PACK 2: BUILDING MATERIALS

A. TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENTS – Listening &

-Technical
Comprehension
Developments
1. When did the major changes in house development occur? (Listening
2. Were the houses in the 1930s much different from the ones session);
hundreds years before? -Architectural
3. Which are the benefits of today’s living? concrete;
-Kinds of Wood;
4. How did such ‘improvements’ evolve? Amazingly fast or -Brick& Glass.
painfully slow? -Building Site
5. What hastened the speed of building operations? ………………….
6. Is there a connection between the increase in comfort and the - Practice on
Prepositions
aesthetic appearance of houses?
7. Have materials and techniques changed to a marked degree?
8. When did brick replace wood?
9. Which are the traditional building materials?
10. Since when have been bricks mass-produced in England?
11. What is the name of the roofing material mentioned in the film?
12. What changes occurred in the brick constructions and why?
13. What is the advantage of cement mortar?
14. What kinds of windows are featured in the documentary?
15. When was sash window invented? What sort of windows did they replace?
16. When was plate glass produced in England?
17. Does the commentator think that the changes occurring in sash windows were for the better?
18. What sources of light did people use through centuries?
19. When did gas light appear?
20. Where did the inventor of the electric bulb live?
21. Which was the source of heat in the past?
22. What was the material that increased the power of heating?
23. When was coal replaced by gas or oil?
24. Did baths and bath equipment become subjects for decorative treatment?
25. What is the type of tile used to decorate the private bath shown in the film?
26. How did people in the Middle Ages discharge human waste? What about towns?
27. When was the first water closet designed?
28. What did the absence of a drainage system lead to in big cities like London? When was this
problem solved?
29. How long did it take for the mechanized laundry equipment to develop?
30. What did the supply of water depend on in towns?
31. How was cooking done until Victorian times?
32. What features were added to kitchens?
33. When was the gas cooker introduced?
34. Where were the major cooking improvements made?
35. How many of the discussed technical developments had been already used by the Romans?

1
 B. I. ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE

A exposure
ik-ˈspō-zhər, 4
aesthetic
\ es-ˈthe-tik, 3
F
aggregate
\ ˈa-gri-gət, 3 flatwork
alkali \ ˈflat-ˌwərk, 3
\ ˈal-kə-ˌlī, 4 frequently
Ash ˈfrē-kwənt-lē, 5
\ ˈash, 4
H
B hardscaping
banks, 10 ˈhärd-ˌskāp, 4
batten
ˈba-tᵊn, 4 I
bedstead ingredients
\ ˈbed-ˌsted, 4 \ in-ˈgrē-dē-ənt, 3
Beech inlaying
ˈbēch, 4 (ˌ)in-ˈlā, 5
Birch iridescent
ˈbərch, 5 ˌir-ə-ˈde-sᵊnt, 6
bird's-eye
ˈbərdz-ˌī, 5 L
C loose
ˈlüs, 5
cane
ˈkān, 5 M
Cedar
ˈsē-dər, 5 mahogany
cell, 10 \ mə-ˈhä-gə-nē, 5
cement manganese
\ si-ˈment, 3 \ ˈmaŋ-gə-ˌnēz, 3
Chestnut Maple
ˈches(t)-(ˌ)nət, 5 ˈmā-pəl, 5
close-grained
ˈklōs-ˌgrānd, 5 O
coarse-grained oxides
ˈkȯrs-ˌgrānd, 5 \ ˈäk-ˌsīd, 3
curl
ˈkər(-ə)l, 5 P

D Pear
ˈper, 5
devitrification Pine
(ˌ)dē-ˈvi-trə-ˌfī, 6 ˈpīn, 5
dichroic
\ dī-ˈkrō-ik, 6 R
dyed
ˈdī, 5 Rattan
ra-ˈtan, 5
E retarders
ri-ˈtärd, 3
Ebony
ˈe-bə-nē, 5

