RETAINING WALLS

Retaining walls are relatively rigid walls used for supporting soil laterally so that it can be retained at

different level on the two sides. The purpose of retaining walls is to hold soil behind them. However, the

specific needs will vary depending on the project. Walls can range from small landscape stone walls to

surround a garden to enormous soil-retaining projects along a highway. A retaining wall stabilizes the soil

and protects the buildings from overturning and slipping, it also helps to save construction costs.

FUNCTION OF RETAINING WALL:

 The retaining wall prevents the soil or other material at places with sudden changes in elevation.

 Earth retaining structures are used to hold back the earth and maintain a difference in the height

of the ground surface.

 Retaining structures are designed to withstand the grounds or backfill, other externally exerted

loads transmit these forces safely to a foundation.

TYPES OF RETAINING WALL:

1. Gravity Retaining Wall: Gravity retaining walls depends only on its self-weight to withstand

lateral earth pressure. Typically, these retaining walls is essential for massive gravitational load

required to counter soil pressure. Such walls are constructed with various materials such as

concrete, stone, and masonry, it is economical for elevations up to 3 m.

2. Diaphragm wall: Diaphragm walls are a type of retaining walls that are very stiff and generally

watertight. Diaphragm walls are expensive walls, but they save time and space, and hence are

used in urban constructions.

3. Gabion Retaining Walls: This walls are multi-orbital, rectangular wire mesh packing containers

filled with rocks or different suitable materials. It is used for the development of erosion

management structures & to stabilize the steep slopes.

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 4. Cantilever Retaining Wall: This walls are made up of stem or base slabs, constructed with

reinforced concrete, precast concrete, or prestressed concrete. These walls are built either on-site

or precast offsite, it is economical up to 10 meters height. The bottom slab portion under the

backfill materials is known as the heel, and the opposite part is called toe. It requires a small

amount of concrete compared to the gravity wall, however its design and construction are

carefully performed. Similar to the gravity wall, sliding, reversing, and bearing pressures will be

considered during its configuration.

5. Counterfort retaining wall: These counterfort retaining walls are counter fort behind the wall

slab and base slab are reinforced with monolithic. The counter-fort wall is equal or slightly more

significant than half the counter-fort height. The height of the counter-fort wall is 8–12 m.

6. Anchored Retaining Wall: These walls is adopted when the house is constrained or a thin

retaining walls are required. An anchored retaining walls is appropriate for loose soil on rocks.

Deep cable rods or wiring routes are provided sideways into the deep earth, then the ends are

filled with concrete to give anchors.

ADVANTAGES OF RETAINING WALL:

1. Protective structure: Retaining walls are used to counteract the forces of gravity to protect the

structure. In other words, they are used to hold the soil.

2. Functional production: Retaining walls serve as a functional production to prevent sink holes

from destroying your landscape structure. They are used to stabilize the sloping landscapes and

provides the level surfaces on slopes.

3. Best run-off solution: If your property is not prevented from infiltrating, then rainwater runoff can

completely damage your land. This can protect your landscape design, also prevent floods from

inflowing the area.

4. Reduce maintenance: Retaining walls can protect your landscape design and help you in the long

run. As a protective feature it reduces maintenance and prevents erosion.

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 5. Decorative feature: Retaining walls additionally give your landscape an aesthetically pleasing

design.

DISADVANTAGES OF RETAINING WALL:

1. Vertical cracks: Some retaining walls develop vertical cracks such in poured concrete due to

extreme pressure or extensive changes in temperature.

2. Failing Foundation: Some retaining walls are not able to sustain high pressure from the soil such

as brick walls, often resulting in brick breakage or foundation failure.

3. Termites: Retaining walls can attract termites to your property when wood is used as a retaining

wall.

APPLICATION OF RETAINING WALL:

1. Construction of basement below ground level in buildings.

2. In the bridge, work consists of the wing walls and abutment.

3. To maintain slopes in hilly areas.

4. As side walls of bridge approach roads.

5. Providing lateral support to the embankment.

CAVITY WALLS

A cavity wall or hallow wall is the one which consists of two separate walls, called leaves or skins, with a

cavity or gap in-between. The two leaves of a cavity wall may be of equal thickness if it is a non-load-

bearing wall, or the internal leaf may be thicker than the external leaf, to meet the structural requirements.

The two portions of the wall may be connected together by metal pins or bonging bricks at suitable

interval. Cavity walls are often constructed for giving better thermal insulation to the building. It also

prevents the dampness to enter and acts as sound insulation. Thus they are normally the outer walls of the

building. The size of cavity varies from 4 to 10cm. the inner and outer skins should not be less than 10cm

each (half brick).

