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Batteries for Electric Vehicles

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 Batteries for Electric Vehicles
Dr. K.V. Vidyanandan, Senior Member, IEEE
Power Management Institute, NTPC Ltd., India
[email protected]
Abstract—Affordable Electric Vehicles (EVs) are becoming a and when the batteries are low in energy, the engine starts to
reality mainly because of the falling price of traction batteries. charge the battery and thereby extends the electric range.
EV’s acceptability is growing with increasing drive range per PHEVs can also recharge their battery from an external
recharge. Desired attributes of EV batteries include: high source. Carbon footprint of PHEVs is less than the HEVs.
energy density, power density, cycle life, safety and low cost. In FCEVs, electricity needed to run the EV is generated
New cell chemistries are being introduced for making batteries by a hydrogen fuel cell. Excess energy produced by the fuel
smaller, lighter and to store enough energy so that EVs can cell is stored in a storage system. Since water is the only
compete with conventional vehicles. Lithium-ion batteries are byproduct of the H2-O2 reaction, an advantage of FCEV is
currently the most popular EV batteries available in the market.
that they produce their own electricity without the emission
Lithium-ion refers to a large family of cell chemistries, which
of CO or CO2. Thus, the carbon footprint of FCEVs is the
are characterized by the cathode material and the transfer of
lithium ions between the electrodes during the charge/discharge
least among all the HEVs. Another advantage of FCEVs is
reactions. This paper gives an overview of Li-ion batteries, their that refilling of these vehicles need the same amount of time
limitations, safety concerns and the emerging battery as needed to fill a conventional petrol/diesel car tank.
technologies to meet the future requirements.
II. POWER AND ENERGY CAPACITY OF EV BATTERIES
Index Terms—Battery pack, cells, charging, electric vehicles, Battery power and energy demands for various types of
Li-ion batteries, Li metal batteries.
EVs is shown in Fig. 2 [2]. EV batteries are required to handle
high power (up to a hundred kW) and high energy (tens of
I. INTRODUCTION kWh) capacity within a limited space and weight. In a hybrid
EV, only a part of the propulsion power and energy needs is
E LECTRIC vehicles are gaining popularity and becoming
more affordable. Highlighted features of EVs include: no
green-house gas emissions, lower running and maintenance
met by the battery. Since all the power and energy needs of a
battery EV is met by the battery, size of the battery in a BEV
costs, ability of frequent starts and stops, fast and smooth is the largest among all the EVs.
acceleration (full torque even at the lowest speed),
regenerative braking, smooth and silent ride, advanced safety
features, fewer moving parts, possible application of
sustainable renewable energy to drive it etc.
According to the drive train configuration, electric
vehicles can be classified as Battery Electric Vehicle, Hybrid
Electric Vehicle (HEV), Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle and Fig. 2. Battery power & energy demands for various types of EVs.
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV). All EVs have the HEVs are powered by two or more energy sources such
regenerative braking systems to recover energy otherwise lost as an IC Engine (ICE) and electric motor(s). HEVs can have
as heat due to friction during braking. Basic arrangement of many configurations such as series hybrid, parallel hybrid,
few EV configurations is shown in Fig. 1 [1]. series-parallel hybrid etc. During low power demand periods
BEVs are fully-electric vehicles, which are powered by (e.g. city drive), these vehicles use only the electric mode.
large capacity batteries for traction. Standard BEVs currently When higher power is needed (climbing uphill, high speed
available can travel average 200-300 km in single recharge, etc.), they switch to the engine mode. Power needed by the
however, few EVs have up to 500 km or higher drive range. motor in HEVs is generated by the engine driven generator as
they cannot charge their batteries from an external source.
The energy consumption of an EV depends on many
factors: vehicle weight, size, body shape, road conditions,
driving habit of the driver; size of auxiliary systems such as
cooling, heating, lights etc. Typical energy consumption of a
mid-sized EV varies between 160 - 200 Wh/km. Standard
traction battery size for electric cars can vary between 20
kWh to 60 kWh or even higher for longer drive range. For
buses it is in the range of 90 kWh to 150 kWh or higher [3].
