202 ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS

standard gear is mounted on a fixed frame, while the gear being inspected is fixed to a sliding
carriage. The two gears are mounted on mandrels, which facilitate accurate mounting of gears
in machines, so that a dial indicator will primarily measure irregularities in the gear under
inspection. A dial indicator of high resolution is used to measure the composite error, which
reflects errors due to runout, tooth-to-tooth spacing, and profile variations.

Master gear Gear being

inspected
Sliding carriage
Dial
Scale indicator
Base

Table

Fig. 8.19 Parkinson gear tester

To start with, the two gears are mounted on respective mandrels and the slide comprising the
standard gear is fixed at a convenient position. The sliding carriage is moved along the table,
the two gears are brought into mesh, and the sliding carriage base is also locked in its position.
Positions of the two mandrels are adjusted in such a way that their axial distance is equal to the
gear centre distance as per drawings. However, the sliding carriage is free to slide for a small
distance on steel rollers under a light spring force. A vernier scale attached to the machine
enables measurement of the centre distance up to 25 µm. The dial indicator is set to zero and the
gear under inspection is rotated. Radial variations of the gear being inspected are indicated by
the dial indicator. This variation is plotted on a chart or graph sheet, which indicates the radial
variations in the gear for one complete rotation.
Many improvisations are possible to the basic machine explained in Section 8.5.1. A waxed
paper recorder can be fitted to the machine so that a trace of the variations of a needle in contact
with the sliding carriage is made simultaneously. The mechanism can be designed to provide a
high degree of magnification.

8.6 MEASUREMENT OF SCREW THREADS

Screw thread geometry has evolved since the early 19th century, thanks to the importance
of threaded fasteners in machine assemblies. The property of interchangeability is associated
more strongly with screw threads than with any other machine part. Perhaps, the Whitworth
thread system, proposed as early as the 1840s, was the first documented screw thread profile
that came into use. A couple of decades later, the Sellers system of screw threads came into use
in the United States. Both these systems were in practice for a long time and laid the foundation
for a more comprehensive unified screw thread system.
Screw thread gauging plays a vital role in industrial metrology. In contrast to measurements
of geometric features such as length and diameter, screw thread measurement is more complex.
We need to measure inter-related geometric aspects such as pitch diameter, lead, helix, and
flank angle, among others. The following sections introduce screw thread terminology and
 METROLOGY OF GEARS AND SCREW THREADS 203

discuss the measurements of screw thread elements and thread gauging, which speeds up the
inspection process.

8.7 SCREW THREAD TERMINOLOGY

Figure 8.20 illustrates the various terminologies associated with screw threads.
Screw thread The American Society of Tool and Manufacturing Engineers (ASTME) defines
a screw thread as follows: screw thread is the helical ridge produced by forming a continuous
helical groove of uniform section on the external or internal surface of a cylinder or cone.
Form of thread This is the shape of the contour of one complete thread, as seen in an axial
section. Some of the popular thread forms are British Standard Whitworth, American Standard,
British Association, Knuckle, Buttress, Unified, Acme, etc.
External thread The screw thread formed on the external surface of a workpiece is called an
external thread. Examples of this include bolts and studs.
Internal thread The screw thread formed on the internal surface of a workpiece is called an
internal thread. The best example for this is the thread on a nut.
Axis of thread (pitch line) This is the imaginary line running longitudinally through the
centre of the screw.
Fundamental triangle It is the imaginary triangle that is formed when the flanks are extended
till they meet each other to form an apex or a vertex.
Angle of thread This is the angle between the flanks of a thread measured in the axial plane.
It is also called an included angle.
Flank angle It is the angle formed between a flank of the thread and the perpendicular to the
axis of the thread that passes through the vertex of the fundamental triangle.

7 9 Legend
2 1: Angular pitch
2: Pitch
3: Major diameter
10
6 q 4: Pitch diameter
1 5: Minor diameter
12 6: Pitch line
a
7: Apex
11 8: Root
9: Crest
10: Addendum
11: Dedendum
8
12: Depth of thread
3 4 q : Angle of thread
5
a : Flank angle
Fig. 8.20 Screw thread terminology
204 ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS

