Open Access Library Journal

2022, Volume 9, e8791

ISSN Online: 2333-9721
ISSN Print: 2333-9705

Charging Station of Electric Vehicle Based on

IoT: A Review

Mahmood H. Qahtan, Emad A. Mohammed, Ahmed J. Ali

Technical Engineering College, Northern Technical University, Mosul, Iraq

How to cite this paper: Qahtan, M.H., Abstract

Mohammed, E.A. and Ali, A.J. (2022)
Charging Station of Electric Vehicle Based At present, humans face the problem of lack of fuel and environmental pollu-
on IoT: A Review. Open Access Library tion to reduce pollution as well as fuel consumption. We have to use electric
Journal, 9: e8791. vehicles, but the spread of these vehicles is still low due to the lack of charging
https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1108791
stations as well as their high prices. This paper reviews important research
Received: April 26, 2022 about charging stations with IoT and the charging type used in these stations,
Accepted: May 29, 2022 and it makes a comparison between them, as well as the sources for these sta-
Published: June 1, 2022 tions, which may be renewable and non-renewable energy. Using IoT saves
Copyright © 2022 by author(s) and Open
the time spent by the user looking for the stations’ location with the possibil-
Access Library Inc. ity of knowing the location of charging stations by using a mobile application,
This work is licensed under the Creative as well as the possibility of placing charging stations in public places and park-
Commons Attribution International ing stations, thus making it easier to move to the use of these new vehicles.
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access
Subject Areas
Wireless Communication, Computer Engineering

Keywords
State Of Charge (SOC), Electric Vehicle, Internet of Things (IoT), Charging
Station, Battery Management System (BMS), Renewable Energy Resources

1. Introduction
Nowadays, electric vehicles are a hot issue, and they’re an important element of
the intelligent world. The mobility of electric vehicles is sometimes limited. As a
result, it requires regular recharging. The population is growing at an exponen-
tial rate, resulting in increased traffic congestion. As it’s known that there is a fi-
nite supply of fuel on our planet, it is time to move to a different mode of trans-
portation, and electricity is the greatest alternative for this, with electric vehicles
being an example. Plug-in charging is the most often used charging method for

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 M. H. Qahtan et al.

electric vehicles, consisting of a plug that must be attached to the car to start
charging. There is no need to turn the plug on and off while using wireless
charging. As a result, that makes a less-human intervention, and the electric
shock danger from links that are connected will be reduced. The range of plug-in
electric cars is limited, and they require huge and weighty batteries. The main
advantages of wireless charging technology are that it improves the range of the
automobile and reduces the battery size. It also reduces the cost of charging and
the time it takes to charge the car. This leads to an increase in the environmental
and financial benefits of electric vehicles, as well as their rapid acceptance [1].
Electric cars, like current gasoline vehicles, need a charging station. There are
two types of charging methods for Wireless Power Transfer (WPT)-based EV
batteries): static and dynamic charging. Static-charging EVs are referred to as
battery electric vehicles (BEV), whereas dynamically charged EVs are referred to
as on-line-electric vehicles (OLEV). The BEV can be charged at home or work.
However, the EV battery’s large size is its main disadvantage. The storage system
must be large enough to hold a significant amount of charge, which necessitates
a larger battery and a heavier EV. In an OLEV, the main site of the connected
coils used for electromagnetic charging of an EV battery is placed on the road,
while the secondary side is placed on the car’s bottom, allowing one or more ve-
hicles to be charged at the same time while on the road. When compared with
BEVs, OLEVs have a smaller battery, which improves the vehicle’s efficiency [2].
Because of the time taken by charging, it is more economical to make a car
charged while it is parked. As a result, it is cost-effective to combine the charging
and parking systems that use IoT technology and are user-friendly. Information
may be uploaded to the cloud and smartphones at the same time. The (IoT) is
the greatest platform for monitoring the state of the Wireless Power Transfer)
WPT (system, since it allows for higher connection, customized sensing,
processing of information and adaptability [3]. Electric vehicles (EVs) are rapid-
ly growing due to five major global themes: 1) Depletion of fossil fuels and asso-
ciated rises in fuel prices; 2) Public awareness of climate change and desire to
combat it; 3) advancements in renewable energy technology and commercial ef-
fectiveness; 4) improvement of electric motors and electronic control systems
that directly control EV thrust; and 5) advancements in EV supportive technolo-
gies such as Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V) and Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) [4]. The driving
range of electric vehicles is determined by the battery capacity, but the power-
train’s complexity is also essential. The goal of recent research has been to ex-
tend the range of electric cars [5]. As a result, battery management and moni-
toring solutions are required. A thorough analysis of Li-ion batteries EVs are
used is described in [6]. Many varieties of Li batteries’ fundamental operating
ideas, assembly, and performance are explained and proposed for high-capacity
batteries that require a rapid charging mechanism. (SOC) is one of the most
important critical enablers for determining the capacity state of the battery so
that it may be charged and discharged safely, extending its life. The ratio be-