After an EV is started from standstill and moving on a flat
road, the drive power is used to accelerate the vehicle and to
overcome the rolling resistance between tires and road
surface. However, once the required speed is reached, less
Fig. 1. Architecture of various EV configurations.
power is needed to maintain the speed by overcoming the
PHEVs use both engine and motor powertrains like in a rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag force. For
HEV. The difference is that PHEVs use electric motor as the accelerating an EV of about 1350 kg mass to about 95 km/h
main drive, and hence, they require a larger battery than the in 10 s, it needs about 61 kW power. For the same vehicle,
standard HEVs. PHEVs start in electric mode, runs on battery the peak braking power for bringing the vehicle moving at 95
1
km/h to stop in 5 s can be as high as about 185 kW. Thus, the The desired attributes of a battery from electric mobility
power rating requirement during braking is much higher since perspective are [7]: high specific energy for longer drive
the deceleration has to happen in a very shorter duration. EV distances, high specific power for good acceleration, high
batteries are required to meet the demands from both safety features, wide operating temperature range, contains
supplying and absorbing large amount of power [3]. low toxic materials, capability of fast charging, long life, and
Few popular batteries and their key features are compared affordable price. The Lead-Acid (LA) battery, developed in
in Table I [4], [5]. As compared to the sp. energy of petrol 1859 remained the most popular battery for automobile
(13,000 Wh/kg), the batteries are almost 50-100 times less applications since 1890s. During the early 1900s, LA
energetic. The significance of low energy density of batteries batteries and Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) batteries were the only
as compared to petrol can be demonstrated as follows. options available for powering the EVs. However, electric
With 50 litres of petrol, a conventional engine powered cars powered by these batteries could not compete with petrol
car (e.g. Suzuki SX4 @ 16-20 km/L) can have a travel range engine cars mainly due to their short drive range, long
of over 700 km. A battery pack with the same amount of recharging time for batteries, lack of sufficient charging
energy content as that of 50 litre petrol would be too heavy stations besides being very expensive. Eventually the first
and extremely large in volume. Based on the current battery generation EVs vanished from the market in the late 1920s.
technology, a 100 kWh Li-ion battery that can provide around After the rebirth of EVs in the mid-1990s, LA batteries
500 km travel range may weigh between 800-900 kg. were in use for electric traction in the early version of General
Table I. COMPARISON OF MAJOR BATTERY TECHNOLOGIES Motor's EV1. Though less expensive, LA batteries lost the
Nominal Specific Energy Specific EV market due to low specific energy (30-40 Wh/kg), low
Battery Life
Type
Voltage Energy Density Power
Cycle
energy density (80-100 Wh/L) and limited travel range. At
(V) (Wh/kg) (Wh/L) (W/kg) present, these batteries are used mainly in electric two-
Pb-acid 2.1 30-40 100 180 500 wheelers, forklifts and e-rikshaws only. In 1997, the nickel-
Ni-Cd 1.2 50-80 300 200 2000 metal hydride (Ni-MH) battery was introduced in hybrid
EVs. As compared to LA batteries, Ni-MH batteries were
Ni-MH 1.2 60-120 180-220 200-300 < 3000 relatively more powerful in terms of specific energy (60-120
ZEBRA 2.6 90-120 160 155 > 1200 Wh/kg) and energy density (140-300 Wh/L). Though Ni-MH
batteries dominated the HEV market in the early 2000s, they
Li-ion 3.6 120-250 200-600 200-430 2000
also lost the race with the emergence of Li based batteries.
LiPo 3.7 130-225 200-250 260-450 > 1200 The most popular battery in today’s EVs is based on the
Pb-acid: Lead Acid, Ni-Cd: Nickel-Cadmium, Ni-MH: Nickel-Metal Li-ion chemistries. The introduction of Li-ion battery in 1991
Hydride, ZEBRA: Zero Emissions Batteries Research Activity, Li-ion: led a revolution of the battery market mainly due to their high
Lithium-ion, LiPo: Lithium-ion polymer. specific energy (120-250 Wh/kg) and high energy density (~
600 Wh/L). As of now, Li-ion batteries are the lightest and
III. MAJOR BATTERY TECHNOLOGIES FOR EVS
long-lasting batteries available for electric vehicles.
