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Overview of Wireless Charging Technologies for Electric Vehicles

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 Journal of Asian Electric Vehicles, Volume 12, Number 1, June 2014

Overview of Wireless Charging Technologies for Electric Vehicles

Chun Qiu 1, K. T. Chau 2, Tze Wood Ching 3, and Chunhua Liu 4

1
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, [email protected]
2
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, [email protected]
3
Department of Electromechanical Engineering, University of Macau, [email protected]
4
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, [email protected]

Abstract
This paper gives an overview of current wireless charging technologies on electric vehicles (EVs) charging. In
general, the near-field technologies are preferred over far-field ones. Inductive power transfer and strongly cou-
pled magnetic resonance technologies are chosen for detailed review. Furthermore, special issues related to EV
applications are also discussed, namely efficient power supply, misalignment tolerance, multiple pick-up control,
simultaneous power and data transmission and shielding methods.

Keywords are capable to transfer high power over long distances.

electric vehicle, wireless charging, wireless power But a direct line-of-sight transmission path and com-
transfer, inductive power transfer, coupled magnetic plicated tracking strategies are required [Shinohara,
resonance 2013].
Moreover, the EMC requirements are more stringent
1. INTRODUCTION as the frequency of operation increases. So the anten-
The commercial market of electric vehicles (EVs) nas should be large enough to satisfy the power den-
has begun to grow. The existing conductive charg- sity limits, which is impractical for EV WPT applica-
ing method requires high power charging devices or tions. For these reasons, far-field WPT technologies
charging stations to recharge the vehicle within a short are by far mostly used in space and military applica-
time [Liu et al., 2013]. Incompatible plugs receptacles tions, such as solar power satellite [Jaffe and McSpad-
also cause additional inconvenience between different den, 2013].
EV models. As for the wireless charging technologies, For the near-filed WPT technologies, both electric-
different EV models can share their charging infra- field and magnetic-field are used for energy transmis-
structure if the same wireless power transfer (WPT) sion. By using electric-field, energy transmission is
technology is adopted. In longer term, dynamic road unaffected by metal barriers, and also causes lower
charging technology will enable users to charge the EMI than the magnetic-field counterpart. However,
EV battery while driving, as shown in Figure 1. This the permittivity of air is intrinsically small, which
brings about much reduced battery size, extended results inadequate coupling capacitance [Liu, 2011].
driving range and reduced vehicle price, and further Special dielectric materials can help to enhance cou-
stimulates the EV market. pling. However, it is still quite sensitive to the air gap
Far-filed and near-field are the two main categories length and displacement of coupling plates [Theodor-
for WPT technologies. The far-field technologies use idis, 2012]. The near-field magnetic-field based WPT
microwave radiation or laser as energy carrier. They technologies have made many achievements in both
short-range and mid-range applications [Suzuki et al.,
2011; Liu et al., 2014]. Early short-range EV applica-
tion employs pairs of ferrite cores to achieve strong
coupling. The charging power can transfer tens of kil-
owatts, but the air gap is limited to several centimeters
and the vehicle movement is highly restricted [Covic
and Boys, 2013]. Later researches use resonance to
extend the air gap length and modified core/winding
arrangements to accommodate large lateral misalign-
ment. The air gap can reach tens of centimeters, which
is governed by the dimensions of transmitting coil
Fig. 1 Move-and-charge EV system

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 C. Qiu et al.: Overview of Wireless Charging Technologies for Electric Vehicles