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tween the battery’s balancing relationship and its rated capacity can be expressed
in this way. As a result, SOC aids with battery management [7]. In [8], the State
Of Charge (SOC), which refers to the available capacity of battery, is one of the
most essential metrics of a battery. Several factors influence SOC, including bat-
tery chemistry, age, temperature, load characteristics, and so on [9]. The SoC is
the percentage of a battery’s remaining charge capacity in its maximum possible
battery capacity. The SoC of the battery serves the same purpose as the gasoline
fuel gauge used in a gasoline-powered car, indicating how far energy is left in the
battery to supply an EV. The correct computation of battery SoC not only helps
offer real-time info about the battery’s outstanding capacity and energy, never-
theless, it furthermore assures a dependable and safe vehicle process. However,
determining the SoC of batteries is challenging because they are composite elec-
trochemical devices with nonlinear performance that fluctuates based on inter-
nal and external inputs. To satisfy the demands of electric cars, however, tens
too many cells must be linked in parallel and series due to the low voltage and
energy of a single cell. Four different types of batteries used in Electric vehicles:
Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion), Molten Salt (Na-NiCl2), Nickel Metal Hydride (Ni-MH),
and Lithium Sulphur (Li-S), all of which have the same electric energy storage
capacity. Due to its high energy density and enhanced power per mass battery
unit, Li-Ion batteries are now the most widely utilized technology in electric
cars, allowing the creation of various types of batteries with decreased weight
and dimensions at competitive rates. The disadvantage of Li-Ion batteries is their
high generated operational temperature, which can have an impact on an ener-
getic performance, as well as their lifetime and safety during use [10].
The SOC of a battery may be determined in a variety of methods. These me-
thods may be classified into three groups: The three categories are electrochem-
ical, adaptive, and electrical. Electrochemical techniques are exceedingly exact,
but they require electrical power. As a result of the battery’s chemical composi-
tion, software implementation is difficult. A comparable circuit model and a so-
lution approach are required for adaptive battery processes [11]. The accuracy of
adaptive techniques is determined by the efficiency of the corresponding model.
Observable factors like charge/discharge current, terminal voltage, and internal
resistance, on the other hand, are all required for electrical techniques. Due to its
simplicity and ease of implementation, the coulomb counting (electric) approach
is one of the most often used approaches to estimate SOC [12]. The battery state
of charge is an important BMS evaluation indicator (SOC). The SOC refers to
the amount of charge left in the battery cells about its capacity. There is current-
ly no direct technique to determine the SOC of a Li-ion battery. As a result, it
can only guess at the SOC by looking at battery metrics like current, voltage,
temperature, and so on [13]. SOC is defined mathematically as Equation (1).
Qavailable
SOC = (1)
Qrated

where (Qavailable) is available in the continuing battery charge, and (Qrated) is the

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 M. H. Qahtan et al.

rated battery capacity, Qrated is not constant during the lifetime of the battery,
Qrated varies during the battery’s lifetime depending on different external issues
such as ambient temperature, discharge current, battery aging, SOH, the number
of charges/discharge. In [14], it had been proved that an internal resistance
equivalent circuit model (ECM) with a comparable charging and discharging
curve could be used. To anticipate the state of charge indicated in Figure 1, the
Kalman filter (KF) and (ECM) are utilized. When the Coulomb counting Am-
pere-hour integral approach was employed to estimate SOC, the voltage of the
cell to the battery pack readings matched to SOC.
A Battery Management Systems (BMS’s) calculation of battery SoC is always
an important component. The precise and trusted calculation of the SoC can
serve as a critical criterion for the design of a vehicle’s energy management and
control system. As a result, a wider variety of approaches for predicting battery
SoC in real-time have been presented to make it easier to compare various tech-
niques, they’ve been divided into four groups as explained briefly below. The ca-
tegorization is shown in Figure 2.
1) Looking-Up Table-Based Techniques
The open-circuit voltage (OCV), impedance, and other outside (static) cha-
racteristic features of the batteries are directly mapped to their SoC. By calculat-
ing their parameters and formerly using a table named the (looking up table)
technique, this table was established using the relations between SoC and one or
more factors, we may suppose the SoC. Consider the OCV of the battery as an
example. Figure 3 shows the OCV vs. SoC of battery for a lithium-ion polymer
battery (LiPB). It shows that as a LiPB the OCV of cells is increasing in lockstep
with the cell’s SoC. If the OCV knew, that may deduce the SoC of the battery by
observing the table between SoC and OCV. For most battery management solu-
tions, this relationship is used to estimate SoC. It may be effectively utilized to
calibrate an incorrect SoC. However, measuring the accurate OCV in real-time is
difficult since measuring battery OCV necessitates removing the power and al-
lowing the battery to rest for a long period. However, because battery impedance
measurement is reliant on the measuring instrument, it cannot be utilized to
operate electric vehicles. This version of the SoC valuation technique is suited
for usage in a lab environment.