I. Historical Developments The weight advantages of Li-ion batteries over lead-acid
A number of electrochemical batteries capable of batteries can be demonstrated as follows. With 20 litre petrol,
powering EVs exist today. The popular chemistries include: a conventional family car can have a drive range of over 250
Lead-Acid, Ni-Cd, Ni-MH, Li-ion and Li-metal. Energy km. For covering 250 km, an electric car will require about
storage capabilities of these batteries are shown in Fig. 3 [6]. 32 kWh energy. Considering a depth of discharge (DOD) of
80%, a battery capacity of 40 kWh will be needed to deliver
32 kWh. To realize 40 kWh using a standard 12V, 35Ah lead-
acid automotive battery weighing 10.5 kg, it will require 95
LA batteries aggregating to about 1000 kg. However, a Li-
ion battery of 40 kWh (e.g. 2018 Nissan leaf: 192 NMC cells
@ 3.65 V and 56.3 Ah as 24 modules with 8 cells/module)
weighs only about 273-296 kg [8], [9]. This results in a weight
Fig.3. Power and energy capabilities of different batteries. gain of 70% over LA battery of the same kWh, besides
EV batteries are deep cycle (DC) batteries as against substantial reduction in the battery space. Furthermore, since
shallow cycle (SC) batteries typically used for automobile the LA batteries cannot be discharged below 50%, the actual
start, light and ignition (SLI) applications. DC batteries have travel range of the EV with 40 kWh LA battery will be around
thicker positive electrode plates but with relatively less 155 km only. The relative size comparison of petrol can, lead-
surface area available to take part in electrochemical acid battery and Li-ion battery are shown in Fig. 4.
reactions. In shallow cycle batteries, on the other hand,
electrodes are of sponge type with larger surface area. This
enable SC batteries to deliver high current (and high power)
pulses for short durations. DC batteries cannot release large
power very quickly as they are designed to provide relatively
steady power over sustained periods of time. DC batteries can
be discharged down to 30-20% of SOC (state of charge) for
over thousand cycles, whereas shallow cycle batteries are
usually discharged up to 70-60% with limited cycle life of
less than 500. This will vary with battery chemistry and 20 L Petrol 95 no., 35 Ah Lead-Acid Li-ion EV battery pack
loading pattern. The average usable capacity of an EV battery 15 kg. batteries, 1000 kg. 273-296 kg.
over a ten-year life span is in the range of only 50-80%. Fig. 4. Size comparison of three systems for a travel range of 250 km.
2
II. Lithium-ion Batteries Based on the positive electrode (cathode) material, Li-ion
Lithium (atomic no. 3) is the lightest metal with a batteries can be classified as: Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO2)
molecular weight of 6.941 g/mol. Li has the highest electro- or LCO, Lithium Manganese Oxide (LiMn2O4) or LMO,
chemical potential (-3.05 V relative to the standard hydrogen Lithium Titanate (Li4Ti5O12) or LTO, Lithium Iron Phosphate
electrode) which makes it one of the most reactive of metals. (LiFePO4) or LFP, Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide
Lithium based batteries are available in two types: Li and Li- (LiNiMnCoO2) or NMC and Lithium Nickel Cobalt
ion. Pure Li batteries are primary cells (non-rechargeable) Aluminum Oxide (LiNiCoAlO2) or NCA [10]. Nominal
and Li-ion batteries are secondary cells (rechargeable). Li voltage of most of these cells varies between 3.2-3.7 V. The
batteries use lithium metal as anode and can have a higher open circuit voltage (OCV) at different DOD of two popular
energy density than Li-ion batteries. Li primary cells are used Li-ion cells (LiCoO2 and LiFePO4) are shown in Fig. 6.
in defense applications, watches, pacemakers in heart
patients, remote controls, toys etc. Some of the popular
lithium primary cells are: Energizer, Duracell etc. used in
remotes of TVs, ACs, button cells used in watches etc. Li-ion
batteries are increasingly used in small to high capacity
applications such as cell phones, portable PCs, tablets, power
tools, electric vehicles and bulk storage for renewable energy. Fig. 6. OC voltage at different Depths of Discharge for two Li-ion cells.