2
 S ˈtər-pən-ˌtīn, 5
sandblasting
V
ˈsan(d)-ˌblast, 3
Satinwood varnished
ˈsa-tᵊn-ˌwu̇d, 6 ˈvär-nish, 5
seasoned veins
ˈsē-zᵊn, 6 ˈvān, 5
See-through glasses veneer
ˈsē-ˌthrü, 6 \ və-ˈnir, 6
sheen
sheen, 6 W
site, 10 walled, 10
specifiers Walnut
\ ˈspe-sə-ˌfī, 3 ˈwȯl-(ˌ)nət, 6
stockpile warp
ˈstäk-ˌpī(-ə)l, 3 ˈwȯrp, 5
susceptible wave
sə-ˈsep-tə-bəl, 5 ˈwāv, 5
T
turpentine

“Architectural concrete” refers to a building material that provides aesthetic finish, which may serve a
structural function, too. In a broad sense, architectural concrete can be thought of as distinct from
“decorative concrete,” which more typically refers to aesthetic flatwork or building elements, not
structural building members. So in speaking about concrete for aesthetic purposes, both the terms
“architectural” and “decorative” may be mentioned.

Concrete can take almost any form, texture, and colour to satisfy the aesthetic and functional
requirements of the structure—it offers surfaces that range from smooth to rough and a spectrum of
colour that ranges from the icy blue of quartz through the delicate pastels to the deep reds of
decorative aggregates.

Architects and specifiers consider many factors when selecting color and texture for a concrete
structure: the surface area, the viewing distance and angle, and aggregate particle shape and surface
characteristics. When choosing a colour, designers must consider that the surface appearance will
change continuously throughout the day, and that the surroundings of the building will affect the
colour tone. Colour selection should be made in lighting conditions that simulate the environment of
the planned structure.

White Portland cement is recommended wherever white or coloured concrete is required. White
Portland cement is made of select materials that contain negligible amounts of iron and manganese
oxides—the materials that give cement a gray color. Every cement, whether white or gray, has
different inherent colour tones as a result of slight differences in raw material ingredients and
manufacturing processes. Architects should take this into consideration in the design process. When
uniform colour is critical, it is suggested to stockpile an adequate quantity of cement and aggregate so
that consistent colour results can be obtained.

Integrally coloured concrete is made by adding mineral oxide pigments to concretes made with either
white or gray cements. White cement is used when lighter shades of concrete are desired, but red, tan,
and dark gray hues can be produced using gray cement.

3
An exposed aggregate surface is a decorative surface obtained by removing the outer layer of mortar
and exposing the aggregate particles. This may be done with a variety of techniques, including
chemical surface retarders, sandblasting, water blasting, or acid etching. Selection of aggregates is
based on colour, hardness, size, shape, gradation, durability, availability, method, and degree of
exposure and cost. Popular decorative aggregates are natural materials such as quartz, granite, marble,
limestone, and gravel, and manufactured materials such as alkali-resistant glass and ceramics.

Forms and form liners can be used to create textures and patterns that
simulate, for example, brick, stone, and wood. Aluminum wall forming
systems are available with brick-pattern faces, or with vertical rib or
board-and-batten patterns. Also, a textured concrete surface will help
camouflage the subtle differences in texture and color found on the
surface of concrete.

In addition to concrete used architecturally (on buildings), other applications include:

 decorative flatwork
 hardscaping
 countertops

Decorative Flatwork

Decorative flatwork is usually considered to be an exterior use of colored and textured concrete. This
makes it distinct from “floors,” which are interior concrete slabs. Flatwork includes cast in place
pavements and curbs.

Hardscaping

Hardscaping further identifies hard-surface materials as those which

are used in exterior locations, like gardens, plazas, and for
landscaping. Hardscaping is not limited to concrete materials; it
includes masonry and wood surfaces, too.

The most popular hardscape surfaces made with concrete are patios,
walks, pool and spa surrounds, benches, planters, retaining walls and
similar applications. Cement-based products for hardscaping include
pavers, cast in place concrete, and precast elements. Concrete
countertops are yet another interesting application. First appearing in kitchens and
baths in high-end homes and upscale and retail spaces, they have become
increasingly popular in more modestly priced homes and commercial
establishments. With a solid feel and unlimited aesthetic possibilities, they have
found a niche alongside other upscale countertop materials like natural and
manufactured stone.

