Wireless Power Transfer For Electric Vehicle Applications: Siqi Li, Member, IEEE, and Chunting Chris Mi, Fellow, IEEE

4 IEEE JOURNAL OF EMERGING AND SELECTED TOPICS IN POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 3, NO.
1, MARCH 2015
Wireless Power Transfer for Electric

Vehicle Applications
Siqi Li, Member, IEEE, and Chunting Chris Mi, Fellow, IEEE
Abstract— Wireless power transfer (WPT) using magnetic In an EV, the battery is not so easy to design because of
resonance is the technology which could set human free from the following requirements: high energy density, high power
the annoying wires. In fact, the WPT adopts the same basic density, affordable cost, long cycle life time, good safety,
theory which has already been developed for at least 30
years with the term inductive power transfer. WPT tech- and reliability, should be met simultaneously. Lithium-ion
nology is developing rapidly in recent years. At kilowatts batteries are recognized as the most competitive solution to
power level, the transfer distance increases from several mil- be used in electric vehicles [1]. However, the energy density
limeters to several hundred millimeters with a grid to load of the commercialized lithium-ion battery in EVs is only
efficiency above 90%. The advances make the WPT very 90–100 Wh/kg for a finished pack [2].1 This number is so poor
attractive to the electric vehicle (EV) charging applications in
both stationary and dynamic charging scenarios. This paper compared with gasoline, which has an energy density about
reviewed the technologies in the WPT area applicable to 12 000 Wh/kg. To challenge the 300-mile range of an internal
EV wireless charging. By introducing WPT in EVs, the obstacles combustion engine power vehicle, a pure EV needs a large
of charging time, range, and cost can be easily mitigated. Battery amount of batteries which are too heavy and too expensive.
technology is no longer relevant in the mass market penetration The lithium-ion battery cost is about 500$/kWh at the present
of EVs. It is hoped that researchers could be encouraged by
the state-of-the-art achievements, and push forward the further time. Considering the vehicle initial investment, maintenance,
development of WPT as well as the expansion of EV. and energy cost, the owning of a battery electric vehicle will
make the consumer spend an extra 1000$/year on average
Index Terms— Dynamic charging, electric vehicle (EV),
inductive power transfer (IPT), safety guidelines, stationary compared with a gasoline-powered vehicle [1]. Besides the
charging, wireless power transfer (WPT). cost issue, the long charging time of EV batteries also makes
the EV not acceptable to many drivers. For a single charge,
I. I NTRODUCTION it takes about one half-hour to several hours depending on
the power level of the attached charger, which is many times
F OR energy, environment, and many other reasons, the
electrification for transportation has been carrying out for
many years. In railway systems, the electric locomotives have
longer than the gasoline refueling process. The EVs cannot
get ready immediately if they have run out of battery energy.
already been well developed for many years. A train runs on a To overcome this, what the owners would most likely do is
fixed track. It is easy to get electric power from a conductor rail to find any possible opportunity to plug-in and charge the
using pantograph sliders. However, for electric vehicles (EVs), battery. It really brings some trouble as people may forget
the high flexibility makes it not easy to get power in a similar to plug-in and find themselves out of battery energy later on.
way. Instead, a high power and large capacity battery pack is The charging cables on the floor may bring tripping hazards.
usually equipped as an energy storage unit to make an EV to Leakage from cracked old cable, in particular in cold zones,
operate for a satisfactory distance. can bring additional hazardous conditions to the owner. Also,
Until now, the EVs are not so attractive to consumers people may have to brave the wind, rain, ice, or snow to plug-
even with many government incentive programs. Government in with the risk of an electric shock.
subsidy and tax incentives are one key to increase the market The wireless power transfer (WPT) technology, which can
share of EV today. The problem for an electric vehicle is eliminate all the charging troublesome, is desirable by the
nothing else but the electricity storage technology, which EV owners. By wirelessly transferring energy to the EV, the
requires a battery which is the bottleneck today due to its charging becomes the easiest task. For a stationary WPT
unsatisfactory energy density, limited life time and high cost. system, the drivers just need to park their car and leave. For a
dynamic WPT system, which means the EV could be powered
Manuscript received February 2, 2014; revised April 6, 2014; accepted while driving; the EV is possible to run forever without a stop.
April 18, 2014. Date of publication April 23, 2014; date of current ver- Also, the battery capacity of EVs with wireless charging could
sion January 29, 2015. Recommended for publication by Associate Editor
J. M. Miller. be reduced to 20% or less compared to EVs with conductive
S. Li is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Kunming Uni- charging.
versity of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China (e-mail: Although the market demand is huge, people were just
[email protected]).
C. C. Mi is with the Department of Electrical and Computer wondering whether the WPT could be realized efficiently at
Engineering, University of Michigan, Dearborn, MI 48128 USA (e-mail:
[email protected]). 1 Although lithium ion battery can achieve up to 200 Wh/kg for individual
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available cells, the battery pack requires structure design, cooling, and battery manage-
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. ment systems. The over energy density of a battery pack is much lower than
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JESTPE.2014.2319453 the cell density.
2168-6777 © 2014 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
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LI AND MI: WPT FOR EV APPLICATIONS 5
a reasonable cost. The research team from MIT published a