Major components of a Li-ion cell are: positive (cathode)
and negative (anode) electrodes, an aqueous electrolyte and a Comparison of few important features of six Li-ion cells
separator. Cathode is made from lithium metal oxides or are shown in Fig. 7 [11], [5]. The attributes compared are:
phosphates (LiCoO2, LiMn2O4, LiFePO4 etc.) and for the specific energy, specific power, safety, performance, lifespan
anode, graphite is the standard choice. The liquid electrolyte and cost. The farther the coloured shape extends along a given
composed of a mixture of lithium salts (e.g. LiPF 6) and an axis, better the performance in that attribute.
organic solvent (e.g. diethyl carbonate). The function of
electrolyte is to transport positive Li ions between the anode
and cathode during charging and discharging cycles. The
electrodes are isolated by an insulating layer called separator.
The function of separator is to prevent short circuiting of
anode and cathode in case of drying up of the liquid
electrolyte due to internal faults or abnormal conditions.
The working of a Li-ion battery (shown in Fig. 5) is as
follows: When the charger is connected across the battery, at
the cathode (+) side, Li atoms are separated from the lithium
oxide or phosphate. Since a Li atom is highly unstable, it
instantly decomposes to a Li ion (Li+) and an electron (e-).
The positively charged Li ions are attracted towards the
anode and flow through the electrolyte and get trapped in the
graphite layers. Electrons, due to their negative charge, Fig. 7. Comparisons of important attributes of Li-ion chemistries.
cannot pass through the electrolyte, and hence, forced to flow
through the charger to the negative electrode. When all the Li As can be seen from Fig. 7, there is no single Li-ion
ions from the cathode reaches the anode, the battery is chemistry which possesses all the desired capabilities to be
considered to be fully charged. Thus, during charging, Li ions considered as an ideal EV battery. To realize a battery having
are extracted from the cathode and implanted into the anode. reasonably high energy density, better safety features besides
The Li ions at the anode are not in a stable state. When the good current delivery, a mix of many materials such as cobalt,
cell is connected across a load (i.e. during discharging), Li nickel, manganese and iron phosphate etc. are used in Li-ion
ions and electrons move from anode to cathode and get batteries. Fig. 8 shows the specific energy density vs.
deposited on the cathode as the stable metal oxide. When all volumetric energy density of major Li-ion batteries.
the Li ions from the anode have moved back to the cathode,
LCO : Lithium Cobalt Oxide
the battery is fully discharged and needs recharging. LMO : Lithium Manganese Oxide
NMC : Lithium Nickel Manganese
Cobalt Oxide
LFP : Lithium Iron Phosphate
NCA : Lithium Nickel Cobalt
Aluminum Oxide
LTO : Lithium Titanate
Fig. 8. Comparison of Li-ion cells.
Table II summarizes various features of Li-ion batteries
Charging Discharging [10]. Cobalt-based (LCO) cells are generally used in portable
Fig. 5. Working of a Li-ion battery during charging & discharging. gadgets such as cell phones, cameras, laptops etc. to get long
The redox (reduction-oxidation) reactions that occur in a runtime. However, LCO chemistry is thermally very unstable
typical Li-ion battery is as follows. and can easily become a potential fire hazard. Manganese
at cathode CoO2 + Li + + e − → LiCoO2 (1) based LMO cells have better thermal stability as they can
+ − withstand up to 250°C before becoming unstable. LMO cells
at anode LiC6 → C6 + Li + e (2) have very low internal resistance and can deliver high current
overall C6 Li + CoO2 C6 + LiCoO2 (3) and thus, these batteries are used for power tools and medical
3
devices. LCO batteries are not used in EVs mainly due to compound or a gel-like structure. LiPo cells can be made very
their high costs. At present, manganese and nickel-based Li- thin, down to the size of a credit card, due to the lack of liquid
ion batteries are the standard choice for EV traction. electrolyte. Another advantage of solid electrolyte is that it is
TABLE II. COMPARISON OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES impenetrable to Li metal dendrites, a major cause for internal
Cell Voltage (V)
short-circuits in conventional Li-ion cells. However, LiPo
Sp. Energy Cycle life Charge
Type
(Wh/kg) (cycles) Rate batteries possesses relatively less energy density as compared
Normal Range
to a similar size Li-ion battery. Due to the low weight
LCO 3.6 3.0–4.2 150–200 500–1000 1C advantage, LiPo cells find application in compacts devices
LMO 3.7 3.0–4.2 100–150 300–700 1C and radio-controlled aircraft. A comparison of various
LFP 3.2 2.5–3.65 90–140 1000–2000 1C attributes of Li-ion and LiPo batteries is given in Table III.