[Wang et al., 2005]. Mid-range applications by elimi-

nating the ferrite cores extend transmitting distance to
the order of the coil diameter or even several times of
the coil size. By using magnetic resonance and multi-
coil configuration, the resistance of the coils is further
reduced and the transmitting distance is extended to
several meters with a power level up to hundreds of
watts [Kurs et al., 2007]. Fig. 3 Schematic of series compensated inductive
This paper mainly focuses on the magnetic-field based power transfer system
near-field short-range and mid-range WPT technolo-
gies, which are most promising for EV wireless charg-
ing applications. The inductive power transfer (IPT) of primary compensation capacitor is independent
and strongly coupled magnetic resonance are intro- from mutual inductance and the load conditions [Ko
duced with a summary on their state-of-the-art appli- and Jiang, 2013]. For the series-parallel topology, the
cations. Key issues and technologies for EV wireless value of primary compensation capacitor is independ-
charging are specially chosen and discussed, namely ent with mutual inductance but varies with load. The
power converter design, mis-alignment tolerance, parallel compensation is more suitable when current
adaptive control strategies, and EMI issues. source characteristic at the secondary end is required
or a large primary current is preferred. Fixed or adjust-
2. WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER able passive capacitors are usually used in most ap-
2.1 Inductive power transfer plications. Active capacitance control is also theoreti-
The typical arrangement of IPT system is shown in cally achievable using switch-mode power converters,
Figure 2. An inverter converts the DC power into which offer much more freedom of operation.
high frequency AC current or voltage. The operat- The simplified equivalent circuit of series-series com-
ing frequency varies from tens of kilohertz to several pensated IPT system is shown in Figure 3. M denotes
megahertz. The key element is a pair of magnetically the mutual inductance between primary and secondary
coupled coils. In order to enhance the mutual induct- coils. Model elements include self-inductance of cou-
ance, ferrite cores are used in one or both sides of pled coils L1 and L2, lumped compensation capacitors
the coils. Litz wires are frequently used to lower the C1 and C2, parasitic AC resistance of coils and capaci-
parasitic resistance and therefore high Q-factor. The tors R1 and R2, the internal resistance of AC voltage
litz coil consists of many individually insulated thin supply RS, and the load RL, which is assumpted purely
conductor stands wounded in a particular patterns to resistive to simplify the analysis. The operation at
reduce both the skin and proximity effects. However, resonant frequency ω0 can be described by (1) to (6),
for frequency higher than 1 MHz, (e.g. 13.56 MHz)
litz wires are less effective and rarely used. Copper VS = (RS + R1) I1 – jω0MI2 (1)
conductor or hollow copper tube could be alternative
solutions [Karalis et al., 2008]. VL = jω0MI1 – R2I2 (2)
Compensation capacitances are added on both primary
ω02M2V12RL
and secondary sides, either in series or in parallel. The PL = (3)
purpose of compensation networks is to maximize [(RS + R1) (RL + R2) + ω02M2]2
the load power and meanwhile minimize the reac-
ω02M2RL
tive power of the primary inverter. The series-series η= (4)
topology is theoretically optimal because the value (RS + R1) (RL + R2)2 + ω02M2 (RL + R2)

Fig. 2 Typical IPT EV charging system

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 Journal of Asian Electric Vehicles, Volume 12, Number 1, June 2014

ω02M2
RL, max power = R2 + (5)
R1

2
ω02M2R2
RL, max efficiency = R2 + (6)
R1

In equations (3) and (4), the transferred power and Fig. 4 Schematic of strongly coupled magnetic reso-
efficiency are functions of load and mutual induct- nance system
ances. For EV application, the load is defined by the
battery’s depth-of-discharge and the charging speed, resonators. With the same coupling coefficient, more
and the mutual inductance is directly related to the energy could be transferred to the load [Cannon et al.,
relative position between on-board pickup coil and 2009]. Additionally, the lumped resonant capacitors
fixed transmitting coil. The first problem is both the are replaced by coil parasitic capacitance (C2 and C3)
load and mutual inductance are ever changing because which results an even higher Q-factor. The system
EVs cannot be always perfectly parked or they are operating frequency is normally fixed and equal to the
moving during power transfer. Another problem is that self-resonant frequency of the coil. This frequency is
for a certain conditions, the load power and efficiency defined by geometric layout of the coils and can be up
cannot achieve maximum point at the same time, as to several megahertz.
shown by equations (5) and (6). Therefore, the chal- For practical EV applications, lumped compensation
lenge for IPT wireless charging is the implementation capacitors are still preferred in order to simplify the
of suitable control strategies, such as load matching coil construction and lower the operating frequency to
and variable frequency control to regulate the load kilohertz range.
power while maintaining high transmission efficiency.
2.3 Current wireless EV charging projects
2.2 Strongly coupled magnetic resonance Integrating wireless charging technologies with EV
The strongly coupled magnetic resonance technolo- applications are being demonstrated in both industrial
gies are characterized by special multiple coils and and academic fields. Major achievements have been
loops combination arrangement, as shown in Figure 4. made in the last two decades, and are summarized in
By using two loops and two coils, the internal resist- Table 1. The University of Auckland made an early
ance of voltage source RS and the load resistance RL exploration on high power IPT charging. Although
are excluded from the RLC resonators, which results the air gap was limited to several centimeters the
a much higher Q-factor than conventional two coils power transfer reached tens of kilowatts [Covic and