paper in Science [3], in which 60 W power is transferred at
a 2-m distance with the so called strongly coupled magnetic
resonance theory. The result surprised the academia and the
WPT quickly became a hot research area. A lot of interesting
works were accomplished with different kinds of innovative
circuit, as well as the system analysis and control [4]–[9]. The
power transfer path can even be guided using the domino-form
repeaters [10], [11]. In order to transfer power more efficiently
and further, the resonant frequency is usually selected at
MHz level, and air-core coils are adopted.
When the WPT is used in the EV charging, the MHz
frequency operation is hard to meet the power and efficiency
criteria. It is inefficient to convert a few to a few hundred
kilowatts power at MHz frequency level using state-of-the-
art power electronics devices. Moreover, air-core coils are too
sensitive to the surrounding ferromagnetic objects. When an
air-core coil is attached to a car, the magnetic flux will go Fig. 1. Typical wireless EV charging system.
inside the chassis causing high eddy current loss as well as
a significant change in the coil parameters. To make it more
practical in the EV charging, ferrite as a magnetic flux guide generation, a bus for the second, and an SUV for the third.
and aluminum plate as a shield are usually adopted in the coil The accomplishment of the second and the third is noteworthy:
design [12]. With the lowered frequency to less than 100 kHz, 60 kW power transfer for the buses and 20 kW for the
and the use of ferrite, the WPT system is no different from SUVs with efficiency of 70% and 83%, respectively; allowable
the inductive power transfer (IPT) technology which has been vertical distance and lateral misalignment up to 160 mm and
developed for many years [13]–[39]. In fact, since the WPT is up to 200 mm, respectively [56], [57]. In the United States,
based on the nonradiative and near-field electromagnetic, there more and more public attention was drawn to the WPT since
is no difference with the traditional IPT which is based on the publication of the 2007 Science paper [3]. The WiTricity
magnetic field coupling between the transmitting and receiving Corporation with technology from MIT released their WiT-
coils. The IPT system has already been proposed and applied 3300 development kit, which achieves 90% efficiency over a
to various applications, such as underwater vehicles [32]–[34], 180 mm gap at 3.3 kW output. Recently, a wireless charging
mining systems [16], cordless robots in automation production system prototype for EV was developed at Oak Ridge National
lines [36]–[39], as well as the charging of electric vehicles Laboratory (ORNL) in the United States. The tested efficiency
[13], [14], [25]–[27]. is nearly 90% for 3 kW power delivery [53]. The research
Recently, as the need of EV charging and also the progress at the University of Michigan–Dearborn achieved a 200 mm
in technology, the power transfer distance increases from distance, 8 kW WPT system with dc to dc efficiency as high
several millimeters to a few hundred millimeters at kilowatts as 95.7% [61]. From the functional aspects, it could be seen
power level [12], [14], [40]–[60]. As a proof-of-concept of a that the WPT for EV is ready in both stationary and dynamic
roadway inductively powered EV, the Partners for Advance applications. However, to make it available for large-scale
Transit and Highways (PATH) program was conducted at commercialization, there is still abundant work to be done on
the UC Berkeley in the late 1970s [14], [54]. A 60 kW, the performance optimization, setup of the industrial standards,
35-passanger bus was tested along a 213 m long track with making it more cost effective, and so on.
two powered sections. The bipolar primary track was supplied This paper starts with the basic WPT theory, and then
with 1200 A, 400 Hz ac current. The distance of the pickup gives a brief overview of the main parts in a WPT system,
from the primary track was 7.6 cm. The attained efficiency was including the magnetic coupler, compensation network, power
around 60% due to limited semiconductor technology. During electronics converter, study methodology, and its control, and
the last 15 years, researchers at Auckland University have some other issues like the safety considerations. By introduc-
focused on the inductive power supply of movable objects. ing the latest achievements in the WPT area, we hope the
Their recent achievement in designing pads for the stationary WPT in EV applications could gain a widespread acceptance
charging of EV is worth noting. A 766 mm × 578 mm in both theoretical and practical terms. Also, we hope more
pad that delivers 5 kW of power with over 90% efficiency researchers could have an interest and make more brilliant
for distances about 200 mm was reported [48], [55]. The contributions in the developing of WPT technology.
achieved lateral and longitudinal misalignment tolerance is
250 and 150 mm, respectively. The knowledge gained from II. F UNDAMENTAL T HEORY
the on-line electric vehicle (OLEV) project conducted at the A typical wireless EV charging system is shown in Fig. 1.
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) It includes several stages to charge an EV wirelessly. First,
also contributes to the WPT design. Three generations of the utility ac power is converted to a dc power source
OLEV systems have been built: a light golf cart as the first by an ac to dc converter with power factor correction.
6 IEEE JOURNAL OF EMERGING AND SELECTED TOPICS IN POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 3, NO. 1, MARCH 2015
Fig. 2. General two-coil WPT system.
Then, the dc power is converted to a high-frequency ac to where I1 and I2 are the root mean square value and ϕ12 is
drive the transmitting coil through a compensation network. the phase difference between I˙1 and I˙2 . The active power
Considering the insulation failure of the primary side coil, transfer from the primary side to the secondary side can be
a high-frequency isolated transformer may be inserted between expressed as
the dc-ac inverter and primary side coil for extra safety and
protection. The high-frequency current in the transmitting coil P12 = ωM I1 I2 sin ϕ12 . (3)
generates an alternating magnetic field, which induces an ac
The system shown in Fig. 2 can transfer active power in
voltage on the receiving coil. By resonating with the secondary
both directions. In the analysis below, we assume the power
compensation network, the transferred power and efficiency
is transferred from L 1 to L 2 . When ϕ12 = π/2, which means
are significantly improved. At last, the ac power is rectified
I˙1 leads I˙2 by a quarter cycle, the maximum power can be
to charge the battery. Fig. 1 shows that a wireless EV charger
transferred from L 1 to L 2 .
consists of the following main parts:
The total complex power goes into the two-coil system is
1) the detached (or separated, loosely coupled) transmitting
and receiving coils. Usually, the coils are built with Ṡ = Ṡ1 + Ṡ2
ferrite and shielding structure, in the later sections, the
= j ωL 1 I˙1 + ωM I˙2 I˙1∗ + j ωL 2 I˙2 + ωM I˙1 I˙2∗
term magnetic coupler is used to represent the entirety,
including coil, ferrite, and shielding; = j ω L 1 I12 + L 2 I22 + 2M I1 I2 cos ϕ12 . (4)
2) the compensation network;
Therefore, the total reactive power goes into the two-coil
3) the power electronics converters.
system is
The main difference between a wireless charger and a

conventional conductive or wired charger is that a transformer Q = ω L 1 I12 + L 2 I22 + 2M I1 I2 cos ϕ12 . (5)
is replaced by a set of loosely couple coils. To give a quick
idea of the WPT principle, the coil and the compensation For a traditional transformer, the reactive power represents
network are pulled out separately, as shown in Fig. 2, where the magnetizing power. Higher magnetizing power brings
L 1 represents the self-inductance of the primary side transmit- higher copper and core loss. To increase the transformer
ting coil and L 2 represents the self-inductance of the receiving efficiency, the ratio between the active power and reactive
coil; I˙1 and I˙2 are the current in the two coils; U̇12 is the power should be maximized. The ratio is defined by
voltage in the secondary coil that is induced by the current
|P12 | ωM I1 I2 sin ϕ12

in the primary side coil. U̇21 is the voltage in the primary f (ϕ12 ) = =
coil that is induced by the current in secondary side coil due |Q| ωL 1 I1 + ωL 2 I2 + 2ωM I1 I2 cos ϕ12
2 2

to coupling, or mutual inductance between the primary and k 1−cos2 ϕ12 k 1−cos2 ϕ12
secondary coils. S1 and S2 are the apparent power goes into = =
L 1 I1
+ L 2 I2
+2k cos ϕ 21
x + 1x + 2k cos ϕ12
L 1 and L 2 , respectively. S3 and S4 are the apparent power L 2 I2 L 1 I1
provided by the power converter. S12 and S21 represent the (6)
apparent power exchange between the two coils. The form of
the compensation network is not specified. The characteristics where π/2 < ϕ12 < π
of the compensation network will be discussed later.
As shown in Fig. 2, neglecting the coil resistance and L 1 I1
x= >0
magnetic losses, we can calculate the simplified form of L 2 I2
exchanged complex power from L 1 to L 2
k is the coupling coefficient between L 1 and L 2 .
Ṡ12 = −U̇12 I˙2∗ = − j ωM I˙1 I˙2∗ To achieve the maximum value of f (ϕ12 ), we solve the
= ωM I1 I2 sin ϕ12 − j ωM I1 I2 cos ϕ12 (1) following equations:
Ṡ21 = −U̇21 I˙1∗ = − j ωM I˙2 I˙1∗ ∂ ∂2
f (ϕ12 ) = 0, f (ϕ12 ) < 0 (7)
= −ωM I1 I2 sin ϕ12 − j ωM I1 I2 cos ϕ12 (2) ∂ϕ12 ∂ 2 ϕ12
and the solutions are We have

