.0121rad
 Exercise: 1
• A 30-mm-diameter copper rod is 1 m long with a
yield strength of 70 MPa. Determine the axial force
necessary to cause the diameter of the rod to reduce
by 0.01 percent, assuming elastic deformation. From
Table A-5, v = 0.326, E = 119 GPa

Answer: F = 25.8 kN
• Check that the elastic deformation assumption is
valid by comparing the axial stress to the yield
strength.
Answer: Elastic deformation assumption is valid
 Exercise: 2
• A diagonal aluminum alloy tension rod of diameter d
and initial length l is used in a rectangular frame to
prevent collapse. The rod can safely support a tensile
stress of σallow. If d = 0.5 in, l = 8 ft, and σallow = 20 kpsi,
determine how much the rod must be stretched to
develop this allowable stress. Given E = 10.4 x 106 psi

Answer: 0.185 in
 Uniformly Distributed Stresses
• The assumption of uniformly distributed stress is often
made in design when loading is simple such as pure
tension, compression or shear .
• For tension and compression,

• For direct shear (no bending present),

 Uniformly Distributed Stresses
(contd.)
• The load should be Centroidal or Symmetric
Normal Stresses for Beams in Pure
Bending
• Straight beam in positive
bending
• x axis is neutral axis
• xz plane is neutral plane
• Neutral axis is coincident
with the centroidal axis of
Fig. 3−13
the cross section
 Bending Deformation of a straight member

• Note the distortion of the lines due to bending of this rubber bar.
The top line stretches, the bottom line compresses, and the
center line remains of the same length. Furthermore, vertical lines
rotate and yet remain straight.
Positive Bending Moment
Positive Bending Moment (contd.)
Negative Bending Moment
Visualizing Bending Stress
Visualizing Bending Stress (contd.)
Visualizing Bending Stress (contd.)
Bending Deformation of a straight member
 Bending Deformation of a straight member
• When a bending moment is applied to a straight prismatic
beam, the longitudinal lines become curved and vertical
transverse lines remain straight and yet undergo a rotation
Bending Deformation of a straight member
 Bending Deformation of a straight member (contd.)

• A neutral surface is where longitudinal fibers of the

material will not undergo a change in length.
 Bending Deformation of a straight member (contd.)

• From these observation, we can make the

following assumptions regarding the way the
stress deforms the material:

1. Longitudinal axis x (within neutral surface) does

not experience any change in length
2. All cross sections of the beam remain plane
and perpendicular to longitudinal axis during
the deformation
Bending Deformation of a straight member (contd.)
3. Any deformation of the cross-section within its
own plane will be neglected
 Flexure Formula
• Bending stress varies linearly with distance from
neutral axis, y

Or
Mc
max =
I

c is the
magnitude of the
greatest y
Fig. 3−14
 Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending
Mc
max =
I

 max = maximum normal stress in member, at a pt on

x-sectional area farthest away from neutral axis

M = resultant internal moment, computed about

neutral axis of x-section

I = moment of inertia of x-sectional area computed

about neutral axis

c = perpendicular distance from neutral axis to a pt

farthest away from neutral axis, where max acts
 Assumptions for Normal Bending Stress
 Pure bending (though effects of axial, torsional, and shear
loads are often assumed to have minimal effect on bending
stress)

 Material is isotropic and homogeneous

 Material obeys Hooke’s law

 Beam is initially straight with constant cross section

 Beam has axis of symmetry in the plane of bending

 Proportions are such that failure is by bending rather than

crushing, wrinkling, or sidewise buckling

 Plane cross sections remain plane during bending

• A member having the Example: 1
dimensions shown is
used to resist an internal
bending moment of M=
90 kN.m Determine the
maximum stress in the
member if the moment
is applied (a) about the z
axis (as shown) (b) about
the y axis.
Answer: (Max. stress)z = 120 MPa
(Max. stress)y = 90 MPa
Example: 2
 Example: 2 (contd.)
To compute maximum internal moment, M, drawing shear
force and bending moment diagram, which yields , M =22.5
kN.m occurs at the center i.e. x = 3m
Example: 2 (contd.)
Example: 2 (contd.)
Example 3-5

Dimensions in mm
Example 3-5 (contd.)
Example 3-5 (contd.)
Example 3-5 (contd.)
Example 3-5 (contd.)
 Exercise: 1
• Determine the
moment M
that will
produce a
maximum
stress of 10 ksi
on the cross
section

Answer: 129.2 kip.in

 Exercise: 2
• The rod is supported by smooth journal bearings at A and B
that only exert vertical reactions on the shaft. If d = 90mm,
determine the absolute maximum bending stress in the beam.

