Arc 153 Notes On Wall Construction
Arc 153 Notes On Wall Construction
Arc 153 Notes On Wall Construction
Wall Construction
COURSE LECTURERS:
Prof S.O. AFRAM & Arc. Desmond Opoku
Department of Architecture,
KNUST
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Wall construction;
Rammed Laterite, Wattle and Daub, Brick, Sandcrete block,stone, Concrete, Timber.
A wall is a “reconciliation” of the internal demands of buildings and the external demands of
the street. It may be part of the structural system and define the outside and inside spaces and
contributes to the aesthetic appearance, especially, within the urban context
Walls are the vertical elements of a building which enclose the space within it and which may
also divide that apace. Together with the roof they form the ‘ environmental envelope’. Walls,
more than any of the building elements, contribute to the aesthetic appearance of the building,
especially within the urban context (Streetscape, urbanscape)
TYPES OF WALLS
It may be part of the structural system and define the outside and inside spaces and contributes
to the aesthetic appearance, especially, within the urban context
Walls may be divided into two types:‐
(i) Loadbearing wall; which support loads from floors and roof in addition to their own
weight and resist side pressure from wind.
(ii) Non‐loadbearing wall; which carry no floor or roof loads.
Each type may be divided further into external or enclosing walls or internal dividing or
partition walls.
The term “Partition” is a wall, either load bearing or non‐load bearing, dividing the space within
a building into rooms.
There are also Retaining Walls, which supports and resist the thrust of soil and sometimes
subsoil water on one side.
◦ Most important functional requirement of a retaining wall is strength and
stability.
A designer considers certain data before the design:
◦ Studies the requirements of the occupants
◦ Nature of occupancy/activities of occupants
◦ Collect climatic data of area (wind, noise, pollution, rain, temperature, humidity
etc)
◦ Studies availability of local building materials and skilled labourers
◦ Cost analysis
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
◦ There are certain requirements walls must satisfy :
◦ STRENGTH and STABILITY
◦ WEATHER RESISTANCE
◦ FIRE RESISTANCE
◦ THERMAL INSULATION
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◦ SOUND INSULATION
STRENGTH & STABILITY:
The strength of a wall is measured in terms of its resistance to stresses set up in it by its
own weight, superimposed loads and by lateral pressure e.g. wind
Stability is its resistance to overturning by lateral forces and buckling caused by
excessive slenderness.
WEATHER RESISTANCE:
The external walls of a building are required to provide adequate resistance to rain and
wind penetration
This will depend largely on its height, locality and exposure
Rain penetration can be resisted in 3 ways:
◦ (1) By ensuring limited penetration into the wall thickness
◦ (2) By preventing any penetration whatsoever through the outer surface
◦ (3) By interrupting the capillary paths through the wall
In(1) water will be absorbed by a permeable walling material and held near the surface
until dried by weather through evaporation
In (2) the use of impermeable walling material to help force down the water to run
down the face of the wall (e.g. tiles)
In(3) by breaking of the capillary paths by use of a solid wall structure. E.g. no‐fines
concrete wall
Or an isolated outer surface by the use of a cavity or gap.
Walls can also be protected at the base against ground moisture which can rise by
capillary attraction (Damp proof course, DPC)
FIRE RESISTANCE:
Walls are often required to act as a highly resistant fire barrier.
They are used to compartmentalize a building to separate specific fire risks within a
building, to prevent the spread of fire.
THERMAL INSULATION:
The external walls, together with the roof, must provide a barrier to the passage of heat
in order to maintain satisfactory internal conditions.
This can be done by:
◦ The thickness
◦ Incorporation of cavities
◦ Insulation
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SOUND INSULATION:
◦ Sound insulation is usually not very significant in wall design since the other
functional requirements, when fulfilled, excludes noise.
◦ Windows, however, provide weak points for noise.
◦ In some special circumstances, very thick wall or a cavity wall could be adopted.