Figure 1. Adaptive extended Kalman filter.

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Figure 2. Categories of the SOC estimation methods.

Figure 3. OCV with SOC curve of a LiPB battery cell.

2) An Ampere-Hour Integral Technique

The ampere-hour integral approach may be used to calculate the variance of
the SoC when the maximum usable capacity of a battery is known and its cur-
rent can be monitored precisely. We can get the accurate SoC if we know the ini-
tial SoC. Because there are no severe negative effects during regular operation,

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this approach is particularly accurate for batteries. However, there are three li-
mitations to this approach of estimating the SoC that must be addressed first. To
begin, the initial SoC must be determined. Second, battery current measurement
inaccuracies due to random disturbances like noise and temperature drift are
unavoidable. Finally, due to changes in operating circumstances and battery ag-
ing levels, the Q (Q specifies the greatest available capacity) must be recalibrated.
The combination of the aforementioned issues would reduce the method’s relia-
bility even further. As a result, the ampere-hour integral approach is more suited
to collaborating with other techniques, such as model-based methods. Because
battery capacity varies depending on operating conditions and age, it should not
be used in SoC estimates. As a consequence, we make full use of our resources.
3) The Model-Based Estimation Techniques
A wide variety of batteries types for vehicle power management and BMS have
been proposed as battery technology has progressed. Electrochemical model
(EM), equivalent circuit model (ECM), and electrochemical impedance model
(EIM) are three types of models that are often utilized. In model-based SoC es-
timate methodologies, battery representations are written as state calculations.
To estimate or deduce the interior state of batteries, a variety of nonlinear state
estimation techniques and adaptive filters are utilized. Common algorithms in-
clude the Kalman filter, Luenberger observes, PI (proportion integration) ob-
server, H-infinity (H∞) observer, and sliding mode observer. A popular nonli-
near estimating and machine learning tool is the Kalman filter.
4) The Data-Driven Estimation Methods
Data-driven control approaches simply create a controller based on the sys-
tem’s input-output data. The calculations and assumptions established in the
plant modeling stage are eliminated since these approaches do not need a precise
plant model.
Engineering Applications: Recommendation
A sort of online data-driven estimating technique is the data-model combina-
tion approach. It combines an online data-driven technique with a model-based
strategy, with the data-driven method discovering system parameters in real-time
using online measurements the paradigm with real-time behaviour can consi-
derably increase the controlled system’s performance. The internet measuring
data and offline data have a relative yet interdependent relationship. To con-
struct the controller, the live data-driven approach simply uses real-time mea-
surements of the regulated system and information collected from data
processing. It has the ability to bring people together, constancy, and resilience
of the controlled system. Some of the most often used sets of rules for internet
data-driven approaches include the Recursive least squares (RLS) based ap-
proach, the support vector machine (SVM), and bias-correction (BC) based
techniques.
In [15], the internet of things (IoT) is a collection of physical items, intelligent
gadgets, cars, buildings, and sensors, as well as communication protocols and
software, that gather, exchange, store, analyze, and process data. The Internet of

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Things is built on the sensor-based tight connection between the digital and
physical worlds [16]. In [17], the core model of IoT is a 3-layer architecture con-
sisting of the Application, Network, and Perception Layers, which was chosen
from a pool of proposed models. However, various additional models have been
offered in recent literature that adds further abstraction to the IoT architecture.
Figure 4 depicts various popular structures.
Understanding the IoT building components will help you obtain a better
understanding of the IoT’s true meaning and operation. The six essential ele-
ments are needed to offer IoT capabilities as shown in Figure 5.
1) Identification. It’s critical for the IoT to give services a name and match
them to demand IoT identification systems including electronic product codes
(EPC) and ubiquitous codes (uCode). In addition, differentiating between object
ID and address is critical when dealing with IoT devices. The object’s ID is its
name, such as T1 for a specific temperature sensor, and the object’s address is its
communication network address.
2) Sensing is the process of gathering data from connected network things and
sending it to a data warehouse, database, or the cloud. The data gathered is ana-
lyzed to determine the best course of action based on the services sought.
3) Communication IoT communication technologies allow heterogeneous
items to communicate with one another to provide specialized smart services.
IoT nodes should typically operate at low power in lossy and noisy communication

Figure 4. IOT architecture: (a) 3-layer, (b) 4-layer, (c) 5-layer, and (d) SOA-based [18]
[19].