II. KINDS OF WOOD

4
Ash is rather lighter colored than oak, but is sometimes used in connection with it. It is less likely to
split.

Beech, a very close and tough wood, is chiefly used for the framework of chairs, tables, and bedsteads.
It is nearly of the color of birch, but rather paler, and it may be known by the presence of those
peculiar little specks of darker brown, which are easily seen in a carpenter's plane.

Birch is very close-grained, strong, and easily worked. It is of a pale yellowish brown. If polished or
varnished, it somewhat resembles satinwood, but is darker, and by staining is capable of being made to
closely resemble Honduras mahogany. It is used in the better kinds of low-priced furniture.

Cedar somewhat resembles mahogany, though more purplish. It has no “curl”, and is free from
tendency to warp or '' cast." The best varieties have a peculiarly pleasant aroma, which is offensive to
moths; hence it is highly valued for making drawers and chests for clothing.

Chestnut is coarse-grained, strong, elastic, light, and very durable. Some of the best of the cheaper
furniture is made of it. It looks so much like white oak as to be frequently used in combination with it.

Ebony is of a deep black color, and highly prized for several purposes, particularly inlaying. It is
exceedingly hard, heavy, and durable, but expensive. Pear and other woods dyed black are often
substituted for it ; but are not so susceptible of good polish and luster, or so permanent in color. The
best comes from Africa; a kind variegated with brown is brought from Mauritius and Ceylon.

Mahogany is imported of two kinds — Honduras and Spanish. The former has a coarse, loose, and
straight grain, without much curl or wave. The latter is darker, with curl, by which in great measure its
price is regulated, and with a very fine, close texture. Spanish mahogany will bear great violence; it is
also free from all tendency to warp. When, how-ever, it is very much curled, it is not nearly so strong
or so free from twist; but this is of little consequence, as its value is so great that it is generally
veneered on to some less valuable wood, as Honduras or cedar. The heaviest mahogany is generally
the best.

Maple is of several qualities, the bird's-eye maple being most highly valued. It somewhat resembles
satinwood, but is more buff than yellow, has more curl, and more " bird's-eye. " Maple is light and not
very durable and is used only in the cheaper kinds of furniture.

Oak. There are several varieties, of which the white oak, the red oak, and the live oak are the most
important. The first is most used. Oak takes long to season and is worse than most woods if used
green. It is very hard to work. Its appearance improves with age. On account of its tendency to warp, a
great deal of so-called oak work is paneled with chestnut.

Pearwood is of a light-yellow color, and, on account of its even grain, a favorite wood for carving. It
is often stained to imitate ebony.

Pine is used in two varieties, the white and the yellow. When thoroughly dry, these woods are very
free from all tendency to warp or shrink; but in a half-seasoned state articles made of them fall to
pieces. They are readily distinguished from one another by the difference of color, and from deals by
the absence of turpentine veins. When oiled and varnished, both kinds of pine look very well. It seems
a sin to stain it.

Rattan, from strips of which the seats of cane chairs are made, is a small sort of cane, brought from
China, Japan, and Sumatra. A very pretty and durable style of summer-chairs, lounges, tables, baskets,
etc., is now made wholly of rattan.

5
Rosewood is hard and dark, with some little curl, intermediate in this respect between Spanish and
Honduras mahogany, and of a very open grain. Most articles of rosewood furniture are veneered, but
the best are of solid wood. The color, which consists of large elongated dark zones on a reddish-brown
ground, is permanent, unless it be much exposed to the direct rays of the sun; and it takes a fine polish,
which is improved by slight waxing, or, better, by the French polish, which brings out the color of the
wood admirably.

Satinwood is now used chiefly for inlaying, lining, and veneers. It is of a full yellowish color, with a
fine grain, little curl, and a silky luster. Its toughness fits it well for furniture.

Walnut is a native wood but is used in such prodigious quantity that it is also imported. Well-
seasoned it is exceedingly tough and little inclined to warp.