NCA 3.6 3.0–4.2 200–260 500 1C TABLE III. COMPARISON OF LI-ION AND LIPO BATTERIES
NMC 3.6 3.0–4.2 150–220 1000–2000 1C Attribute Lithium-Ion Lithium Polymer
LTO 2.40 1.8–2.85 50–80 3000–7000 5C Electrolyte Liquid Solid

Li-ion cells are available in a variety of shapes, sizes, and Energy Density High Low
capacity ratings. Capacities of these batteries ranges from Weight Heavier Lighter
around 10 Wh for cell phones, 60-100 Wh for laptops, 20-100 Charging time Longer (4-8 hr.) Relatively shorter
kWh for EVs and up to tens of MWh for grid level backup Efficiency 85-95% 75- 85%
and wind/solar energy storage systems. The three standard Ageing Fast Slow
Li-ion cell configurations are: Cylindrical, Prismatic and
Self-discharge Low Very low
Pouch as shown in Fig. 9. Both prismatic and pouch cells are
Cycle life Shorter Larger
flat and rectangular, but prismatic has a hard-case whereas
pouch has a soft-pack. Cylindrical cells are relatively less Safety Chances of fire etc. Relatively safer
expensive, can have high specific energy and generally used Cost Cheaper Expensive
in portable devices. These cells have good mechanical
stability and can withstand high internal pressures without IV. ISSUES AND CHALLENGES WITH LI-ION BATTERIES
deforming. In prismatic cells, electrodes are in the shape of a Many technical challenges and safety issues inherent to
flattened spiral whereas in pouch, electrodes are stacked onto Li-ion batteries are to be addressed for realizing optimum
each other. Prismatic and pouch cells improve space performance from EVs. Major challenges of Li-ion batteries
utilization but they are more expensive to manufacture than are: capacity fading, limited cycle life, charge/discharge rate,
cylindrical cells, less efficient in thermal management and charging method and hysteresis. Other concerns are: material
have a shorter cycle life than the cylindrical design. recyclability, environmental impacts and high cost.
EV traction battery packs are made from small capacity
cells. Dozens of small cells are combined in to a module and a. Capacity Fading
many modules are grouped to form a battery pack, as shown Capacity fading in a rechargeable battery refers to the
in Fig. 10. Traditionally, EV battery packs are made from irreversible loss in its usable energy and power capacity over
prismatic and pouch cells. One of the reasons for this was due time and usage. Reduction in energy capacity limits a
to the large surface area of these cells resulting in better heat vehicle’s travel range and reduction in power capacity limits
dissipation. However, cylindrical cells (size: 18650 and its acceleration rate and regenerative brake power.
2170) are also currently used in EV battery packs. Major reasons for performance fade in Li-ion batteries are
due to degradation of anode, cathode, electrolyte, separator
and current collectors. A battery is generally considered
usable till it reaches 80% of its initial capacity. Currently, the
issue with capacity fade is addressed by providing oversized
batteries to realize satisfactory performance till the end of the
battery life, which is typically between 5 to 10 years.
EV batteries are subjected to driving phases followed by
a long parking phase during which the battery is either
plugged into a charger or remains in standby mode. A battery
incurs calendar life loss due to storage and cycle life loss due
Fig. 9. Standard configurations of Li-ion cells. charge/ discharge cycling. Calendar fade is the performance
deterioration of the battery over time whether it is used or not
and cycle fade is the performance deterioration with usage.