Figure 5. IoT elements.

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networks. IoT communication protocols include WiFi, Bluetooth, IEEE 802.15.4,

Z-wave, and LTE-Advanced.
4) Computing abilities are represented by processing units (e.g., microcon-
trollers, microprocessors, SOCs, FPGAs) and software applications, and compu-
tation is the IoT’s mind. Some of the hardware platforms meant to run IoT ap-
plications include Arduino, UDOO, Friendly ARM, Intel Galileo, Raspberry PI,
Gadgeteer, BeagleBone, Cubieboard, Z1, WiSense, Mulle, and T-Mote Sky.
5) Services The four categories of IoT services include identity-related services
information combination services, collaborative-aware services, and ubiquitous
services. Identity-related services are the most basic and vital services that are
used in other types of services. Every software attempting to bring real-world
objects into the virtual world must first recognize them.
6) In the IoT, the ability of various technologies to extract knowledge intelli-
gently in order to provide critical services is referred to as semantic. Knowledge
extraction includes finding and exploiting resources, as well as modelling data. It
also requires locating and analysing data in order to determine the best course of
action for giving the finest service.

2. Literature Review
Customers accept electric vehicles because they are simple to use. It has several
requirements, one of which being suitable charging and parking space. By in-
cluding these two systems, a proposed model is meant to provide an efficient
solution. The design of a system that can manage free parking slots and pricing
schedules is important to consider during the process of preparing preliminary
designs and feasibility studies. Such types of parking systems were incapable of
accepting all sorts of vehicles. There is a demand for charging stations as well as
parking for electric vehicles. The suggested strategy allows users to reserve
charging space using their smartphones. The system then coordinates all actions
associated with it based on information such as the vehicle’s arrival time, the
state of the battery, etc. Customer manager, vehicle manager, map manager, and
lot manager are the primary components. Java Platform and Enterprise Edition
is the software utilized (Java EE). Another thing to consider is the security idea.
This necessitates the usage of a user ID, which is also used in the billing process
[20].
In [21] produced a mobile android application with the capability of provid-
ing a list of charging station (CS) positions in a geographical manner closest to
the EV’s position, but the EV user may not know whether the nearby Charging
Station(CS) is available or not, resulting in the selection of the incorrect CS. Also
in [22], the vehicle’s precise position is provided by this tracking technology. In
addition, the online application notifies commuters of the estimated time of ar-
rival (ETA) and the distance that the vehicle must go. The suggested tracking
system comprises of three modules: 1) Global Positioning System (GPS); 2) Rasp-
berry Pi; 3) Web Application. The vehicle’s current coordinates are retrieved in

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real-time using GPS. The estimated distance was determined using the technique
and overlaid on the backdrop of the Google map.
Hybrid charging sources solar/wind/diesel systems are modeled present the
design of a charging station for electric cars. This station contains a Photovoltaic
(PV) module and Wind generation system, with three unidirectional converters
circuits, the main objective of this design is to establish a charging station that
gives charging priority set concerning the (SOC) level of EVs battery. If the
available power from wind and solar energy is sufficient, charging is carried out
by them and when demand increases are extracted from the Diesel at peak load
time and use the grid at baseload time processing is done by Raspberry Pi con-
troller, monitoring and control done by using Internet of Things IoT as shown
in Figure 6 [23].
A (PV) system, wind energy, and a diesel generator are all part of the planned
system. The AC-DC converter connects the wind to the DC bus. The greatest
power from the wind is tracked using a Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
controller. The Genetic Algorithm is used to perform wind MPPT. The PV sys-
tem is linked to the DC bus through a DC-DC converter. MPPT is performed in
the PV system using a modified Perturbation and observation (P & O) algo-
rithm. Through the AC-DC converter depicted in Figure 4, the diesel generator
is also linked to the DC bus. And the Raspberry Pi controller is used to perform
control operations. Figure 7 shows the block diagram.
Figure 5 demonstrates the idea of a control function Voltage and current
sensors are used to measure the voltage and current of Wind, Solar, EVs, and the
Grid. The power value is calculated by converting the voltage and current num-
bers. The controller receives the voltage from all of the EVs’ batteries. The cus-
tomer’s SELL and BUY options are obtained through the use of a touch LED

Figure 6. Suggested a solar/wind/diesel-powered charging station.