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ADVANTAGES OF CAVITY WALLS OVER OTHER WALLS

1. There is no direct contract between the inner and outer leaves of the wall (except at the wall ties).

Hence the external moisture (dampness) cannot travel inside the building.

2. The cavity between the two leaves is full of air which is bad conductor of heat. Hence

transmission of heat from external face to the inside room is very much reduced. Cavity walls

have about 25% greater insulating value than the solid walls.

3. Cavity walls also offer good insulation against sound.

4. The nuisance of efflorescence is also very much reduced.

5. They are cheaper and economical.

6. Loads on foundations are reduced because of lesser solid thickness.

WHAT ARE RC DIAPHRAGM WALLS?

RC diaphragm wall (slurry wall) are reinforced cast-in-place continuous concrete wall. The construction

includes the excavation of a trench under the protection of a support suspension (i.e a slurry such as

bentonite mud for example) designed to temporarily stabilize the trench wall .A diaphragm wall is a

structural concrete wall constructed in a deep trench excavation, either cast in situ or using precast

concrete components. Diaphragms walls are often used on congested sites, close to existing structures,

where there is restricted headroom, or where the excavation is of a depth that would otherwise require the

removal of much greater volumes of soil to provide stable battered slopes.

Diaphragm walls are made by excavating a deep trench that is prevented from collapsing by being filled

with engineering slurry such as bentonite and then the trench is filled with reinforced concrete panels, the

joints between which can be water-tight. This is commonly used for top-down construction, where a

basements is constructed at the same time as above ground works are carried out.

Diaphragm is a contentious walls constructed on the ground to facilitate certain construction activities

such as:

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 1. Retaining wall

2. A cut-off provision to support deep excavation

3. The final wall for basement or other underground structure e.g., tunnels.

4. It can be used to separating structure between major underground facility.

5. It can be used as a form of foundation (rectangular raft foundation).

6. Where geology and ground water precludes use of conventional earth retention system.

Compared to other wall types, Diaphragm walls are stiff with respect to ground movement control.

Diaphragm walls are often attractive in granular soils with high ground water table, When low

permeability layer underlies granular soil. Diaphragm walls are terminated in underlying low permeability

layer which consist of soil/rock keying into low permeability layer reduce ground water seepage below

wall.

ADVANTAGES OF DIAPHRAGM WALLS

Primary advantage of a diaphragm wall over a secant wall is the reduced number of joints in the wall

which ultimately improves the walls water tightness. Diaphragm walls tend to be used for retaining very

deep excavations as they can be designed to take very high structural loads.

1. The process of constructing the Diaphragm Wall is relatively quiet and has little vibration

2. The Diaphragm Wall can be constructed to great depths (in excess of 80m)

3. The Diaphragm Wall can be constructed on various soil types and rocks.

4. The Diaphragm Wall is water tight; no dewatering is required and hence has little effects on adjacent

structures.

5. The Diaphragm Wall serves both as an external wall for the basement and foundation for the

superstructure.

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DISADVANTAGES

The need for excavating and pumping equipment makes diaphragm wall construction relatively costly, as

compare to other types of excavation support system. Diaphragm wall construction is not suited to strong

soil conditions where penetration is slow and difficult.

ROAD PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION

Pavement is one type of hard surface made from durable surface material lay down on an area which is

intended to carry vehicular or foot traffic. its main function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the

sub-grade through different layers. The road Pavement should provide sufficient skid resistance, proper

riding quality, favorable light reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution.

Its goal to reduce the vehicle transmitted load, so that they will not exceed the bearing capacity of the

sub-grade. The Road Pavements are playing a crucial role in the development of any construction. There

are mainly two types of road pavement used namely flexible and rigid pavements road.

Ideal Road Pavement Requirement

A good pavement should possess the following requirement,

 it should have required thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the sub-

grade soil,

 It should be structurally strong to resist all types of stresses imposed upon it.

 To prevent the skidding of vehicles, it should have a sufficient coefficient of friction.

 It should have a smooth level surface that offers comfort to road users even at high speed.

 Ensure less noise when the vehicle moving on it.

 It should be dustproof so that there is no danger of traffic safety.

 It must provide an impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and

 It should offer low maintenance with long life.

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TYPES OF PAVEMENT

The following are two major pavement types used in road construction,

1. Flexible pavement

2. Rigid Pavement.

Flexible pavements, vehicular stress is transferred to subgrade through gain to gain contact of the

aggregate through the granular structure. These types of road have less flexural strength, acts like a

flexible sheet (e.g. bituminous road).

In the case of rigid pavement, vehicle loads are transferred to sub-grade soil by flexural strength of the

pavement and the pavement acts as a rigid plate (e.g. cement concrete roads).