VOCABULARY NOTES
Close-grained wood = fine in texture or having inconspicuous annual rings
Varnish = a transparent, hard, protective finish or film
Stain = to colour
(wood) speck = a small spot, mark, discoloration
curl (wood) = a curved or spiral shape or mark
coarse-grained wood = having a rough, coarse texture
inlay = ornament (an object) by embedding pieces of different material in it, flush with its surface
loose-grained wood = fibra nedensa
warp = deformare, a se rasuci, a se indoi
cast = a se stramba
season = a se usca
even-grained wood = wood without pronounced contrast of grain
shrink = a se usca

III. GLASS & BRICK

One of the major criteria for differentiation among the types of glass is its transparency. Opaque
glasses that do not transmit light are generally referred to as "opaques", as "opalescent" glasses, or as
"opals”. See-through glasses of various colours are usually called "transparent" or "cathedral" glasses.
Combining more than one different opalescent or cathedral glass or colour in a single kiln-formed
work is common.

Virtually any stained glass, whether tested compatible or not, can be treated with an iridescent coating
that causes the treated side of the glass to take on a metallic sheen. Some liken this effect to a
shimmering rainbow. The shimmer goes away when the piece is lit from behind, allowing the normal
colour of the glass to shine through.

Another popular kind of glass coating, called "dichroic", has the unusual property of reflecting one
colour while it transmits another. This means that the different colours can be viewed by examining
the glass at different angles. This unique glass is manufactured by spraying a thin chemical film on the
glass. This must be done in a controlled environment in a vacuum chamber, making dichroic glass one
of the most expensive glasses made for kiln-forming. Because of this expense, dichroic glass is more
commonly used in jewelry and similar items, or as an accent in larger scale fusing projects.

One final type of glass that is often used for kiln-forming is "float" glass. Made by "floating" molten
glass on a bath of molten tin, float glass is better known as common window glass. It is inexpensive
and widely available. It also works well in the kiln, but care should be taken to test for compatibility if
different brands and types of float glass are mixed together. If at all possible, cut pieces to be fused
together from the same glass sheet.

6
Although some coloured varieties of float glass are available, it is most commonly found in a clear
(often slightly greenish) formulation. It tends to slump and fuse at slightly higher temperatures than
most art glass (about 75 to 100 degrees F higher), and can be prone to devitrification.

What kind of glass we use in our homes

 Windows have come a long way technologically within the past 100 years. Many homeowners
don't realize that there are now a variety of types of glass that can be used for windows, many
of which can make their homes more energy-efficient. For homeowners, being educated on
glass types can save money, as well as create windows that are aesthetically pleasing.

Sheet Glass

 The most basic type of glass is sheet glass. Sheet glass is created from rollers that stamp out a
sheet of the glass as flat as possible--although it is far from perfect as most sheet glass is
distorted and not completely flat. Used on houses in the past, sheet glass is currently used
mostly on greenhouses and sheds due to the relatively low cost of float glass on house
windows, which has no distorting effects.

Float Glass

 Float glass is used for the majority of windows on modern homes. Float glass is created by
taking molten glass and placing it over molten tin, which makes the glass perfectly flat,
removing the distortion that is common on sheet glass. Float glass is also very beneficial since
it can be cut and shaped using only glass cutters.

Energy-Efficient Glass

 Created from float glass, energy-efficient glass is float glass with an added feature. By
manufacturing float glass with a thin coating of a synthetic chemical onto one side, energy-
efficient glass is created. The chemical reduces the amount of energy lost through the window
one way, allowing heat and cool air to be kept within the home more successfully. The coating
normally has a slight tint to it, giving energy-efficient glass a slightly darker brown look.

Self-Cleaning Glass

 Some newer homes also feature windows made of self-cleaning glass. This type of glass also
stems from float glass; however, it is also manufactured with a chemical "photocatalytic"
chemical on one side of the glass. The coating allows the rays from the sun to break down
organic materials, such as dirt, from the surface of the window, meaning they rarely need to be
cleaned.