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Figure 7. Suggested control functions using raspberry pi with IoT.

display. The data is all saved on the cloud. IoT technology handles all commu-
nications.
In [24], the proposed concept is intended to replace the original Wireless
sensor network (WSN) and Radio-frequency Identification (RFID) system in
parking garages with ZigBee technology. Due to its fast and safe functioning,
RFID technology is utilized to check-in and out of cars. The system has two sec-
tions: one for monitoring and the other for control. The sensor, processing, and
display devices are all found in the control portion. Sensor nodes, LED displays,
and the information and controlling center are in that order. The system’s key
component is the last information and management center. In the hardware sec-
tion, there are ARM7/LCP2148 controlled ZigBee communication modules. The
LCD panel with reflection sensors, Kiel micro vision, flash magic, and express
PCB are the software utilized. [25] has created a centralized electric vehicle (EV)
recharging scheduling system for parking lots. This approach is based on a rea-
listic vehicle parking pattern that emphasizes individual parking spaces. It di-
vides electric vehicles into two categories based on their mobility. There are two
types of EVs: regular and irregular. Electric vehicles require adequate charging
time. This study proposes a PLRS system that tracks vehicle arrival and depar-
ture times, battery condition, and distance traveled. The system then creates its
own charging timetable for EVs. This technology operates both during the day
and at night. This technique helps to boost both the number of recharged Elec-
tric Vehicles and parking lot income. The proposed system uses a two-layered
PLRS system to recharge electric vehicles based on their parking habits. [26]
presents an IoT-based cloud-integrated smart parking solution. This suggested
smart parking system is based on IoT module creation on-site. One of the most

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practical Smart City concepts is the Internet of Things. This Internet of Things
concept is used to monitor and give information regarding parking spot availa-
bility. It also offers a smartphone application that gives users information about
parking spot availability. This smartphone application allows users to reserve a
parking spot. Sensors such as infrared, passive infrared (PIR), and ultrasonic
sensors are used to operate parking systems. Raspberry Pi is the processing de-
vice that communicates with the cloud and the sensor. The mobile application
serves as a bridge between the system and the user. This application was created
using the JavaScript programming language and the Apache Cordova and An-
gular Js framework. All data is stored on the IBM MQTT cloud server. This
technology provides real-time information on the availability of parking spaces
in the parking lot. Induction or magnetic coupling techniques are appropriate
ways in WPT for EV charging, according to [27]. An intelligent WPT system is
presented and simulated in this work to charge electric vehicles. Because misa-
lignment limits the charging process, a novel solution is necessary to increase the
flexibility of EV wireless charging. This system uses the finger print method to
automatically align the transmitting and receiving coils. The proposed system is
capable of saving necessary time, minimizing human errors, conserving energy,
and charging cars based on real-time system information. For EV users, it is ex-
tremely helpful in terms of energy savings and reduced electricity costs. Wireless
power transmission is a new field of development for EV charging. This study
discusses strategies to increase wireless charging performance for high-frequency
and high-power applications, as well as the efficiency of resonant inductive
coupling for EV charging. Various coil alignment approaches were reviewed,
with the fingerprint method being proposed as a cost-effective way to create
WPT intelligent. Smart cities are being developed in recent years, with IoT play-
ing a key role. IoT can solve issues including traffic congestion, auto parking
shortages, and road safety. [28] presented a smart parking system based on IoT
module creation on-site. This system keeps track of and analyzes parking space
availability. Because all of the data created by this system is saved on the cloud, it
is recognized as the ideal platform for IoT. The cloud’s flexibility allows it to add
and delete data from IoT systems in real time. Microcontroller, IR sensor, mo-
bile application, buzzer, LED, and LCD display are included in the suggested
system. [29] presents another method to the problem of EV charging scheduling.
This study investigates a billing dilemma in a parking garage that requires com-
plete utilization of time. When an electric vehicle enters at the garage’s entry, it
collects data such as arrival time, advised departure time, current and necessary
battery SOCs, and the charging management system of the garage (CMS). This
CMS is capable of deciding whether or not to accept or reject a customer’s bill-
ing request. Based on the choice, it manages the needed power supply. It turns
off the power when the process is finished. An intelligent charging network con-
trols all of the charging units. CMS is in charge of the power supply, and all
charging actions are switched automatically. EVs whose charging service is re-
jected by the system are parked in the non-charging zone. [30] gave a brief over-