There are 4 forms of wall construction:
MASONRY WALL
MONOLITHIC WALL
FRAME WALL
MEMBRANE WALL
MASONRY WALL:
Here the wall is built of individual blocks of materials, such as bricks, stone, etc
cemented together with some form of mortar.
MONOLITHIC WALL:
It is built of a material requiring some form of support or shuttering in the initial stages
E.g. earth wall or concrete wall. Concrete could be plain or reinforced.
FRAME WALL:
The wall is constructed as a frame of relatively small members of timber at close
intervals, with a facing or sheathing on each side, to form a load bearing system.
MEMBRANE WALL:
It is constructed as a sandwich of two thin skins or sheets of reinforced plastic, metal, or
any suitable material bonded to a core of foamed plastic
This produces a thin wall of high strength and low weight.
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WALL FOOTINGS
Walls are always provided with footings to prevent them from collapsing through settlements
or soil subsidence.
The superstructure is most times an extension of the foundation walls that rest on solid plain or
reinforced concrete footings.
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Atakpame walls
This refers to a rectangular wall which has been properly laid out. Mud is mixed with water and
kneaded with the bare feet and moulded into balls of about 200mm diameter. Courses of up to
600mm in height are laid and allowed to set and dry before the next course is added. The walls
are generally not rendered and the pronounced horizontal lines of the courses are clearly
visible.
Rammed Laterite or Soil Wall is also a type of atakpame construction where the walls are
constructed on foundations (strip or large stones) or where possible on a reinforced ring beam
at floor level. Wall thickness is normally 300mm at ground level, tapering to 230mm at top
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beam level or 230mm throughout the wall. The base of the wall needs to be protected since
erosion usually starts from there through rain and sometimes termites or abrasion.
A house constructed using Atakpame construction method of hand‐moulding
In another method, rammed laterite or earth could also be is put into formwork in layers of
100mm and thoroughly compacted to a thickness of 60‐70mm with a ramming tool. When the
form work is full and well rammed the formwork is dismantled and moved to the next position,
fixing it firmly over a previously completed row. After removing the formwork no surface
treatment is normally required as in the atakpame soil wall construction above.
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Rammed earth construction using formwork
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In order to make the structure resistance to earthquake and strong rainstorms, the following
design recommendations should be followed:
(i) Structures built with rammed laterite should not be higher than one storey, the wall
height should not exceed 2.40m
(ii) Bases of the walls should be protected from moisture in the adjacent soil or from
splashing water
(iii) Structures should have lightweight roof, which is well anchored into the top ring
beam from protection against strong winds.
(iv) No wall section should not exceed 4.0m in length before a dividing wall (which acts
as a buttress) is arranged.
(v) There should be tie‐ beams at base and wall top level.
Wattle and Daub Walls
Wattle and daub wall construction is also constructed with soil as above but on a skeleton of
vertical and horizontally woven network of timber or bamboo. Holes are dug into the ground at
regular intervals after the desired shape of the building has been marked out. The vertical post
which carry the roof structure are inserted into the holes and stabilized with stones rammed
around the base. The horizontal and vertical members of the framework are then tied in before
the wet moulded mud walls are pressed and worked into it to a thickness of 150 to 200mm.
The method of construction is faster since it does not have to set before the next one is
constructed.
A building constructed using the Wattle and Daub method of construction
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Brick Wall
Burnt brick or soil bricks may be hand‐moulded or machine‐pressed. Clay bricks are then burnt
in a kiln. Soil bricks are left to dry in the sun. In the absence of standards, a variety of different
sizes and forms of bricks are produced. To provide lateral stability and resistance to side thrust,
a brick wall is bonded with adequate lap. A number of different techniques are known Eg. The
Stretcher Bond, English Bond and Flemish Bonds are the most common and suitable bonds. A
brick wall is also constructed on a foundation of concrete or bricks.