Answer: 158 MPa

 Shear Stresses for Beams in Bending
• In general, a beam will support both shear and moment.

• Shear V is the result of a transverse shear-stress distribution

that acts over the beam’s x-section.
 Shear Stresses for Beams in Bending (contd.)
• As shown below, if top and bottom surfaces of each board
are smooth and not bonded together, then application of load
P will cause the boards to slide relative to one another.

• However, if boards are bonded together, longitudinal shear

stresses will develop and distort x-section in a complex
manner
Shear Stresses for Beams in Bending (contd.)
• As shown, when
shear V is applied,
the non-uniform
shear-strain
distribution over x-
section will cause it
to warp, i.e., not
remain in plane.
Shear Stresses for Beams in Bending (contd.)
• Recall that the flexure formula assumes that x-
sections must remain plane and perpendicular to
longitudinal axis of beam after deformation

• This is violated when beam is subjected to both

bending and shear, we assume that the warping is
so small it can be neglected. This is true for a
slender beam (small depth compared with its
length)
 Shear Stresses for Beams in Bending (contd.)

• For engineering purposes, the flexure formula is

valid no matter whether a shear force is present or
not. For this reason, we shall utilize the same normal
bending stress distribution [Eq.3-26a] shown below,
when shear forces are also present.
 Shear Stresses for Beams in Bending (contd.)

• For transverse shear, shear-strain distribution

throughout the depth of a beam cannot be easily
expressed mathematically

• Thus, we need to develop the formula for shear

stress indirectly using the flexure formula and
relationship between moment and shear
(V = dM/dx)
Examining shear in beams
Examining shear in beams (contd.)
Examining shear in beams (contd.)
Examining shear in beams (contd.)
Examining shear in beams (contd.)
Examining shear in beams (contd.)
Examining shear in beams (contd.)
Examining shear in beams (contd.)
Examining shear in beams (contd.)
Examining shear in beams (contd.)
Examining shear in beams (contd.)
Examining shear in beams (contd.)
Examining shear in beams (contd.)
Conclusions
Conclusions (contd.)
Conclusions (contd.)
Conclusions (contd.)
Conclusions (contd.)
Conclusions (contd.)
Conclusions (contd.)
Conclusions (contd.)
Conclusions (contd.)
Summary
 Shear Formula
• By first principles, flexure formula and V = dM/dx,
we obtain
VQ
h = Equation 3-31
Ib
h = horizontal shear stress in
member at the pt located a
distance y’ from the neutral
axis. Assumed to be constant
and therefore averaged across
the width t of member
V = internal resultant transverse shear force,
determined from method of sections and
equations of equilibrium
 Shear Formula (contd.)
• By first principles, flexure formula and V = dM/dx,
we get:
VQ
= Equation 3-31
Ib
I = moment of inertia of entire x-sectional area
computed about the neutral axis
b = width of the member’s x-sectional area,
measured at the pt where  is to be determined
Q = ∫A’ y dA’ =y’A’, where A’ is the top (or bottom)
portion of member’s x-sectional area, defined from
section where t is measured, and y’ is distance of
centroid of A’, measured from neutral axis
 Shear Formula (contd.)
 Since Eqn 3-31 is derived indirectly from the flexure
formula, the material must behave in a linear-elastic
manner and have a modulus of elasticity that is the same
in tension and in compression.

 One major assumption in the development of the shear

formula is that shear stress is uniformly distributed over
width b at section where shear stress is to be determined
Relationship between horizontal and
transverse shear stress
Relationship between horizontal and
transverse shear stress (contd.)
Relationship between horizontal and
transverse shear stress (contd.)
Relationship between horizontal and
transverse shear stress (contd.)
Relationship between horizontal and
transverse shear stress (contd.)
Relationship between horizontal and
transverse shear stress (contd.)
Relationship between horizontal and
transverse shear stress (contd.)
Shear Stresses in Standard-Section Beams
• The shear stress distribution in a beam depends on how Q/b
varies as a function of y1 i.e. the pt where  is to be determined
Example: 1
Example: 1 (contd.)
Example: 1 (contd.)
 Example: 2
A steel wide-flange beam having dimensions shown
below, is subjected to a shear of V = 80kN. Plot the
shear stress distribution acting over beam’s cross-
sectional area.
 Exercise: 1
• If the beam is subjected to a shear of V = 15 kN,
determine the web’s shear stress at A and B. Show that
the neutral axis is located at y = 0.1747 m from the
bottom and INA = 0.2182(10-3) m4.

Answer:
(i)  A = 1.99 MPa
(ii)  B = 1.65 MPa