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view of wireless charging technologies. EVs, according to this report, will make
energy a big aspect of transportation. Wireless charging, on the other hand,
plays a vital part in EV charging since it provides an efficient and flexible me-
thod of charging. Furthermore, standardization of this technology is in the
works, allowing for greater flexibility and freedom in charging vehicles in any
wirelessly enabled parking spot. [31] gave an overview of the smart parking sys-
tem. The proposed system includes a smart parking system, which is an onsite
deployment of a slot model that is used to monitor available parking spaces and
reserve a spot. Smart parking may boost the economy by lowering city pollution
and fuel use. One of the IoT applications that might be explored is smart park-
ing. It also allows you to reserve time slots. When he enters the slot, the time pe-
riod begins. When the user exits the slot, he must pay the amount for the time he
parked his automobile in the slot.
In [32], it presents the smart parking system method. The system includes an
ultrasonic sensor, an Arduino Uno, an ESP8266-01 Wi-Fi module, and a cloud
server ThingSpeak. This Internet of Things-based parking technology can link
and analyze real-time data. This technology generates data and executes smart
parking on its own. An ultrasonic sensor detects the availability of open space.
The sensor is linked to an Arduino module that connects to a Wi-Fi network.
The Arduino Uno connects to a cloud server over the internet and uploads data
to it. Because the Android app is working by a software system, users must in-
stall it on their smartphones. This application may be used to reserve a parking
place if one is required.
In [33], two types of wireless electric car charging systems, static and dynamic.
Because of its simplicity, dependability, and user-friendliness, wireless charging
offers several benefits over plug-in charging. The drawback is that it can only be
used when the car is stationary, such as when parking. In [34], an integrated
model system for both wireless charging (WC) and static charging (SC) facilities
in a transportation network, with highlighting on the growth of wireless power
transfer (WPT) technology. The best location for WC facilities poses greater de-
sign and operating challenges than static charging stations. However, in terms of
the organization modeling technique used to locate these charging stations, they
are similar in the main aim to maximize network traffic while lowering total
system costs. A variety of modeling approaches for assessing the network and
locating charge entities for SC and WC facilities are available. The technology’s
economic viability is critical for effective system integration and overall system
performance.
In [35], the growing number of electric vehicles (EVs) necessitates the con-
struction of additional charging infrastructure. Wireless charging is more effi-
cient than plugs and wires. The essential idea which is often employed in wire-
less charging is based on resonant inductive power transmission, as the number
of (EVs) grows, it is necessary to address issues that arise. Battery exchange,
conductive charging, and WC transfer are the three types of charging methods
available. Nowadays, the electric vehicle sector is growing at a fast pace through-

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out the globe, resulting in a wide range of charging facilities on the market.
However, due to a lack of full and severe standards, wireless power transfer still
faces significant challenges.
In [36], the IoT-based vehicle tracking system, the NODE MCU ESP8266,
GPS module, DHT11, buzzer, and power supply are all included in this setup.
With a precision of 10 meters, the suggested technology is utilized to locate and
navigate the vehicle. The technology tracks the position of a specific car and
provides data to the user’s mobile phone. The received data, in the form of lati-
tude and longitude, is utilized to locate the car on Google Maps, and the output
may also be seen on an Android phone via the Blynk App. The block diagram of
the Vehicle Tracking System is shown in Figure 8. The GPS receiver and
Esp8266 module were used in this project. The Blynk program is used to connect
the phone to the PC. As a result, the GPS will provide the longitudinal and alti-
tude information associated with the vehicle’s position to Node MCU Esp8266.
When the device connects to Wi-Fi, the data is then sent to the Esp8266, which
controls the data. It estimates the closest vehicle’s latitude and longitude, as well
as its speed. It also displays the vehicle’s location on a map.
In [37], renewable and non-renewable energy sources based are used to supply
the charging station for electric cars this is done by providing a set of batteries
inside the station that provides the EVs with the required charge by using
DC-DC instead of using AC-DC because there are losses in the conversion
process that are in the form of heat as It reduces the efficiency of the station’s
work and increases the time required for charging. All details of energy con-
sumption and charging cost are monitored through using Arduino Uno control-
ler and an application using IoT.

Figure 8. Diagram of vehicle tracking system.

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 M. H. Qahtan et al.