The usable capacity of a battery can be defined as [12]
Cusable = Cinitial  CCF (4)
Fig. 10. Various stages in making of an EV battery pack. CCF is the capacity correction factor which is calculated as
CCF = 1 - (Cycle life losses + Calendar life losses) (5)
III. Lithium Polymer (LiPo) Battery The capacity of a Li-ion battery is correlated to the
Another popular Li-ion based battery is the lithium-ion amount of Li ions that can be shuttled back and forth between
polymer, or lithium polymer (LiPo) battery. The major the cathode and anode as the battery is cycled. During charge/
difference between Li-ion and LiPo is that a conventional Li- discharge process, some of those ions get stripped out of the
ion cell uses liquid electrolyte whereas in a LiPo cell uses cathode and end up at the anode. As the number of Li ions get
electrolyte in the form of a dry solid, or a porous chemical trapped at the anode increases after each cycling, their
4
participation in the subsequent charge/discharge reactions will result in increasing cell voltage. When the cell voltage
reduces. This is the cycle life loss. reaches around 4.7 V, the electrolyte and solvents breakdown
When a Li-ion battery is idle and does not subjected to and form flammable gasses. Pressurization of these gases
charging/discharging, the Li ions begin to react with the result in battery swelling along with high cell temperature,
electrode material and the electrolyte, and form a chemical which, in worst condition, may lead to explosion and fire.
compound at the electrode-electrolyte interface. This thin
layer, called the Solid Electrolyte Interface (SEI), is formed
during the first charge/discharge cycle of the battery. It
prevents the exposure of Li ions and electrode material to the
electrolyte. However, as the battery ages, the SEI layer begins
to grow and interact with more electrode material and Li ions
resulting in gradual wearing of these materials. This is the Fig. 12. Usable and unusable regions of a typical Li-ion cell.
calendar life loss. Though the calendar life loss rate is much
slower than the cycle life loss rate, it does have an impact on
the subsequent degradation of the battery [13].
Other reasons for battery capacity fade include: increase
in ambient and cell temperatures, increase in internal
impedance, high discharge rate, very high DOD etc. Capacity
fade has a high correlation with its cell temperature. This is
due to material decay and increase in cell resistance. Rise in
cell resistance results in a reduction in cell output voltage Fig. 13. charging plot of a typical Li-ion cell.
leading to a drop in delivered power. Average capacity loss Another consequence of overcharging is lithium plating.
in Li-ion batteries per cycle ranges between 0.025–0.048% With excessive current flow after reaching full charge,
cycle [14]. Fig. 11 shows impacts of various factors and their lithium ions cannot be accommodated quickly within the
relationship leading to capacity fade in Li-ion batteries. layers of the carbon, and as result, Li ions accumulate on the
anode. This is known as lithium plating. The consequence of
this is a loss of capacity and subsequent dendrite growth.
Overcharge can be prevented by switching off the charger
when the cell voltage reaches the designated value. Once the
charger is switched off, cell voltage begins to drop and
Fig. 11. Various factors leading to capacity fade in Li-ion batteries. stabilizes at around 3.7 to 3.9 V.

b. Safety Issues ii. Over-discharge (Current-Collector Dissolution)

As shown in Table-II, cell voltage range of major Li-ion
Several safety incidents involving Li-ion batteries have
batteries is 2.5 - 4.2 V. When a cell is discharged below the
been reported since early 1990. This include incidents related
specified lower voltage limit, a condition known as over-
to cell phones, laptops, aircrafts and electric vehicles. A Li-
discharge occurs. This happens in battery packs having cells
ion battery stores a large amount of energy in a rather small
arranged in series-parallel configurations to realize high
packing. While powering a device such as a cell phone or an
voltage and current. Since it is impossible to have all the cells
EV, energy from the battery is released in a controlled
in a pack at the same state of charge; during discharging, the
manner. However, when the energy is released rapidly and
cells with lower capacity are demanded to deliver the same
uncontrollably (e.g. due to an internal short-circuit resulted
amount of energy as that from other cells. Over-discharge of
from a crash), the battery may explode or even catch fire. The
a Li-ion cell results in the dissolution of copper current
biggest challenge with EV batteries is that even after a battery
collector at the anode. Over a period of time, this copper can
fire is extinguished, it can reignite as the undamaged cells of
get deposited on other components and leads to an internal
the battery pack can still get hot and release energy.
short. This also results in permanent capacity fade or failure.