Table 1 Summary of existing wireless EV charging projects

Institute / corporation Year of Installation Vehicle Type Power Air Gap Efficiency
1997 5 Golf buses 20 kW 50 mm 90-91 %
The University of Auckland 2002-2003 8-23 mini buses 60 kW 30 mm –
2010 Private vehicles 3 kW 180 mm 85 %
92 %
2010 – 4.2 kW 254 mm
(coil-to-coil)
Oak Ridge National Labo- 93 %
2012 – 7.7 kW 200 mm
ratory (ORNL) (coil-to-coil)
91 %
2012 GEM EV 2 kW 75 mm
(coil-to-coil)
Golf Bus 3 kW 10 mm 80 %
Korea Advanced Institute 2009 Bus 6 kW 170 mm 72 %
of Science and Technology SUV 17 kW 170 mm 71 %
(KAIST) 2010 Tram 62 kW 130 mm 74 %
2012 Bus 100 kW 200 mm 75 %
MIT WiTricity 2010 Private vehicles 3.3 kW 180 mm 90 %

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 C. Qiu et al.: Overview of Wireless Charging Technologies for Electric Vehicles

Boys, 2010]. Their recent research has been aiming half-bridge or full-bridge topologies, the VA rating of
at extending vertical distance and adapting horizontal power switches can be lower than Class E amplifier.
offsets, such as the single-sided flux magnetic cou- However, the efficiency of the Class D amplifier is
pler (DD-DDQ) system [Budhia et al., 2013]. ORNL related to the reflected loaded Q. So there may be a
focused on the high efficiency lumped coil design notable drop when the transmission distance increases
and successfully implemented it into a 72 V lead- [Garnica et al., 2013].
acid battery powered EV [Miller, 2012]. KAIST has
made great achievement on dynamic wireless charg- 4. MISALLIGNMENT TOLERANCE
ing in the last few years, which is called on-line elec- 4.1 Optimal ferrite core structure design
tric vehicles (OLEV) [Jung et al., 2013]. The OLEV For on-road wireless charged EVs, the track-shaped
project was launched in 2009. In the same year, three primary coil structure is usually adopted. This created
generations of prototypes were reported with power constrains on lateral movement of the EV. The basic
ranges from 3 to 17 kW [Lee et al., 2010]. The first concept in optimal ferrite core design is straightfor-
demonstration, a 2.2 km tram loop, was installed in ward: to maximize the effective magnetic flux through
2010. This 62 kW wireless powered tram equipped pickup coil and minimize the leakage flux. A pair of
with a battery module of 40 % smaller than normal common E-shape ferrite cores are shown in Figure
battery-powered trams. In 2012, an OLEV bus system 6. For the air gap shown, increasing the pole width is
was demonstrated which was capable to transfer 100 an effective way to decrease the air reluctances, and
kW (5 sets of 20 kW pick-up coils) through a 20cm therefore increase useful effective flux. On the con-
air gap with average efficiency of 75 %. [Jim et al., trary, increasing distance between poles will relief the
2013]. KAIST is ready to apply its OLEV technology magnetic field distortion when misalignment occurs,
on a high-speed high-power railway (over 300 km/h, giving a better tolerance of lateral offset. But it will
180 kW) at the end of 2013 [Ahn et al., 2013]. MIT also increasing leakage flux within poles [Shin et al.,
(WiTricity) employed the strongly coupled magnetic 2014]. Therefore, optimal consideration should be
resonance technology and implemented a commercially taken when choosing the pole width.
available 3.3 kW charging kit for market EV models.