IoT technology-based electric vehicles are introduced in [38] to monitor bat-

tery consumption and life. Monitoring is done via the internet using Thing
Speak (day-by-day). These online data results were processed using MATLAB
after an effective boosting algorithm is integrated with the objective function.
The efficiency of this method is tested through visual analysis, and the results
show an improved performance of vehicles, as it was noted that the cost of im-
plementation decreased and the capacity of vehicles increased by 74.3% after
monitoring by sensors. [39] effectively aims to make a charging station for elec-
tric vehicles that operates on a wireless charging system and enables the users to
monitor the battery status and the battery charge level continuously using IoT
technology. The authors in [40] utilize a solar panel to charge an E-vehicle mod-
ule. IoT device was used to monitor the availability of maximum power, and a
maximum power point tracker (MPPT) controller is used to track the solar’s
maximum power output. Proteus software was used to create the simulation
model. The entire arrangement is linked to an Arduino UNO R3, and the battery
level, as well as the quantity of battery created and distributed, is shown on an
LCD. A GSM modem is utilized to receive an alarm message in the event of a
power loss in the system. A website was included to verify the SOC status, the
amount of power supplied to the charging the electric vehicle, and the charging
station’s available location the webpage is prepared using the HTML method.
The state of charge (SOC) of a battery pack must be accurately estimated online
by the battery management system (BMS). This calculation is difficult, especially
after a long period of battery use. To overcome this issue, a fuzzy-improved ex-
tended Kalman filter (fuzzy-IEKF) for Li-ion cells, independent of their age, to
estimate the SOC of Li-ion battery packs are used. This paper suggested a fuzzy
IEKF approach for estimating SOC for a battery pack throughout a charg-
ing/discharging cycle. The earliest phases of this strategy employed a fuzzy oper-
ator to predict SOC. This method updates the model for each individual cell in
the battery pack using an adaptive model algorithm [41].
In [42], an enhanced deep neural network (DNN) technique for electric car
applications to estimate the state of charge (SOC) of a Li-ion battery. A DNN
with a sufficient number of hidden layers is capable of predicting the SOC of
unseen drive cycles. To study the relative performance when assessed on differ-
ent driving cycles, a set of DNN models with varied numbers of hidden layers
and their training procedure had created. Increasing the number of hidden lay-
ers in DNN lowers the error rate can improve SOC estimation. Beyond that, in-
creasing the hidden layer raises the mistake rate. It had been found that a
four-layer DNN trained on the dynamic stress test (DST) drive cycle could pre-
dict the SOC values for other unseen drive cycles such as the federal urban driv-
ing schedule (FUDS), Beijing dynamic stress test (BJDST), and supplemental
federal test procedure (US06) with surprising accuracy. Additional works using
the Data-Driven estimating approach to estimate the SOC Traditional machine
learning techniques are commonly used, such as support vector machines
(SVM) and artificial neural networks (ANN). Based on adaptive unscented Kal-

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 M. H. Qahtan et al.

man filters (AUKF) and least square support vector machines (LSSVM), a highly
accurate technique for lithium polymer battery SOC calculation is developed.
To properly create the battery model with limited initial training data, a new
strategy employing the moving window method is used in conjunction with
AUKF and LSSVM. According to simulation and testing findings, the suggested
method can predict lithium battery SOC with a small number of initial training
samples. The proposed approach can predict lithium battery SOC with a small
number of initial training samples [43].
The state of charge (SOC) of lithium-ion batteries is estimated using an artifi-
cial neural network (ANN) based on an inclusive equivalent circuit model. The
neural network is utilized to predict the uncertainties in the battery model con-
tinuously. The battery’s SOC is then estimated using a radial basis function
neural network-based nonlinear observer. It is shown that the SOC estimate
fault is finally constrained and the error bound may be arbitrarily reduced using
Lyapunov stability analysis (the Lyapunov direct technique gives a highly effec-
tive methodology to assess the stability of nonlinear systems) [44]. By comparing
the extended Kalman filter’s SOC estimation performance with the suggested
radial basis function neural network-based nonlinear observer. The suggested
method is more precise and has a faster convergence speed [45].
A (BMS) monitors and controls the Li-ion battery, assessing charge estimate,
health expectation, temperature control, charge equalization, protection, and
optimal energy and power usage [46]. The battery management system (BMS) in
control and monitoring charge and discharge of the battery introduce in [47]
BMS determined the power, stat of Charge (SoC), State of Health (SoH), and
temperature depending on the measurement Lithium-Ion batteries are used in
both types (EV) and Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) because of the numerous
benefits it has over other types of batteries but they need BMS to guarantee the
battery’s safe operation during its charging/discharging cycle. IoT was used suc-
cessfully to collect this information from the various sensor to estimate current
flow, power charge/discharge additionally the Depth of Discharge (DOD) also
discuss various types of wireless technologies that are used for observing the
battery system.
In [48], multiple approaches exist nowadays to estimate the SOC of EV batte-
ries. Some of the methods focus on battery SOC estimation and the concerns
and challenges that come with it. Also, it is conducted on the core technologies
of lithium-ion battery state estimate techniques for electric cars, which are clas-
sified into five groups: conventional method, adaptive filter algorithm, learning
algorithm, nonlinear observer, and hybrid method. The most significant aspects
that impact the accuracy and robustness of SOC calculation are lithium-ion bat-
tery characteristics, battery model, estimation technique, and cell unbalancing
[49]. Due to economic costs aspects, electric cars should be able to drive the
most distance on a single charge by monitoring and utilizing the maximum
energy from the battery pack while preserving battery life. When the vehicle is

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 M. H. Qahtan et al.