Mortar used for laying the bricks is a mixture and hydraulic cement (cement or lime) formed
into a mass. The mix proportions recommended are 1:2 to 1:5 (by volume).
Different types of bonding for brick walls
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Sandcrete (Sand‐cement) Block Wall
Sandcrete block walls are dense aggregate concrete blocks produced as solid or hollows blocks.
They range from 300 and 450mm long x 100 to 230mm widex230mm high per block. They are
also bonded when laid with cement‐sand mortar. The principles of bonding are the same as for
brickwork but because of the range of thickness available the blocks are only bonded
longitudinally, no cross bonding being required.
There are different types of sandcrete blocks: SOLID PLAIN BLOCKS, SOLID KEYED BLOCKS,
HOLLOW BLOCKS and VENTILATED BLOCKS. Usually the hollow block must not be more than
50% of the gross block volume. They are the same dimensions as the solid blocks.
The strength of these blocks is sufficient for normal small scale work but when loading is heavy
only dense concrete blocks are suitable.
Different types of sandcrete blocks
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Stone wall
Building stone has to be quarried out of the rock formation before it can be put to use.
Depending upon the degree of refinement used in shaping the stone, the finishing adopted and
the arrangement of stone in the construction, stone masonry can be broadly classified in two
types:
(i) Rubble masonry (undressed)
Further sub‐divided into Uncoursed rubble, Random rubble, coursed rubble masonry, etc.
(ii) Ashlar masonry (shaped stone. Further sub‐divided into Ashlar fine, Ashlar rough, etc
Stone masonry wall construction is not only massive but is time consuming and also requires
skilled labour.
Random rubble; uncoursed random rubble of all shapes and sizes are selected more or less at
random and laid in mortar. No attempt is made to select and lay stones in horizontal courses.
Random coursed is similar to random rubble uncoursed except that the stones are selected and
laid so that the walling is roughly leveled in horizontal courses.
Random rubble walls
Ashlar wall; in this construction a wall is built from carefully dressed stones with accurate
bedding and jointing. With Ashlar fine, for instance, all stones are fine tooled on all bed and
side joints, and the faces are rendered perfectly true to the pattern desired. The height of the
courses is never less than 300mm and generally all courses are kept at the same height
throughout the work. The height of the stones is never less than their breadth and their length
is never less than twice their height. The stones are generally laid as header and stretcher
alternately.
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Ashlar wall construction.
Concrete wall
The most outstanding characteristic of concrete is that it can be cast in a mould to any desired
shape. It is a material which has great plasticity when manufactured and great strength when
set and is matured. Steel reinforcement and application of pre‐stressing techniques add to its
strength.
There are two types of concrete wall; mass concrete and the reinforced concrete wall. The
former is made up of cement, fine aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate (gravel.) while the
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latter contains the same ingredients of mass concrete in addition to steel reinforcement.
Reinforced concrete wall should not be less than 100mm thick.
The simplest process of manufacturing concrete is casting it in –situ in a prepared formwork
from timber (or steel plates) after the reinforcement has been placed. A concrete wall is a
homogeneous wall and as such when casting is not completed in one process, attention must
be paid to the joints between one portion and the next.
For larger structures, suitable expansion joints are necessary every 20 to 25 meters.
Concrete wall and expansion joints
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Timber Frame Walls
Timber walls are constructed with a framework of timber and cladded with the desired finish.eg
plywood, boarding or both.(Frame wall) The term FRAME WALL is usually applied to an external
timber wall involving in its construction appropriate external cladding and insulation. An
internal frame wall is usually referred to as a partition, whether or not it is loadbearing.
A frame wall basically consists of vertical timber members call STUDS, framed between
horizontal members of the same section at top and bottom, the top member being called a TOP
or HEAD PLATE and the bottom a SOLE PLATE or PIECE.