A combined pavement also used which is known as semi-rigid pavement. In this, a rigid pavement is

provided with a thin layer of flexible pavement over it and is an ideal pavement with most desirable

characteristics. However, these types of combinations of pavements are rarely used in new construction

because of the high cost and complex analysis required.

1. Flexible Pavements: In Flexible Pavement, wheel loads are transferred to subgrade by grain-to-grain

transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure. The wheel load stresses acting on the

pavement are distributed to a larger area and the stress decreases with the depth.

Considering this load distribution characteristic of flexible pavements, it has many layers. Hence, a

flexible pavement design system uses the concept of a layered system. By considering this the flexible

pavement should have better quality to sustain maximum compressive stress, in addition, to wear and

tear. Below layers are accepted to experience the magnitude of stress and low-quality material can be

used.

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In the construction of flexible roads mainly bituminous materials are used. Defects in the flexible road

can be seen on the surface if there is a settlement of the lower layer. The design of flexible pavement is

done by considering the overall performance of the road, and the stresses produced should be kept well

below the allowable stresses of each road layer.

Types of Flexible Pavement

The following are major types of flexible pavement,

 Conventional layered flexible pavement,

 Full-depth asphalt pavement, and

 Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM).

1. Conventional Flexible Pavements: Conventional flexible pavement uses the layered system. In which

high-quality materials are placed at the top of the pavement layer to resist maximum stress and low-

quality cheap materials are placed in lower layers.

2. Full-depth Asphalt Pavements: It is constructed by placing bituminous layers directly on the soil sub-

grade. These types of pavement most suitable when there is high traffic and local materials are not

available.

3. Contained Rock Asphalt Mats: It is constructed by placing dense/open-graded aggregate layers in

between two asphalt layers. Properly designed asphalt concrete is placed above the sub-grade. This

asphalt concrete will reduce the vertical compressive strain on soil sub-grade and protect from surface

water.

2. Rigid Pavements: Rigid pavements are cable to transfer wheel load to a wider area as it has good

flexural strength. In rigid pavement, there are not many layers of materials as in the case of flexible

pavement. In rigid directly placed on a well-compacted subgrade or on a single layer of granular or

stabilized material. As there is only a single layer between the concrete and the sub-grade, this layer can

be called a base or sub-base course.

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In rigid, the vehicular traffic load is transferred through slab action, and the road behaves like an elastic

plate resting on a viscous medium. It is constructed by using plain cement concrete. Generally, its design

is analyzed by plate theory instead of layer theory, assuming an elastic plate resting on a viscous

foundation.

The plate theory assumes that the road pavement slab a medium-thick plate that is plane before loading

and to remain plane after loading. Pavement slab experiences the bending due to wheel load and

temperature variation and the resulting tensile and flexural stress.

Types of Rigid Pavements

Rigid pavements can be classified into four types,

 Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),

 Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),

 Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP), and

 Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).

1. Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement: This type of rigid pavement is constructed using plain cement

concrete with closely spaced contraction joints. In this dowel, steel bars are generally used for load

transfer across joints. It has joint spacing around 5 to 10m.

2. Jointed Reinforced Concrete Road: It is clear in the rigid pavement that placing reinforcement does

not increase its structural stability, but they can drastically increase the joint spacing to 10 to 30m. The

main function of the dowel bar is transfer load only and reinforcement used in the slab to keep the

pavement together even after cracks.

3. Continuous Reinforced Concrete Road: In this type, there is no joints are provided between and it is

achieved by providing reinforcement.

ROAD CONSTRUCTION GRADES/LAYERS (ROAD PAVEMENT LAYERS)

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Following are pavement layers in road construction,

 Compacted subgrade (150 – 300mm).

 Sub-base Course (100 – 300 mm)

 Base Course (100 – 300 mm)

 Prime Coat

 Binder Coat (50 -100 mm)

 Tack Coat

 Surface Course (25 – 50 mm)

 Seal Coat.

1. Compacted Sub-grade (150 – 300 mm): The compacted subgrade is a base of all pavement layers. All

the above pavement layers transfer the stress to this layer. So, it is essential to ensure that soil sub-grade is

not overstressed. Therefore, it should be properly compacted to the desired density, near the optimum

moisture content.

2. Sub-base Course (100 – 300 mm): It is a layer of material below the base course. It is a major role to

provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the

pavement structure. In the case of the base, the course is open graded then the sub-base course with more

fine material can be utilized as filler between sub-grade and the base course.

A sub base is not strictly needed or used. For example, road pavement made on high quality, hard sub-

grade may not need the additional features offered by a sub-base course. In such situations, the sub-base

course can be avoided.

3. Base Course (100 – 300 mm): It is a layer of materials just below the surface of the binder course and

it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage. The different materials

are used for base courses such as crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials

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4. Prime Coat: A prime coat is applied by spreading low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent

surface like granular bases on which the binder layer is placed. It is primly used to provide a bond

between two layers. A prime coat is able to penetrate into the below layers, plugs the voids, and forms a

watertight surface.