subjected to demanding real-time con, such as fast acceleration and braking, a

trustworthy monitoring system minimizes the user’s expectation of battery life.
The charging system should have a low-cost, low-power, highly reliable, redun-
dant, and scalable technique for monitoring rechargeable Li-ion batteries using
wireless communication architecture.
In [50], to search for a charging station and slot availability, extra time will be
lost and annoyance will arise. Thus, it’s important for the Evs to be equipped
with a system for saving time and avoiding discomfort for EV users. This me-
thod should display the number of charge slots available at each charging station
along the trip route. Also, it can be used to display the time the car is connected
to the charging station, allowing us to plan our travel accordingly. At peak times,
the world’s must has high penetration of electric vehicles places an additional
strain on the power infrastructure. Smart Charging Station is used for domestic
applications to solve this problem. At peak times, Grid-connected PV generation
successfully handles the power necessary to charge Electric Vehicles, and Electric
Vehicles also operate as an Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) depending on
the Time of Use (TOU) Tariff. The Raspberry Pi controller is in charge of all
control operations. The Internet of Things was used to monitor and manage the
entire operation. In MATLAB/SIMULINK [51] [52], a real-time server-based
forecasting application: 1) to offer schedule management to prevent waiting; and
2) to provide a real-time CS suggestion for EVs with low costs and shorter
charging times. Without the need for a sophisticated information environment,
the created application can warn the EV driver when charging is necessary,
detect the nearby CSs with names, locations, and geographical route coordinates,
and reserve the slot to charge the EV to reach the destination. The data necessary
for the algorithm does not require any complex information exchange because
all information can be retrieved automatically utilizing publically available web-
sites via GPS and the mobile internet system with only a little input from the
driver.

3. Difficulties and Problems

It is necessary to move to the use of electric vehicles, as they contribute to re-
ducing environmental pollution, and for the development and improvement of
this sector, the Internet of things must be used because it contributes to making
the use of this type of vehicle for the user easier and also contributes to the ease
of finding charging stations, as well as making the management of charging sta-
tions more organized and easy, but We have faced some challenges in using the
wireless charging system in parking lots, and to make the system more efficient,
some challenges must be taken into consideration:
 The system must be resistant to environmental conditions such as rain, dust,
fog, etc.;
 Ensuring the continuous communication of the parts of the system with each
other, providing communication networks with sufficient coverage area, and

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 M. H. Qahtan et al.

ensuring communication in various environmental conditions;

 Make the system able to process large data as quickly and without delay;
 Wireless charging lacks uniformity;
 Choose IoT devices carefully to reduce maintenance costs.

Table 1. Comparison of a set of reference papers.

Reference Merits Demerits

Bookings are made using a

[20] Expensive, difficult to comprehend
smartphone application. Secure

It contains slot information. It is

High price. Implementation will
[24] compatible with the existing
take more time.
parking system.

The system creates its own charging There is no chargeable data

[25]
timetable for electric vehicles. creation.

Bookings are made using a

[26] The issue with data uploading
smartphone application. GPS use

Automatic data generation using aNo safety against a variety of

[32]
mobile application environmental factors

Overloading the microcontroller

Because of the cloud’s flexibility,
[28] might cause the entire system to
data may be added or withdrawn.
crash.

usage of a charge management

[29] There is no mobile application.
system (CMS)

Wireless charging is more

convenient and efficient than using
[33] Only in stationary modes is it used.
a plug-in. For high-powered
applications.

It provides an effective and

Wireless charging lacks
[30] adaptable way to charge electric
standardization.
vehicles.

There is no usage of GPS. No data

[31] Parking spots can be reserved.
to upload

4. Conclusion
In terms of the problem of lack of fuel and environmental pollution to reduce
pollution as well as fuel consumption, we have to use electric vehicles to contri-
bute to the spread of the use of electric vehicles. Charging stations must be pro-
vided so the user has easy access to the charging station, especially in our time
when the Internet service is available and Internet of things technology is used to
display the locations of the available charging stations, which reduces the time to
reach them. The state of charge (SOC) of a battery pack must be accurately esti-
mated online by the battery management system (BMS). This calculation is dif-

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 M. H. Qahtan et al.

ficult, especially after a long period of battery use. To overcome this issue, Da-
ta-Driven estimating approach to estimate the SOC is used and traditional ma-
chine learning techniques are commonly used such as support vector machine
(SVM), fuzzy controller, and artificial neural network (ANN). Since SOC
represents the amount of energy available inside the battery, the SOC is dis-
played by using an application to reduce power consumption and extend battery
life. Charging the battery needs time to reduce the loss of time in the charging
process. It is suggested to put stations inside the park to take advantage of the
shopping time of charging the electric vehicles. Various sources of charging in-
side the charging stations such as solar energy and wind energy can also be used
as the main electricity grid. Also, this review paper contains table of comparison
of various research paper as shown in Table 1.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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