2k 4k 2 U12 = I2 (R2 + RLe ) = ωM I1 = ωk L 1 L 2 I1 (10)
cos ϕ12 = − , sin ϕ12 =
1 − 2 . (8)
x+ 1
x x + 1x where R2 is the secondary winding resistance and RLe is the
equivalent load resistance.
When k is close to 1, it is a traditional transformer. In this
By defining the quality factor of the two coils,
case, if I˙2 is an induced current by I˙1 , x will be close to 1.
Q 1 = ωL 1 /R1 , Q 2 = ωL 2 /R2 , the transferred efficiency can
Thus, cos ϕ12 ≈ −1. The phase difference between I˙1 and I˙2
be expressed as
is nearly 180°. While for WPT, k is close to 0. f (ϕ12 ) is
maximized at sin ϕ12 = 1, at which point the transferred power I22 RLe RLe
η= = (11)
is also maximized. The phase between I˙1 and I˙2 is around 90° I12 R1 + I22 R2 + I22 RLe (R2 +RLe )2
+ R2 + RLe .
instead of 180°. Hence we can see the difference between the k 2 Q 1 Q 2 R2
tightly and the loosely coupled coils. By defining a = RLe /R2 , we obtain the expression of
The degree of coupling affects the design of the compensa- efficiency as a function of a
tion network. Taking the series–series topology as an example, 1
there are two ways to design the resonant capacitor. One way η(a) = . (12)
a+ a1 +2
is design the capacitor to resonate with the leakage inductance k2 Q 1 Q 2
+ 1
a +1
[46], [62] which could achieve a higher f (ϕ12 ). Another way
is to resonate with the coil self-inductance [27], [41], [63] The maximum efficiency is obtained by solving the follow-
which could maximum the transferred power at a certain coil ing equations:
current. When the coupling is tight with a ferrite, like k > 0.5, ∂ ∂2
it is important to increase f (ϕ12 ) to achieve better efficiency. η(a) = 0, η(a) < 0. (13)
∂a ∂ 2a
In this case, resonate with the coil self inductance, which
The maximum efficiency
makes ϕ12 = π/2 and lowers f (ϕ12 ), is not recommended.
Otherwise the magnetizing loss may significantly increase. k2 Q1 Q2
When the capacitor resonates with the leakage inductance, it ηmax = 2
1 + 1 + k2 Q1 Q2
is like the leakage inductance is compensated. This makes the
1/2
transformer perform as a traditional one and increases f (ϕ12 ). is achieved at aη max = 1 + k 2 Q 1 Q 2 .
However, the overall system does not work at a resonant In [64], the maximum efficiency is also derived based on
mode. When the coupling is loose, like k < 0.5, which is several different kinds of compensation network. The results
the case for the EV wireless charging, usually the capacitor are identical and accord with the above results. The analysis
is tuned with the self inductance to make the system working here does not specify a particular compensation form. It can be
at a resonate mode to achieve maximum transferred power regarded as a general formula to evaluate the coil performance
at a certain coil current. In this case, most of the magnetic and estimate the highest possible power transfer efficiency.
field energy is stored in the large air gap between the two In EV wireless charging applications, the battery is usu-
coils. The hysteresis loss in the ferrite is not so relative ally connected to the coil through a diode-bridge rectifier.
to the magnetizing power. However, the loss in the copper Most of the time, there is some reactive power required.
wire is proportional to the square of the conducting current. The reactive power can be provide by either the coil or the
To efficiently transfer more power at a certain coil current, the compensation network like a unit-power-factor pickup. The
induced current I˙2 should lag I˙1 by 90°. Since the induced battery could be equivalent to a resistance Rb = Ub /Ib , where
voltage U̇12 on the receiving coil lags I˙1 by 90°, U̇12 and I˙2 Ub and Ib is the battery voltage and current, respectively.
should be in phase. The secondary side should have a pure If the battery is connected to the rectifier directly in a series-
resistive characteristic seen from U̇12 at the frequency of I˙1 . series compensation form, the equivalent ac side resistance
At the meanwhile, the primary side input apparent power S3 could be calculated by Rac = 8/π 2 · Rb . Thus, a battery
should be minimized. At cos ϕ12 = 0, the complex power Ṡ1 is load could be converted to a resistive load. The Rac equation
Ṡ1 = j ωL 1 I12 + ωM I1 I2 . (9) is different for different battery connection style, like with
or without dc/dc converter, parallel or series compensation.
Ideally, the primary side compensation network should Most of the time, the equivalent Rac could be derived. Some
cancel the reactive power and make S3 = ω0 M I1 I2 , where typical equivalent impendence at the primary side is given in
ω0 is the resonant frequency. From the above analysis, we see paper [42]. By calculating the equivalent ac resistances, the
for a certain transferred power, it is necessary to make the above equations could also be applied to a battery load with
secondary side resonant to reduce the coil volt-ampere (VA) rectifier.
rating, which reduces the loss in the coils; and to make the For stationary EV wireless charging, the coupling between
primary side resonant to reduce the power electronics converter the two coils is usually around 0.2. If both the sending and
VA rating, which reduces the loss in the power converter. receiving coils have a quality factor of 300, the theoretical
Therefore, we transfer power at the magnetic resonance. maximum power transfer efficiency is about 96.7%. More
With the above analysis, we can calculate the power transfer efficiency calculations under different coupling and quality
efficiency between the two coils at the resonant frequency. factors are shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Theoretical maximum transfer efficiency between two coils.
Fig. 4. Main flux path of double-sided and single-sided coupler. (a) Double-
sided type. (b) Single-sided type.
III. M AGNETIC C OUPLER D ESIGN
To transfer power wirelessly, there are at least two magnetic
A. Coupler in the Stationary Charging
couplers in a WPT system. One is at the sending side, named
primary coupler. The other is at the receiving side, named In a stationary charging, the coupler is usually designed in
pickup coupler. Depending on the application scenarios, the a pad form. The very early couplers are just like a simple
magnetic coupler in a WPT for an EV could be either a split core transformer [19], [38], [56]. Usually this kind of
pad or a track form. For higher efficiency, it is important design could only transfer power through a very small gap.
to have high coupling coefficient k and quality factor Q. To meet the requirements for EV charging, the deformations
Generally, for a given structure, the larger the size to gap from spilt core transformers and new magnetic coupler forms
ratio of the coupler is, the higher the k is; the thicker the wire are presented for large gap power transfer [12], [31], [37], [42],
and the larger the ferrite section area is, the higher the Q is. [47]–[50], [66]–[71]. According to the magnetic flux dis-
By increasing the dimensions and materials, higher efficiency tribution area, the coupler could be classified as the
can be achieved. But this is not a good engineering approach. double-sided and single-sided types. For the double-sided
It is preferred to have higher k and Q with the minimum type, the flux goes to both sides of the coupler [12],
dimensions and cost. Since Q equals ωL/R, high frequency is [31], [67]. A flattened solenoid inductor form is pro-
usually adopted to increase the value of Q. The researchers at posed in [12] and [67]. Because the flux goes through
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) used a frequency the ferrite like through a pipe, it is also called a flux-
at around 10 MHz and the coil Q value reached nearly pipe coupler. To prevent the eddy current loss in the
1000 [3]. In high power EV WPT applications, the frequency EV chassis, an aluminum shielding is usually added which
is also increased to have these benefits. In Bolger’s early bring a loss of 1%–2% [12]. When the shielding is added,
design, the frequency is only 180 Hz [13]. A few years later, the quality factor of a flux-pipe coupler reduces from
a 400 Hz frequency EV WPT system was designed by System 260 to 86 [48]. The high shielding loss makes the double-sided
Control Technology [14]. Neither 180 Hz nor 400 Hz is high coupler not the optimal choice. For the single-sided coupler,
enough for a loosely coupled system. Huge couplers were most of the flux exists at only one side of the coupler. As
employed in the two designs. Modern WPT system uses at shown in Fig. 4, the main flux path flows through the ferrite in
least 10 kHz frequency [15]. As the technical progress of a single-sided coupler. Unlike the double-sided coupler having
power electronics, 100 kHz could be achieved [65] at high half of the main flux at the back, the single-sided coupler only
power level. The WiTricity Company with the technology from has a leakage flux in the back. This makes the shielding effort
MIT adopts 145 kHz in their design. In the recent researches of a single-sided type much less.
and applications, the frequency adopted in an EV WPT system Two typical single-sided flux type pads are shown in Fig. 5.
is between 20 and 150 kHz to balance the efficiency and One is a circular unipolar pad [47]. Another one is a rectan-
cost. At this frequency, to reduce the ac loss of copper coils, gular bipolar pad proposed by University of Auckland, which
Litz wire is usually adopted. is also named DD pad [48]. Besides the mechanical support
Besides the frequency, the coupling coefficient k is sig- material, a single-sided pad is composed of three layers. The
nificantly affected by the design of the magnetic couplers, top layer is the coil. Below the coil, a ferrite layer is inserted
which is considered one of the most important factors in a for the purpose of enhancing and guiding the flux. At the
WPT system. With similar dimensions and materials, different bottom is a shielding layer. To transfer power, the two pads
coupler geometry and configuration will have a significant are put closed with coil to coil. With the shielding layer,
difference of coupling coefficient. A better coupler design most of the high-frequency alternating magnetic flux can be
may lead to a 50%–100% improvement compared with some confined in the space between the two pads. A fundamental
nonoptimal designs [48]. flux path concept was proposed in the flux pipe paper [67].
Fig. 6. Top view of W-shape and I-shape track configuration.
pickup coil is running along with the track, continues power