Brick.
Solid, hollow, or indented building element, usually rectangular, but it can also take other shapes for
special purposes; it is manufactured from clay, concrete, sand, and lime, or other materials, formed in
a mould, then burnt, set, or cured. Its advantage over masonry lies in the ease of mass-producing the

7
bricks to standard sizes in the moulds, and in the fact that it can be lifted and laid using one hand,
leaving the other free for holding the trowel for manipulation of the mortar.
The commonest types are Accringtons (bright orange-red, pressed, and smooth), Hunzikers (crushed
flint and lime), Southwaters (pressed and wire-cut), and Staffordshire Blues ( , often used for plinths,
as damp-proof courses, and for copings); facing: superior brick selected to be seen on the exposed face
of a wall.

Brick bonds (the patterns formed by arranging the courses with bricks overlapping the joints to
provide a sound structure) are many and varied, and are often confused. The list below is an attempt to
establish descriptions of the commonest types: American bond: US term for a type of English garden-
wall bond, but with a course of headers to every five or six courses of stretchers; American with
Flemish bond; basket-weave: three soldiers alternating with three stretchers in squares with no bond,
forming a chequerboard pattern; bastard bond. The several courses may give the effect of quoins
where they interlock with the different brickwork; chequered bond: bond formed of e.g. Flemish bond
in which the headers are vitrified (a darker colour than the rest, and glazed), giving a regular
chequered pattern. Flint or other materials may be used instead of vitrified headers to give the same
effect.

C. ILLUSTRATED DICTIONARY: BUILDING SITE

8
9
C.STOP READING AND COMMENTING, LET’S HAVE SOME LANGUAGE PRACTISE 1

1. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate prepositions listed below:

to; down onto; from; of; from; off; on; in; nearby; to
1.Located … the banks of the River Clyde, Glasgow is Scotland’s largest city. The city had its
beginnings …. a monk’s cell when St Mungo founded a religious community …. the sixth
century. In the 13th century the cathedral of St Mungo was built … the same site.
2.The fort is approximately 1 ½ miles north … the town.
3.She’s taken a trip … Binchester and visited the Roman fort. The Roman Fort stands … the
line of Dere Street, the main Roman Road ….. York …... the Firth of Forth.
4.Aukland Castle is just … the Market Place …the town of Bishop Aukland, situated 10 miles
south … Durham and 8 miles … A1. Free parking is available … the grounds to all visitors.
5.The museum houses a nationally important collection of fine art …. Barnard Castle.
6.When the bustle of the city gets too much, people can just drop …… …… the riverbanks
and enjoy the peace.
7.… one side of the house is the Shakespeare Garden. A walled garden …. the front of the
Georgian part of the house is home … huge scarlet poppies.

2. Fill in the correct prepositions:

a. HAND-MADE BRICK HOUSE

Two arches made 1… handmade bricks form an extension 2… the rear of this Victorian
terraced house in York by London practice Studio Ben Allen. Studio Ben-Allen used locally
made bricks to build the two barrel vaults 3… the back of the L-shaped property located 4…
the River Ouse. "It was the simple beauty of these rear spaces, a landscape almost completely
of one material: brick facades, yards and lanes that was the inspiration and departure point for
the design," studio founder Ben Allen explained 5… a statement. Filling the back yard, the
extension has added room for a kitchen, living and work space 6… the arches, while a
courtyard surrounded 7… glass doors and walls 8… three sides allows further daylight into
the house. Full-height glazed doors 9… one end of the vaults frame views of the paved
pathway and greenery, while windows at the others allow light to fill the extra room. "The
newly enlarged ground floor creates one expansive space 10… the courtyard appearing as a
room 11… a room," said Allen. "The materials are robust, utilitarian and designed to last and
improve 12… age." The arch form has been carried 13… to the interiors as a design motif.
The slabs of the concrete countertop are supported by three concrete arches, which have been
lined 14… oak to create open storage areas for pots and pans.
More typically used as a sub-floor, the kitchen floor is made from cement screened with
heating elements laid 15… to keep it comfortable underfoot during the North Yorkshire
winters. Cupboard doors are made 16… solid oak, and a bike store was installed at the back
under the vaulted ends of the extension to accommodate the clients love 17… cycling. The

1
The texts of these exercises have been selected from various internet sources and booklets. Most of them have
been adapted for teaching purposes.