3. EFFICIENT POWER CONVERTER

For the IPT applications operating under 1 MHz, LCL
resonant converter is widely adopted [Wang et al.,
2004], as shown in Figure 5. The inductance L0 can be
a lumped inductor or the secondary winding of high
frequency isolation transformer. The LCL resonant
converter has the following merits. Firstly, the con-
stant voltage from H-bridge results constant current
in the primary coil which is independent of load con-
ditions. And this current can be easily controlled by Fig. 6 Typical pair of E-shape ferrite cores
adjusting the duty cycle of the bridge. Secondly, the
H-bridge only support the real power dissipated by the
load and parasitic resistances, while high resonant cur- 4.2 DD-DDQ pad system
rent in the primary coil is supported by compensation Alignment tolerance is also an important issue in
capacitor C1 [Kissin et al., 2009]. stationary EV charging application. One of the solu-
Different types of RF amplifiers are used for operating tions is to adjust the configuration of the ferrite cores
frequency over megahertz range. Class E amplifier has and coil windings. A new polarized coupler topology
the simplest one-switch architecture and offers high called DD-DDQ system is proposed to offer five times
output power. Class D is an alternative solution. With larger charging zone than traditional circular pad
without increasing the materials [Budhia et al., 2013].
Inside the transmitting pad, two D-shaped coils are
placed side by side above a set of ferrite bars, rather
than wounding around these ferrites. As a result, the
magnetic flux path travels only into the side of receiv-
ing coil and the unwanted rear flux path is cancelled.
Fig. 5 Typical schematics of LCL resonant converter Inside the receiving pad, a pair of orthogonal quad-
for IPT rature (Q) ferrite cores is added to the existing DD

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 Journal of Asian Electric Vehicles, Volume 12, Number 1, June 2014

structure, enabling capture of magnetic flux from both The key concept of decoupling control is to short-
horizontal and vertical directions. circuit the light loaded pick-ups. This is equivalent to
removing unwanted pick-ups from primary transmitter
4.3 Range adaption control of strongly coupled mag- and adding a small amount of reactive power in the
netic resonance primary supply. For a parallel compensated topology,
For the strongly coupled magnetic resonance, the a boost converter is added before the load, and simi-
transmission efficiency drops quickly when distance larly, a buck converter is added for the series compen-
or orientation between coupled resonators deviates sated topology, as shown in Figure 7 [Keeling et al.,
from its normal position. For wireless EVs charging, 2010].
the relative position between resonators could hardly However, this method assumes that all pick-ups are
be stable. So, adaptive control is essential [Sample et operating at the tuned frequency and the mutual in-
al., 2011]. ductance between every primary and secondary coil
The highest possible efficiency is occurred when keeps constant. This might be a reasonable assumption
source/load impedance matches with coil impedances. for monorail system. But for other configuration (e.g.
The impedance adjusting can be realized by real-time lumped pad system), more effective method should be
tuning the operating frequency, or by keeping a fixed explored since mutual inductance changes with pad
operating frequency but using impedance match- positions.
ing networks between coils and source, and between
coils and load. Either frequency tuning or impedance 6. CONCURRENT DATA TRANSMISSION
matching is effective in the over-coupled regime. Oth- Normally, when primary side control is adopted, the
erwise, the mutual inductance is too weak to support information of secondary side conditions should be
high efficient transmission [Sample et al., 2013]. sent back to the primary side, using wireless commu-
nication. However this will increase the overall sys-
5. MULTIPLE PICK-UP CONTROL tem cost. Recent studies reveals that concurrent data
For on-road wireless EV charging, there is a situation transmission with power will offer better solutions.
when more than one vehicle connects onto the same Figure 8 shows the basic principle of capacitive ampli-
power transmitter. Each secondary coil has magnetic tude modulation. The modulation capacitors Cm1 and
coupling with the primary coil but demands for in-
dependent power control. The system will become
unstable when too many light loaded secondary pick-
ups are connected. Therefore, decoupling control is
proposed to solve this problem and meanwhile offers
a possible way to regulate secondary power [Covic
and Boys, 2013].

(a)

(a)

(b) (b)

Fig. 7 Decoupling regulator. (a) parallel compensated Fig. 8 Capacitive amplitude modulation. (a) schemat-
secondary, (b) series compensated secondary ics, (b) amplitude modulation

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 C. Qiu et al.: Overview of Wireless Charging Technologies for Electric Vehicles

Cm2 are periodically added to the load, changing the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.
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