can be transferred. The track can be as simple as just two
wires [37], [77], or an adoption of ferrites with U-type or
Fig. 5. Two typical single-sided flux type pads. (a) Circular pad. W-type [26], [56] to increase the coupling and power trans-
(b) DD pad. fer distance. Further, a narrow-width track design with an
I-type ferrite was proposed by KAIST [72], [73]. The dif-
The flux path height of a circular pad is about one-fourth of ferences between the W-type and I-type are shown in Fig. 6.
the pad’s diameter. While for a DD pad, the height is about For W-type configuration, the distribution area of the ferrite W
half of the pad’s length. For a similar size, a DD pad has a determines the power transfer distance, as well as the lateral
significant improvement in the coupling. The charge zone for displacement. The total width of W-type should be about four
a DD pad could be about two times larger than a circular pad times the gap between the track and the pickup coil. For I-type
with similar material cost. The DD pad has a good tolerant in configuration, the magnetic pole alternates along with the road.
the y-direction. This makes the DD pad a potential solution The pole distance W1 is optimized to achieve better coupling at
for the dynamic charging when the driving direction is along the required distance. The width of pickup coil W2 is designed
with the y-axis. However, there is a null point for DD pad in to meet the lateral misalignment requirement. The relation
the x-direction at about 34% misalignment [48]. To increase between track width and transfer distance is decoupled and
the tolerant in x-direction, an additional quadrature coil named the track can be built at a very narrow form. The width for
Q coil is proposed to work together with the DD pad, which U-type and W-type is 140 and 80 cm, respectively [73]. For
is called DDQ pad [48], [49], [68]. With a DDQ receiving I-type, it could be reduced to only 10 cm with a similar power
pad on a DD sending pad, the charge zone is increased to five transfer distance and misalignment capacity. 35 kW power was
times larger than the circular configuration. As the additional transferred at a 200 mm gap and 240 mm displacement using
Q coil in the receiver side, the DDQ over DD configuration the I-type configuration [73]. With the narrowed design, the
uses almost two times copper compared with the circular construction cost could be reduced. Also, the track is far away
one [48]. A variant of a DDQ pad, which is called a new from the road side, the electromagnetic field strength exposed
bipolar pad, was also proposed by University of Auckland to pedestrians can also be reduced.
[49], [50]. By increasing the size of each D pad and having The problem of the track design is that the pickup coil only
some overlap between the two D coils, the new bipolar pad covers a small portion of the track, which makes the coupling
could have a similar performance of a DDQ pad with 25% coefficient very small. The poor coupling brings efficiency
less copper. With all the efforts, at 200 mm gap, the cou- and electromagnetic interference (EMI) issues. To reduce the
pling between the primary and secondary pads could achieve EMI issue, the track is built by segments [52], [70], [75]
0.15–0.3 with an acceptable size for an EV. Referred to Fig. 3, with a single power converter and a set of switches to power
at this coupling level, efficiency above 90% could possibly be the track. The excitation of each segment can be controlled
achieved. by the switches’ ON-OFF state. The electromagnetic field
above the inactive segments is reduced significantly. However,
B. Coupler in the Dynamic Charging there is always a high-frequency current flowing through the
The dynamic charging, also called the OLEVs [56] or common supply cables, which lowers the system efficiency.
roadway powered electric vehicles [14], is a way to charge The published systems efficiency is about 70%–80%, which
the EV while driving. It is believed that the dynamic charging is much lower than the efficiency achieved in the stationary
can solve the EVs’ range anxiety, which is the main reason charging.
limits the market penetration of EVs. In a dynamic charging When each segment is short enough, the track becomes like
system, the magnetic components are composed of a primary a pad in the stationary charging, which is the other kind of
side magnetic coupler, which is usually buried under the road, the primary magnetic coupler. Each pad can be driven by an
and a secondary side pickup coil, which is mounted under an independent power converter. Thus, the primary pads can be
EV chassis. There are mainly two kinds of primary magnetic selectively excited without a high-frequency common current.
coupler in the dynamic charging. The first kind is a long track Also, the energized primary pad is covered by the vehicle. The
coupler [26], [31], [57], [70], [72]–[76]. When an EV with a electromagnetic field is shielded to have a minimum impact
TABLE I
P RIMARY C OMPENSATION C APACITANCE
leakage inductance, the simplest way is to add a capacitor at