10
kitchen bins are also discretely tucked 18… in here. Upstairs, the arch theme continues 19…
the shape of two curving mirrors affixed 20… the his-and-hers sinks.

b. “This is what London’s biggest building site will look like”

The future of London's biggest building site has become clearer after the latest concept
images were released for the Nine Elms area 1… the south bank of the Thames.

With 20,000 homes 2… construction and more than £15bn being invested in the area, the
triangle of land 3… the borders of Lambeth and Wandsworth is undergoing 4…a rapid
transformation.

It will include two town centres near Vauxhall and Battersea Power Station and two tube
stations 5… a new spur of the Northern Line. The embassies 6… the USA and Netherlands
will also move 7… the area.

As well as a bird's-eye view of the 195-hectare development, the new concept images also
show Vauxhall Pleasure Gardens and a tree-lined boulevard that will link one end of Nine
Elms 8… the other.

The development has proven controversial, 8… many of the new properties priced 9 … ….
the reach of regular Londoners. A studio flat in the redeveloped Battersea Power Station will
cost £495,000 with a four-bedroom apartment priced 10… £3.2 million. Penthouses are
reported 11 … cost as much as £30m.

Of the planned 3,444 new homes 12 … the power station only 560 will be affordable. The
building's £8bn facelift, led 13 … its Malaysian owners, will also see the constructions of new
offices and shops.

The Battersea Power Station project is expected to be completed in 2020, with other parts of
the development opening during the next five 14 … ten years.

3.Some prepositions are not used correctly; find the errors.

a.“Britain has enough land to solve the housing crisis”

“Buy land,” said Mark Twain. “They’re not making it anymore.”

“Then once you’ve bought it, sit with it for a while, apply for planning permission, and sell it
on for 10 times the price!” retort the land traders.

The same old characters are relentlessly held up as the arch villains of the housing crisis; from
greedy developers at bureaucratic planners, at the armies of Nimbys. But it’s fair to say that,
beyond these usual suspects, one of the fundamental causes of the current lack of affordable
housing, and simultaneous glut of luxury developments, is the iniquity of the land trading
industry.

If you get it right, land is one of the most lucrative commodities to be with. According with
the Valuation Office, the average price of agricultural land in England is £21,000 per hectare,

11
while land with planning permission for housing is around £6m per hectare. If you have the
alchemical skills to transform one in the other, as water into wine, you’ve multiplied the value
of your asset almost 300 times over – and at the same time reduced the chance of seeing
remotely affordable housing being built in that land.

“The problem lies in the very roots of the development system,” says Pete Jefferys, policy
manager at housing charity Shelter. “Land is traded several times over before it gets to the
housebuilder, then the flats are marketed and sold off-plan, and sometimes sold again and
again before they’re even built. You end up with this speculative feeding frenzy of spiralling
values, years before there’s even a house on the site.”

Once a developer gets their hands on the land, they’re often not for any rush to build. A
Guardian investigation on “land banking” in 2015 revealed that the UK’s biggest
housebuilders are sitting on 600,000 plots of land with planning permission; that’s four times
the total number of homes built last year. Berkeley, Barratt, Persimmon and Taylor Wimpey
(the four biggest companies in the industry) accounted for more than 450,000 of the plots –
while paying out more than £1.5bn to their shareholders.

b. Brownfield sites

In the UK a brownfield site is defined as "previously developed land" that has the potential to
being redeveloped. It is often (but not always) land that has been used for industrial and
commercial purposes and is now derelict and possibly contaminated. In the USA a brownfield
site always refers at industrial land that has been abandoned and that is also contaminated
with low levels of hazardous waste and pollutants.

The lack of available green spaces for development purposes has meant that brownfield sites
have become increasingly popular in recent years, especially on places where demand for
residential and commercial property is high. There are over 66,000 hectares of brownfield
sites in England, and around a third of these are on the high-growth areas of greater London,
the South East and East. The UK is committed to developing brownfield sites as a priority. It
has already exceeded its 2008 target of building over 60% of new houses on brownfield sites,
and aims to significantly grow this percentage in the next decade.

Brownfield sites are considered to redevelopment of not only housing and commercial
buildings, but also as open spaces for recreation, conservation, woodland and other
community areas.

12