The joints are simple butt and nailed joints and the frame is, therefore non‐rigid and requires
bracing in order to provide adequate stiffness. Diagonal braces can be used but the usual
method, which is quicker and cheaper, is to use board or plywood external sheathing to stiffen
the structure as well as to serve other purposes (as finish Fig 10). The studs are commonly
spaced at 400mm centres, which is related to the standard 1200mm width of many types of
sheet linings.
Timber frame wall
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It is essential that foundation walls of brick, stone, block or poured concrete are provided for
the walls. At the same time termite and decay protection are also necessary at the level of
possible contact with the ground.
Claddings to frame walls
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Termite and decay could be achieved by use of durable and treated wood, Soil poisoning
beneath the building. A physical barrier for termite protection, eg Termite shield, etc(Fig 11)
Timber Frame wall with termite shield
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SLENDERNESS RATIO
Factors that may cause problems for walls in buildings are:
ECCENTRIC loading
OVERTURNING‐ caused by lateral or oblique forces
BUCKLING‐caused by overloading
To counteract these, Slenderness Ratio has to be considered;
Slenderness Ratio (SR) =Effective Height (H)
Effective Thickness(T)
Effective Height= ¾ of H
Effective Thickness= Actual thickness of wall without finishes.
BONDING
Bonding is a way of laying masonry bricks to eliminate continuous vertical joints both in the
body as well as the face of the wall.
This means the units will overlap each other such that a load applied to a block at the top will
be transferred to the others below and to the foundation
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Bricks may be arranged in a wide variety of ways. Each arrangement is identified by the
pattern of headers and stretchers on the face of the wall.
Examples of bonding:
STRETCHER BOND
ENGLISH BOND
FLEMISH BOND
STRECTCHER BOND: (Running bond)
All bricks are laid as stretchers. The overlap, which is usually half brick, is obtained by
commencing each alternative course with a half brick.
ENGLISH Bond:
This consist of alternative courses of headers and stretchers.
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FLEMISH Bond:
Each course consist of alternative headers and stretchers. The alternate headers of each
course are centered over the stretchers in the course below
JOINTING & POINTING
The face edges of joints in brickwork may be finished in various ways.
If done as work proceeds, it is known as JOINTING
If done after the brick work, it is known as POINTING
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FLUSH JOINT
It is formed by striking off the surplus mortar with the edge of the trowel
WEATHER STRUCK JOINT:
It is formed by compressing the joint with the tip of the trowel at a slight angle along the joint
RECESSED JOINT:
Recessed joints may be either square or curved. If curved it is known as a KEYED joint
Both are formed by pressing back the mortar with the appropriate tool.
Pointing is used presently on existing rather than new brickwork when joints become defective.
On new work it is normally used when a different colour of mortar is desired. The mortar is
raked out of the joints to a depth of 13mm to 20mm to provide a key for the pointing mortar.
The brickwork is brushed clean and wetted and filled with the desired mortar.
It is then finished in any of the ways described in constructing jointing.
CAVITY WALL CONSTRUCTION
Cavity walls are two‐ leafed walls with an air gap or continuous cavity between them. The walls
could be built with two different materials E.g. brick externally and sandcrete/lightweight
concrete blocks internally.
Merits of cavity wall construction;
There is no connection between outer and inner membranes except non-porous wall ties.
No moisture transfer from outer to inner membrane possible.
Still air in cavity walls is an excellent insulator, helping to keep the interior cool.
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WALL TIES:
The leaves of the wall are connected by metal wall ties. They are so designed that water cannot
pass from outer to inner leaf. Also mortar droppings cannot easily lodge on them to enable a
bridging of the cavity. Each tie is formed with a ‘drip’ at the centre to prevent water passing
across
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SPACING OF WALL TIES
The ties are laid not less than 450mm vertically apart and not more than 900mm
horizontally apart
DPC
Horizontal membranes, known as Damp Proof Courses(DPC), are built into the wall
about 150mm above ground level.
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