each side. As shown in Fig. 7, depending on how the capacitors
Fig. 7. Four basic compensation topologies. (a) SS. (b) SP. (c) PS. (d) PP. are connected to the coils, there are four basic compensation
topologies, which are series-series (SS), series-parallel (SP),
to the surrounding environment. The efficiency and EMI parallel-parallel (PP), and parallel-series (PS) [21], [23], [27],
performance could be as good as that in a stationary charging [80]–[82]. If the primary is series compensated, a voltage
application. However, the cost to build a power converter for source converter could be connected directly to the coil. If the
each pad is unaffordable. It is desired to use only one converter primary is parallel compensated, usually an inductor is inserted
to drive a few pads, and the current in each pad can be con- to change the converter to a current source. The secondary
trolled. A double-coupled method was proposed with each pad side capacitor C2 is usually designed to resonant with L 2 to
configured with an intermediary coupler and a bidirectional reduce the VA capacity of the coils. When the primary side coil
switch [78]. The intermediary couplers are coupled to one has a constant current, a series compensation at the secondary
primary coil at the converter side. The intermediary coupler side makes the output like a voltage source, while a parallel
performs like a high-frequency current source. By controlling compensation makes the output like a current source [27].
the ON-OFF time of the switch, the current in each pad can However, not all the design has a constant primary side current,
be controlled. However, even the corresponding pad is shut and different output characteristics can exist for a series or
down by the switches, the high-frequency current is always parallel compensation at the secondary side.
circulating in all the intermediary couplers, which may lower To reduce the power converter VA rating, the primary side
the efficiency. A reflexive field containment idea by North capacitor is usually tuned to make the input voltage and current
Carolina State University was also proposed [79]. Three pads in phase at certain coupling and load condition, which is
are driven from only one power converter. By carefully design- called the zero-phase-angle (ZPA) method. To realize soft-
ing the primary and pickup parameters, the reflexive field of switching for power electronics converters, the primary side
the pickup pad could enhance the current in the primary pad. compensation network is often tuned to make the primary side
The current in each primary pad is sensitive to the coupling has a small portion of reactive power to reach zero voltage
condition and could be automatically built up when the pickup switching (ZVS) or zero current switching (ZCS) condition
pad is coupled. The current decreases very quickly when the [22], [44], [83]. Since the tuned reactive power is relative
pickup pad moves away. The relation between the primary small, the parameters for realizing ZVS and ZCS are close
pad current and coupling coefficient is carefully designed. For to the parameters designed by ZPA method.
dynamic charging, the EV runs freely on the road which makes To calculate the primary side capacitance, a secondary
the coupling varies in a wide range. To make this method more load quality factor is defined. For series compensated sec-
practical, the system characteristics under coupling variation ondary, Q s = ω0 L 2 /R L . For parallel-compensated secondary,
caused by the lateral misalignment, vehicle forward movement Q s = R L /ω0 L 2 , where ω0 is the resonant frequency. The load
and vehicle types should be studied further. quality factor is a ratio between the reactive and active power.
To achieve ZPA at the primary side, the primary capac-
IV. C OMPENSATION N ETWORK itances for different types are listed in Table I [27]. From
Table I, we can see the primary compensation capacitance is
In a WPT system, the pads are loosely coupled with a a constant value for SS method regardless of the coupling
large leakage inductance. From the analysis in Section II, and load conditions. For SP method, the capacitance varies
it is required to use a compensation network to reduce the when the coupling changes. For PS and PP, the capacitance is
VA rating in the coil and power supply. In early inductive affected by both the coupling and load conditions.
charging designs, the compensation is set on primary or When the secondary is at resonant frequency, the reflected
secondary side only [18]. When the coupling coefficient is load at the primary side could be calculated
reduced to less than 0.3 in the EV WPT, compensation at
both the primary and secondary side is recommended to have ω02 M 2
Rr_ss = Rr_ps = (14)
a more flexible and advanced characteristics. To compensate a RL
Fig. 8. Circuit schematic of a typical WPT configuration.
M 2 RL Both of the LCL and LCLC structure achieve a significant