5. Binder Coat (50 -100 mm): The Binder coat has the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. Its main

function is to distribute the load to the base course. The binder course primly consists of aggregate mixed

with low asphalt and doesn’t require quality as high as the surface course. Replacement of some part of

the surface course by the binder course results in a more economical design.

6. Tack Coat: In tack coat, a little amount of asphalt is applied to the surface. It is generally asphalt

emulsion diluted with water. Its main function is to provide proper bonding between two layers of binder

course and must be thin, uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.

7. Surface Course (25 – 50 mm): It is the main layer that bears the direct traffic load and generally

contains superior quality materials. The surface course is generally constructed with graded asphalt

concrete (AC). The functions and requirements of this layer are:

This course offers major characteristics like friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also, it prevents the entry

of excess water into the underlying base, sub-base, and sub-grade,

It should be provided with a hard surface to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and

skid-resistant riding surface,

8. Seal Coat: The seal coat is a thin layer with water-proof the surface and to provide skid resistance.

MATERIAL USE IN CONSTRUCTION

Road construction is a highly technical venture that requires a range of distinct materials to ensure the

motorways are durable and well able to support heavy loads and traffic. These materials range from

natural soils, aggregates, binders such as lime, asphalt, concrete, and assorted products used as admixtures

for improved quality of roads.

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Here’s a list of the common types of road construction materials:

1. Soil: Soil naturally tops the list of materials used in road construction. It is the eventual point which

supports the complete structure of the road. Soil is the primary material for the foundation, subgrade, or

the pavement in the case of low traffic rural roads. It provides the essential flat base that offers the vital

support for the road structure.

A process known as compaction, where soil particles are pressed together to reduce pore space between

them, is usually carried out on site to give the soil at the base some higher resistance and greater stability.

2. Aggregate: Stone aggregate, also known as mineral aggregate, is easily the most important component

of road construction materials. It is made by breaking up naturally occurring rocks to form coarse

aggregate (like gravel) or fine aggregate (like sand). Aggregates are used for granular bases, sub-bases, as

part of bituminous mixes and cement concrete. They are also used as the primary material for relatively

cheaper road, known as water-bound macadam.

3. Asphalt and Bitumen: Asphalt and bitumen are often mistaken as being one and the same thing.

However, while asphalt is a mixture of aggregates, binder and filler, used for constructing roads and their

associated furniture, bitumen is actually the semi-solid binder that holds asphalt together.

Bitumen, which is also known as mineral tar, is obtained through unfinished distillation of crude

petroleum. It contains 87% carbon, 11% hydrogen and 2% oxygen.

On the other hand, asphalt is manufactured in a factory that heats, dries and mixes aggregate, bitumen and

sand into a composite mix. The material is then applied on site using a paving machine at a nominated or

required thickness, depending on the type of project.

When used for road construction, asphalt comes in the form of a composite material known as asphalt

concrete. This road making material is 70% asphalt and 30% aggregate. Asphalt is 100% recyclable,

which makes it one of the most popular materials for making roads.

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4. Concrete: Concrete offers a lot of flexibility and ease of construction – making it an important road

construction material. It is created by mixing cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, water, and

chemical admixtures (which make up 25-40% of concrete).

In addition to reducing costs, concrete is popular among road builders due to its ability to extend the

service life of a road. It can also be used to raise the bearing capacity of existing pavement layers.

5. Composite Pavement: This is a type of pavement that uses both asphalt and concrete to form a ‘super’

pavement. Composite pavements can potentially become a cheaper alternative to traditional pavements

thanks to their ability to provide higher levels of performance and durability, both structurally and

functionally. The downside of concrete is that it is susceptible to problems such as reflective cracking and

rutting in the surface layer. However, these potential hitches can be resolved by applying a premium

asphalt surface or through some other (costly) mitigation techniques.

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REFERENCES

1. https://constructionor.com/retaining-wall/

2. Building Construction 10th Edition by”; Dr. B.C. Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain and Arun Kumar

Jain

3. https://civiconcepts.com/blog/what-is-pavement-types-of-pavement-road-construction-layers

4. https://theconstructor.org/transportation/types-of-pavement-flexible-and-rigid-pavement/9570/

5. https://civilengineeringnotes.com/road-pavement-types/

6. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/5advantagesdiaphramwall

7. W.G. Curtin, F.I.C.E., F.I. Stuct. E., M.Cons.E.: Brick Diaphragm Wall Structures-Design and

Application

8. https://civiconcepts.com/blog/what-is-pavement-types-of-pavement-road-construction-layers

9. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/civil_engineering

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