Safety issues in Li-ion batteries arise due to many reasons,
significant among them are: overcharge, over-discharge, iii. Thermal Runaway
thermal runaway, dendritic growth, and gas evolution [15]. The safe working temperature range of a typical Li-ion
i. Overcharging cell, as shown in Fig. 14, is around 15oC to 50oC [17]. Cycle
life of the battery reduces significantly at temperature below
Li-ion cells have a very narrow range of operating voltage
15ºC and slightly above 50ºC. However, beyond 60ºC cell
and temperature. Fig. 12 shows the usable and unusable
temperature, fast reduction in life besides the danger of
voltage regions of a typical Li-ion cell. The safe voltage range
battery going in to thermal runaway is very high.
is between 2.3 V (min. discharge) to 4.2 V (max. charge) [16].
Typical charging plot of a Li-ion cell is shown in Fig. 13. The
charging occurs in three steps: constant current charge (bulk
charge), constant voltage charge (saturation charge) and
trickle charge. A Li-ion cell is considered fully charged when
its voltage reaches the nominal value (4.2 V) and the charging
current drops to about 3% of the rated value. Overcharge Fig. 14. Working temperature range of a typical Li-ion cell.
occurs when excessive energy is forced in to the battery in the Internal resistance of Li-ion cells varies between 80 - 100
form of trickle current after its designed capacity is reached. mΩ. During charge/discharge cycles, significant amount of
Li-ion cells cannot absorb overcharge. Forcing even a small heat is produced due to I2R and chemical reactions. As a
continuous current after reaching full charge (SOC: 100%) result, cell temperature rises by about 5 - 8ºC towards the end
5
of the charging. Once the cell temperature exceeds around 60 other metals and use of additives to improve the uniformity
ºC due to any reason, it will initiate many side reactions such at the solid electrolyte interface.
as decomposition of SEI layer at the anode. These reactions
v. Gas Evolution
produce more heat accelerating further reactions leading to
still more heat release. This is known as thermal runaway. Generation of gas in Li-ion batteries occurs mainly due to
Under such conditions, cell temperature rises rapidly to 300- the decomposition of electrolyte and its reactions with the
400°C or higher in a very short period leading to melting or positive/negative electrodes. The quantity of gas generation
vaporization of various chemicals in the cell. The outcome will vary depending up on the battery state. During normal
will be a gassing, leaking or smoking battery which may charge/discharge cycles, gas liberation will be very little.
explode or catch fire quickly. In majority of EV battery fire However, during abnormal conditions such as overcharge,
incidents reported, thermal runaway was one of the major over-discharge, thermal runaway etc., gas generation will
causes. Major stages involved in the thermal runway of a Li- increase and may lead to pressurization followed by
ion battery is shown in Fig. 15 [18] and the possible causes explosion. In some high-power Li-ion battery system, a safety
of thermal runaway in EV batteries is shown in Fig. 16 [19]. valve is provided to release the gas.
Stage-1 Stage-2 Stage-3 c. Charging Methods
Anodic reactions Exothermic Above 180 ◦C, +ve Charging an EV battery at rates comparable to the
start at about 90 reactions at electrode
refuelling of a petrol/diesel car is the ultimate dream of the
◦C. As temp. rises the positive decomposes and
above 120 ◦C, SEI electrode start electrolyte gets EV fraternity. To realize this goal, two requirements are to be
layer decomposes, as the temp. oxidized. This is a fulfilled. (a) The charger must be capable enough to provide
 
leading to rises over 140 high rate large amount of power, and (b) the battery should have the
reduction of ◦C. Oxygen exothermic ability to absorb high amount of power at a faster rate. Among
electrolyte at the rapidly process with a these, availability of a battery with fast charging capability
lithiated graphite evolves at this temp. rise as high
negative electrode. stage. as 100 ◦C/minute.
while maintaining reasonable cycle life is the real challenge.