Rr_sp = Rr_pp = . (15)
L 22 efficiency improvement compared with the traditional LC
parallel structure.
For SS structure, from (14) we see that when the coupling
reduces, the reflected resistance at the primary side reduces. V. P OWER E LECTRONICS C ONVERTER
This will increase the output power when the primary side is AND P OWER C ONTROL
connected to a voltage source. For PS structure, the reflected In a WPT system, the function of the primary side power
resistance changes in the same way as the change of coupling. electronics converter is to generate a high-frequency current
However, the PS structure should be connected to a current in the sending coil. To increase the switching frequency and
source. The output power will reduce when the coupling efficiency, usually a resonant topology is adopted [21]–[23],
reduces. To maintain a constant output power when the [55], [85], [87], [88], [92]–[96]. At the secondary side, a
coupling changes, SPS compensation method was proposed rectifier is adopted to convert the high-frequency ac current to
in [84]. It can be regarded as a combination of SS and PS. dc current. Depending on whether a secondary side control is
By designing a proper ratio between the two primary side needed, an additional converter may be employed. The primary
capacitors, the characteristic of SS and PS are mixed. Thus, side converter may be a voltage or a current source converter.
constant output power is achieved at a high misalignment As a bulky inductor is needed for the current source converter,
tolerant without adjusting the primary power supply. the most common choice at the primary side is a full bridge
By introducing a inductor-capacitor (LC) compensation voltage source resonant converter. A typical wireless power
network, a primary side inductor-cap (LCL) current source circuit schematic is shown in Fig. 8. In the primary side, the
structure is widely used in the inductive heating and wireless full bridge converter outputs a high-frequency square voltage.
power transfer applications [44], [85]–[88]. The advantage By adopting the LC compensation network, a constant high-
of the LCL structure is obvious. At the resonant frequency, frequency current can be maintained in L 1 . An additional
a LCL network performs like a current source. The current capacitor C1s is introduced here to compensated part of
in the primary side coil is controlled by the high-frequency the reactive power on L 1 . Thus, the power rating on L f 1
square wave voltage from the power converter regardless of could be reduced. The system design flexibility could also be
the coupling and load condition. This makes the control at improved. At the secondary side, the parallel compensation
the primary side much easier. Moreover, by tuning the LCL is adopted. With a constant primary coil current and parallel
parameters, the reactive power can be fully compensated. The secondary side compensation, the output is like a current
power converter provides the active power only. The required source. At a certain coupling, the current in L 3 is almost
VA rating for the power converter can also be minimized. constant. By changing the duty ratio of switch S5 , the output
Together with the LCL primary compensation, compen- power can be controlled.
sation using parallel form at the secondary is adopted in Many different control methods were proposed to con-
many designs [55], [69]. The power control and decoupling trol the transferred power. Depending on where the control
method for a parallel structure has been well developed [21]. action is applied, the control method could be classified as
However, a parallel-compensated system has a large reactive primary side control [92], [95], [97], secondary side control
current in the pickup coil and the reactive power is reflected [27], [30], [45], and dual-side control [55]. In most cases,
to the primary side. To overcome the disadvantage of the the primary side and dual-side control is only suitable for
parallel pick compensation, a unit power factor pickup is power transfer from one primary pad to one pickup pad. The
proposed by University of Auckland [89]–[91]. By introducing secondary side control could be used in the scenario where
a LCL form pickup coil, the circulating current in the pickup multiple pickup pads are powered from one primary pad or
coil can be minimized and only the active load is reflected track.
to the primary side. To cancel the nonlinear effect of the The control at the primary side can be realized by changing
rectifier diodes, another capacitor is introduce to form a LCLC the frequency, duty cycle and the phase between the two legs.
compensation form, which could achieve an exactly unit power Since the characteristic of a resonant converter is related to
factor at predetermined load condition. From the comparisons, the operating frequency, a frequency control at the primary
the difference of a LCL and LCLC form is insignificant. side is adopted in some designs [53], [98]. When adjusting
the frequency, it should be noted that the bifurcation phe-

nomenon in the loosely coupled systems [23]. The power
versus frequency is not always a monotonic function. Also,
the frequency control method takes up a wider radio frequency
bandwidth, which may increases the risk of electromagnetic
interference. When the switching frequency is fixed, the con-
trol can be carried out by duty cycle or phase shift [99]. The
problem of duty cycle or phase shift control is that there is a
high circulating current in the converter. Also, the ZVS or ZCS
switching condition may be lost. To ensure ZVS, an alternative
way to control the system output power is to adjust the input dc
voltage VS [73]. An asymmetrical voltage cancellation method,
which uses an alternative way to change the duty cycle, was
proposed to increase the ZVS region [88]. A discrete energy
injection method, which could achieve ZCS and lower the
switching frequency at light load condition, was proposed in Fig. 9. WPT system with SP resonant topology and its representation as
[43], [92], and [94]. a two-port network. Top: SP topology. Bottom: two-port network of a WPT
system.
At the secondary side, as shown in Fig. 8, with parallel
compensation, a boost converter is inserted after the rectifier
for the control. Correspondingly, with series compensation, a
buck converter can be used. When the control is after the recti- 5) soft switching of the power converters in a WPT system
fier, an additional dc inductor, as well as a diode on the current that involve the various methods to study power elec-
flow path, should be introduced. The University of Auckland tronic circuits.
proposed a control method at the ac side before the rectifier. By In particular, two-port network theory can be an efficient
doing so, the dc inductor and additional diodes could be saved. tool for the study of WPT systems [102]. Fig. 9 shows
Because of the resonating in the ac side, ZVS and ZCS could the WPT system with SP resonant topology and its generic
be achieved. The detailed designs for series compensation as two-port network representation.
well as a LC compensation network are presented in [91], The impedance matrix, transfer matrix, and scattering
[100], and [101]. The dual-side control is a combination of matrix can be defined as
both primary and secondary side control [55]. The system Impedance matrix-Z
complexity and cost may increase, but the efficiency can be
optimized by a dual-side control.
V1 Z 11 Z 12 I1
= .
V2 Z 21 Z 22 −I2
VI. S TUDY M ETHODS
WPT involves multiple disciplines, including magnetics, Transfering matrix-T
power electronics, communications, mechanical engineering,
and electric engineering. The study of a WPT system can be V1 a b V2
very complex owing to the multidisciplinary nature and the = .
I1 c d −I2
uncertainties of the system. For example, the magnetic field
is at high frequency and low density, and varies with gap
Scattering matrix-S
distance, misalignment, and power levels. The resonance in
the system is key to the high efficiency power transfer but that
b1 S11 S12 a1
could be also affected by coupling between the two coils, and = .
surrounding media (raining or dry environment). Typically, the b2 S21 S22 a2
study of WPT systems involves:
1) analytical method, including circuit analysis and By rearrange the equations above, we can obtain the rela-
calculation of mutual inductances through analytical tionships between impedance matrix and the transfer matrix
approaches;
2) field analysis using numerical tools such as finite 1 a −(ad − bc)
Z =
element methods, finite boundary method, high- c 1 −d
frequency structured system analysis, and so forth;
3) simulation of lumped model involving parametric analy- 1 Z 11 −(Z 11 Z 22 − Z 12 Z 21 )
T = .
sis, that is, coupling coefficient change versus efficiency, Z 21 1 −Z 22 .
and so forth;
4) experimental study involving the use network analyzers Similarly, we can obtain the relationships between
and field measurements and parameter identifications of impedance matrix and the scattering matrix as shown at the
the WPT system and its resonant characteristics; top of next page.

Z0 (1 + S11 )(1 − S22 ) + S12 S21 2S12
Z =
DS 2S21 (1 − S11 )(1 + S22 ) + S12 S21

1 (Z 11 − Z 0 )(Z 22 + Z 0 ) − Z 12 Z 21 2Z 12 Z 0
S=
DZ 2Z 21 Z 0 (Z 11 + Z 0 )(Z 22 − Z 0 ) − Z 12 Z 21
where flux coupled between the two coils is the foundation for WPT,
which cannot be shielded. The large air-gap between the two
D Z = (Z 11 + Z 0 )(Z 22 + Z 0 ) − Z 12 Z 21
coils causes a high leakage field. The frequency and amplitude
D S = (1 − S11 )(1 − S22 ) − S12 S21 . of the leakage magnetic field should be elaborately controlled
to meet the safety regulations.
Input power to the network
A safe region should always be defined for a wireless
|VS |2 |VS |2 (1 − |in |2 )|1 − S |2 charging EV. We should ensure that the magnetic flux density
P1 = R in = .
|Z S + Z in |2 4Z 0 |1 − in S |2 should meet the safety guidelines when people are in normal
Output power positions, such as standing outside a car or sitting inside a
car. Fortunately, a car is usually made of steel, which is a
|Z 21 |2 |VS |2 very good shielding material.
P2 = RL
|(Z in + Z S )(Z 22 + Z L )|2 The guideline published by the International Commission
|VS |2 (1 − | L |2 )|1 − S |2 |S21 |2 on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) is the most
= . referenced standard to ensure the human safety. There are two
4Z 0 |(1 − S11 S )(1 − S22 L ) − S12 S21 S L |2
versions of ICNIRP standards. The first one was published
Efficiency at 1998. In ICNIRP 1998, there are two reference levels
P2 1 1 − | L |2 for occupational and general public exposure, respectively.
η= = |S21 |2 At frequency 0.8–150 kHz, which covers most of the EV WPT
P1 1 − |in | |1 − |S22 L |2
2
frequency, the limit for general public exposure is 6.25 μT.
where in is the input reflection coefficient, L is the load
For occupational exposure, it is a little different. At frequency
reflection coefficient, and Z in is the input impedance. 0.82–65 kHz, the limit is 30.7 μT. While at 0.065–1 MHz,
For SP topology, we can derive the transfer parameters as
the limit is 2/ f . f is the frequency measured in MHz.
follows:
Under the ICNIRP 1998 guideline, the safety evaluation for
1 1 L 2 C2 a 5 kW stationary EV WPT system was conducted [55]. The
a= L1 − 2 + R1 C 2 R2 +
Lm ω C1 C1 average magnetic field exposed to a 1500 mm height body was
4.36 μT. For a 35 kW dynamic EV WPT system, the magnetic
1 j R1
+ − ω C2 L 1 L 2 − L m +
2 2
− flux density at 1 m from the center of the road is 2.8 μT [72].
Lm Lm ω
Both the stationary and dynamic WPT system design could
j C 2 R2 meet the ICNIRP 1998 safety guidelines. A good thing for
+ ωC2 R2 L 1 − + ωC2 R1 L 2
Lm ωC1 EV WPT is that, after another 10 years of experience on
the health affection of time-varying electromagnetic, ICNIRP
1 R2
b= L 1 R2 − 2 + R1 L 2 revised the guideline at 2010 and increased the reference level
Lm ω C1
significantly. For occupational exposure, the reference level is
j R1 R2 L2 relaxed to 100 μT. For general public, the value changes from
+ − + ω L 1 L 2 − L 2m −
Lm ω ωC1 6.25 to 27 μT. The increase in the reference level is because
the former guideline is too conservative. There is another stan-
1 −1
c= C 2 R2 + j + ωC2 L 2 dard about the electromagnetic field safety issues, IEEE Std.
Lm ω
C95.1-2005, presented by the IEEE International Committee
1 R2 on Electromagnetic Safety. In IEEE Std. C95.1-2005, the
d = L2 + j − .
Lm ω maximum permissible exposure of head and torso is 205 μT
From the above equations, one can easily study the system for general public, and 615 μT for occupation. The maximum
performance by adjusting the parameters of the system. permissible exposure for the limbs is even higher, which
is 1130 μT for both the general public and occupation.
Compared with the IEEE Std., the ICNIRP 2010 standard is
VII. A DDITIONAL D ISCUSSION
still conservative. According to ICNIRP 2010, the exposure
A. Safety Concerns safety boundaries of our 8 kW EV WPT system for both
WPT avoids the electrocution danger from the traditional occupation and general public people are shown in Fig. 10.
contact charging method. But, when charging an EV battery Together with the chassis, the safety zone is quite satisfactory.
wirelessly, there is a high-frequency magnetic field existing On the premise of safety, higher power WPT system could be
between the transmitting and receiving coils. The magnetic developed according to the ICNIRP 2010.
The Qi standard for wireless low-power transfer modulates a