The standard EV chargers currently used are the home or
Fig. 15. Important stages of thermal runaway in Li-ion batteries.
private charger and the public charger. Private chargers
include AC Level-1 (L1) and Level-2 (L2) chargers. In both
L1 and L2 chargers, single-phase AC is fed into the vehicles,
where it is converted into DC by an onboard charger. A L1
charger (120V, 16A, 1.9kW) will add approximately 5-8 km
of travel range per hour and a L2 charger (240V, 15A, 2.5/3.0
kW) will add up to 25-40 km of travel range in one hour. A
Fig. 16. Possible causes of thermal runaway in EV batteries. completely depleted EV battery could take up to 20 hours to
fully recharge using a L1 charger while it takes up to seven
Increase in cell temperature reduces the battery useful life.
hours using a L2 charger. Public chargers can have AC L1/L2
As a rule of thumb, for every 10°C increase in temperature of
charging points and DC off-board chargers. A Level-1 DC
a battery, its reaction rate doubles. Thus, one hour of battery
charger at output voltage of 48V, 60V or 72V with power
operation at 35°C is equivalent to two hours at 25°C.
rating between 10 - 15 kW can feed current in the range of 25
iv. Lithium Dendrite Formation - 200 A. A Level-2 DC Charger at output voltage of 480V,
Lithium dendrite formation is another technical challenge 600V and up to 1000V can provide power outputs between
in Li-ion batteries. Though the causes of dendritic growth are 30 - 150 kW or even higher.
still under debate, the mechanism can be briefly represented Charge and discharge rates of a battery are denoted by the
as follows. During charging of a Li-ion battery, lithium does C-rates. 1C-rate refers to full charging in one hour; 2C-rate
not form a homogeneous flat layer on the carbon anode. refers to full charging in 30 min., and C/2 or 0.5C means two
Instead, uneven structures called dendrites in the shape of hours to fully charge. The C-rates of Li-ion batteries are
whiskers are formed. After several charge/discharge cycles of shown in Table II. The Level-1 and Level-2 chargers, both
the battery, dendrites begin to grow towards the cathode AC and DC, typically recharges the battery much less than
direction. The growing Li whiskers can pierce the thin the 1C rate and therefore needs many hours to fully charge
membrane separator (thickness: 20-25µm) and touch the the battery. However, to quick recharge a battery, particularly
cathode resulting in cell short circuit. Various stages involved during a long trip, DC superchargers are also available. A
in the formation of Li dendrite is shown in Fig. 17. supercharger can refill up to 80% SOC in a battery within
about 15-30 minutes, and can add 100-150 km or higher
travel range within 20 minutes. However, supercharging will
lead to severe stresses in the battery on account of chemically
liberated heat as well as I2R. Hence the important criterion for
opting for superfast charging is monitoring and control of cell
temperature.
Typical fast charging pattern of a Li-ion battery consist of
Fig. 17. Lithium dendrite formation in a Li-ion battery. single or multiple constant-current constant-voltage (CCCV)
Lithium dendrite growth results in capacity fading, step charging [21]. Fig. 18 compares the standard charging
reduced lifetime besides internal short-circuit, generation of and the fast step charging of Li-ion batteries and the effects
high temperature and battery explosions or fire. Few methods of these charging on their cycle life. Fast step charging
have been proposed to reduce the formation of dendrite which involves charging the battery with a relatively high constant
include use of solid electrolytes, alloying Li anodes with current during low SOC regions, and with increasing SOC,

6
the charging current is decreased in steps. This philosophy is The new battery technologies use solid electrolytes as
indented for limiting the cell temperature and thereby limiting against liquid electrolyte in conventional batteries. Major
the degradation; however, lithium plating will still occur and advantages of solid-state batteries include:
eventually reduce the cycle life. • Faster charging (up to 6x faster)
• Increased energy density (2x energy per unit volume)
• Increased cycle life (10 years, compared to 3 in Li-ion)
• Non-flammable components
• Very low leakage currents
• Wide temperature range, -20 to 100oC
Fig. 18. Comparison of standard charging and fast charging of a typical Li- Battery technology has improved considerably during the
ion battery and the impact on cycle life. last thirty plus years. Much research and development are
In order to limit lithium plating and temperature driven being put on cell chemistry to improve their performance
degradation, some fast chargers provide pulse charging in while ensuring that the batteries are compact, lightweight,
which high charging currents are injected intermittently. safer and cost competitive.

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Published in:
Energy Scan: A House e-Journal of Corporate Planning,
NTPC Ltd., vol. I (2019-20), no. 38, New Delhi, Jun 2019.
Fig. 20. A comparison of current and future battery capabilities [22].
7

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