2 kHz signal onto the power carrier frequency [114]. The com-
munication signal is transmitted through the power coils. The
2 kHz signal is very easy to process even by using the existing
microcontroller in the device. In this way, the extra antennas
and control chips for the communication could be saved.
In EV WPT system, for the high voltage on the power
coils, isolation is required for the communication control
circuit which may increase the cost. For advanced infor-
mation exchange, general wireless communication protocols,
like Bluetooth, near field communication (NFC), and so on,
Fig. 10. Exposure limit boundary for an 8 kW WPT system. could be adopted. In the EV WPT prototype from ORNL,
the Dedicated Short Range Communications (DSRC) Link is
used [95]. The DSRC is a technology based on global position
Besides the safety issue, the emission limit for Industrial, system and IEEE 802.11p wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi), which
Scientific, and Medical (ISM) equipment is also regulated could realize the connection between vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V)
by Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in Title 47 and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) [115]. The FCC already
of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR 47) in part 18 in allocates 75 MHz band at 5.9 GHz for DSRC. It is being
United States. According to FCC part 18, ISM equipment committed to use by the U.S. Department of Transportation in
operating in a specified ISM frequency band is permitted the Intelligent Transportation System. As the IEEE and SAE
unlimited radiated energy. However, the lowest ISM frequency standards were already published, the DSRC could provide
is at 6.78 MHz, which is too high for EV WPT. When the an easier way to implement the smart grid functionalities and
WPT operates at a non-ISM frequency, the field strength limit maximize the vehicle to grid benefits.
should be subjected to §18.305. The Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE) has already formed a committee, J2954, to D. Cost
look into many issues related to EV WPT systems. Among
An importance factor that affects the future of WPT is its
one of their goals will be safety standards. It is projected that
cost. Actually, from Fig. 8 we see the WPT has only a little
a SAE standard on EV WPT systems will be released in June
difference with a wired charger. The extra cost in a WPT is
2014 by this committee. More standards and regulations from
mainly brought by the magnetic coupler. For our 8 kW station-
different regions are summarized in a paper from Qualcomm
ary WPT design [61], the material cost of the two magnetic
Incorporated [103].
couplers is about $400. This will be the rough cost increase
of an 8 kW wireless charger compared with a wired charger,
B. Vehicle to Grid Benefits which is quite acceptable if considering all the convenience
As the ongoing develop of EV, the vehicle to grid brought by the WPT and long-term operation cost savings and
(V2G) concept, which studies the interaction between mass reduction of battery size. For the dynamic WPT design, the
EV charging and the power grid, is also a hot research topic infrastructure cost including converter and track for 1km one-
in smart grid and EV areas. It is recognized that if the way road is controlled to $0.4 million [57]. The investment
EV charging procedure could be optimized, it could have of electrification is much lower with the construction cost of
many benefits for the grid. The EV could balance the loads the road itself. With the road electrification, the EV on-board
by valley filling and peak shaving. The batteries in the EVs batteries could be reduced to 20%. The savings on the batteries
are like an energy bank, thus some unstable new energy might be much more than the investment on the infrastructure.
power supply, like wind power, could be connected to the Studies also show that with only 1% electrification of the urban
grid more easily. When the secondary rectifier diodes are road, most of the vehicles could meet a 300-mile range easily
replaced by active switches, a bidirectional WPT function is [60], [116]. The road electrification time is coming.
realized [104]–[112]. The bidirectional WPT could provide
advanced performance in V2G applications. Studies show that VIII. C ONCLUSION
by introducing WPT technology, the drivers are more willing
This paper presented a review of wireless charging of
to connect their EV into the grid [113], which could maximize
electric vehicles. It is clear that vehicle electrification is
the V2G benefits.
unavoidable because of environment and energy related issues.
Wireless charging will provide many benefits as compared
C. Wireless Communications with wired charging. In particular, when the roads are elec-
In a WPT system, it is important to exchange information trified with wireless charging capability, it will provide the
between the grid side and vehicle side wirelessly to provide foundation for mass market penetration for EV regardless of
a feedback. Thus, the power flow could be controlled by battery technology. With technology development, wireless
the methods mentioned in Section V. The communication charging of EV can be brought to fruition. Further studies in
design could be classified by whether the signal is modulated topology, control, inverter design, and human safety are still
on the power carrier or uses a separate frequency band. needed in the near term.
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for IPT systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 25, no. 5, He was a Post-Doctoral Fellow with the University of Michigan, Dearborn,
pp. 1275–1284, May 2010. MI, USA, from 2011 to 2013. In 2013, he joined the Faculty of Electric Power
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tuned inductive-power-transfer pickup with a controllable AC-voltage China, where he is currently a Lecturer with the Department of Electrical
output,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 98–109, Engineering. He is also the Director of the Advanced Power Electronics
Jan. 2011. and New Energy Laboratory. His current research interests include battery
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Available: http://eceweb1.rutgers.edu/~orfanidi/ewa/ for electric vehicles.
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directional inductive power transfer system,” IET Power Electron.,
vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 471–480, Apr. 2011. Chunting Chris Mi (S’00–A’01–M’01–SM’03–F’12) received the B.S.E.E.
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power interface for electric vehicles in V2G systems,” IEEE Trans. Ind. China, and the Ph.D. degree from the University of Toronto, Toronto, ON,
Electron., vol. 58, no. 10, pp. 4789–4796, Oct. 2011. Canada, all in electrical engineering.
[106] D. J. Thrimawithana and U. K. Madawala, “A three-phase bi-directional He was an Electrical Engineer with General Electric Canada Inc., Toronto.
IPT system for contactless charging of electric vehicles,” in Proc. IEEE He is a Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering and the Director
ISIE, Jun. 2011, pp. 1957–1962. of the newly established DOE funded GATE Center for Electric Drive
[107] T. P. E. R. Joy, K. Thirugnanam, and P. Kumar, “Bidirectional contact- Transportation at the University of Michigan, Dearborn, MI, USA. His current
less charging system using Li-ion battery model,” in Proc. 7th IEEE research interests include electric drives, power electronics, electric machines,
ICIIS, Aug. 2012, pp. 1–6. renewable energy systems, electrical and hybrid vehicles. He has conducted
[108] M. J. Neath, A. K. Swain, U. K. Madawala, D. J. Thrimawithana, extensive research and authored more than 100 articles.
and D. M. Vilathgamuwa, “Controller synthesis of a bidirectional Dr. Mi was the Chair from 2008 to 2009 and the Vice Chair from 2006 to
inductive power interface for electric vehicles,” in Proc. 3rd IEEE 2007 of the IEEE Southeastern Michigan Section. He was the General Chair
ICSET, Sep. 2012, pp. 60–65. of the 5th IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference held in Dearborn
[109] A. K. Swain, M. J. Neath, U. K. Madawala, and D. J. Thrimawithana, in 2009. He is an Area Editor of the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON V EHICULAR
“A dynamic multivariable state-space model for bidirectional inductive T ECHNOLOGY and the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON P OWER E LECTRONICS –
power transfer systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 27, no. 11, L ETTERS , an Associate Editor of the IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON I NDUSTRY
pp. 4772–4780, Nov. 2012. A PPLICATIONS, a Senior Editor of the IEEE V EHICULAR T ECHNOLOGY
[110] C. Tang, X. Dai, Z. Wang, Y. Su, and Y. Sun, “A bidirectional M AGAZINE, a Guest Editor of the International Journal of Power Electronics,
contactless power transfer system with dual-side power flow control,” an Editorial Board Member of the International Journal of Electric and
in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Power Syst. Technol., Nov. 2012, pp. 1–6. Hybrid Vehicles and IET E LECTRICAL S YSTEMS IN T RANSPORTATION, and
[111] D. J. Thrimawithana and U. K. Madawala, “A generalized steady-state was an Associate Editor of the Journal of Circuits, Systems, and Computers
model for bidirectional IPT systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., from 2007 to 2009. He was a recipient of the Distinguished Teaching Award
vol. 28, no. 10, pp. 4681–4689, Oct. 2013. and the Distinguished Research Award of the University of Michigan, the 2007
[112] D. J. Thrimawithana, U. K. Madawala, and M. Neath, “A synchro- IEEE Region 4 Outstanding Engineer Award, the IEEE Southeastern Michi-
nization technique for bidirectional IPT systems,” IEEE Trans. Ind. gan Section Outstanding Professional Award, and the SAE Environmental
Electron., vol. 60, no. 1, pp. 301–309, Jan. 2013. Excellence in Transportation Award.

Wireless Power Transfer For Electric Vehicle Applications: Siqi Li, Member, IEEE, and Chunting Chris Mi, Fellow, IEEE

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4 IEEE JOURNAL OF EMERGING AND SELECTED TOPICS IN POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 3, NO.

Wireless Power Transfer for Electric

a reasonable cost. The research team from MIT published a

Fig. 2. General two-coil WPT system.

and the solutions are We have

Fig. 3. Theoretical maximum transfer efficiency between two coils.

Fig. 6. Top view of W-shape and I-shape track configuration.

pickup coil is running along with the track, continues power

leakage inductance, the simplest way is to add a capacitor at

Fig. 8. Circuit schematic of a typical WPT configuration.

M 2 RL Both of the LCL and LCLC structure achieve a significant

the frequency, it should be noted that the bifurcation phe-

The Qi standard for wireless low-power transfer modulates a

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