Pitch It is the distance between two corresponding points on adjacent threads, measured
parallel to the axis of the thread.
Lead It is the axial distance moved by the screw when the crew is given one complete
revolution about its axis.
Lead angle It is the angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch line with the plane
perpendicular to the axis.
Helix angle It is the angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch line with the axis. This
angle is measured in an axial plane.
Major diameter In case of external threads, the major diameter is the diameter of the major
cylinder (imaginary), which is coaxial with the screw and touches the crests of an external
thread. For internal threads, it is the diameter of the cylinder that touches the root of the
threads.
Minor diameter In case of external threads, the minor diameter is the diameter of the minor
cylinder (imaginary), which is coaxial with the screw and touches the roots of an external
thread. For internal threads, it is the diameter of the cylinder that touches the crests of the
threads. It is also called the root diameter.
Addendum It is the radial distance between the major diameter and pitch line for external
threads. On the other hand, it is the radial distance between the minor diameter and pitch line
for internal threads.
Dedendum It is the radial distance between the minor diameter and pitch line for external
threads. On the other hand, it is the radial distance between the major diameter and pitch line
for internal threads.
Effective diameter or pitch diameter It is the diameter of the pitch cylinder, which is coaxial
with the axis of the screw and intersects the flanks of the threads in such a way as to make the
widths of threads and the widths of spaces between them equal. In general, each of the screw
threads is specified by an effective diameter as it decides the quality of fit between the screw
and a nut.
Single-start thread In case of a single-start thread, the lead is equal to the pitch. Therefore,
the axial distance moved by the screw equals the pitch of the thread.
Multiple-start thread In a multiple-start thread, the lead is an integral multiple of the pitch.
Accordingly, a double start will move by an amount equal to two pitch lengths for one complete
revolution of the screw.

8.8 MEASUREMENT OF SCREW THREAD ELEMENTS

Measurement of screw thread elements is necessary not only for manufactured components, but
also for threading tools, taps, threading hobs, etc. The following sections discuss the methods
for measuring major diameter, minor diameter, effective diameter, pitch, angle, and form of
threads.
 METROLOGY OF GEARS AND SCREW THREADS 205

8.8.1 Measurement of Major Diameter

The simplest way of measuring a major diameter is to measure it using a screw thread micrometer.
While taking readings, only light pressure must be used, as the anvils make contact with the
screw solely at points and any excess application of pressure may result in a slight deformation
of anvil due to compressive force, resulting in an error in the measurement. However, for a more
precise measurement, it is recommended to use a bench micrometer shown in Fig. 8.21.
A major advantage of a bench micrometer is that a fiducial indicator is a part of the measuring
system. It is thus possible to apply a pressure already decided upon by referring to the fiducial
indicator. However, there is no provision for holding the workpiece between the centres, unlike
a floating carriage micrometer. The inspector has to hold the workpiece by hand while the
readings are being taken.
The machine is essentially used as a comparator. To start with, the anvil positions are set
by inserting a setting cylinder. A setting cylinder serves as a gauge and has a diameter that
equals the OD of the screw thread being inspected. Now, the setting cylinder is taken out, the
workpiece is inserted between the anvils, and the deviation is noted down on the micrometer
head. Since the position of the fixed anvil will remain unaltered due to the setting of the fiducial
arrangement, the movable anvil will shift axially depending on the variation in the value of OD
of the screw being inspected. In order to sense deviations on either side of the preset value,
the movable anvil will always be set to a position, which can detect small movements in either
direction. The error, as measured by the micrometer head, is added to or subtracted from, as the
case may be, the diameter of the setting cylinder to get the actual value of OD.
Measurement of the OD of internal threads is trickier, as it is cumbersome to take
measurements using conventional instruments. An easier option is to employ some indirect
measurement techniques. A cast of the thread is made, which results in a male counterpart of
the internal thread. Now, the measurement can be carried out using techniques used for external
threads. The cast may be made of plaster of Paris or wax.

8.8.2 Measurement of Minor Diameter

The best way of measuring a minor diameter is to measure it using a floating carriage micrometer
described in Chapter 4. The carriage has a micrometer with a fixed spindle on one side and a
movable spindle with a micrometer on the other side. The carriage moves on a finely ground
‘V’ guideway or an anti-friction guideway to facilitate movement in a direction parallel to the
axis of the plug gauge mounted between centres.

Measuring anvils

Fiducial indicator Clamp

Micrometer head
Fig. 8.21 Bench micrometer
206 ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS

The micrometer has a non-rotary spindle with a least count of up to 0.001 or 0.002 mm. The
instrument is very useful for thread plug gauge manufacturers; in gauge calibration laboratories,
established under NABL accreditation; and in standard rooms where in-house gauge calibration
is carried out.
Minor diameter is measured by a comparative process, wherein small V-pieces that make
contact at the root of the threads are used. The selection of V-pieces should be such that the
included angle of a V-piece is less than the angle of the thread. V-pieces are placed on each
side of the screw with their bases against the micrometer faces. As in the previous case, the
initial reading is taken by mounting a setting cylinder corresponding to the dimension being
measured. Then, the threaded workpiece is mounted between the centres and the reading is
taken. The difference in the two readings directly gives the error in the minor diameter.

8.8.3 Measurement of Effective Diameter

In Section 8.7 we defined an effective diameter of a screw thread as the diameter of the pitch
cylinder, which is coaxial with the axis of the screw and intersects the flanks of the threads in
such a way so as to make the width of threads and widths of spaces between them equal. Since
it is a notional value, it cannot be measured directly and we have to find the means of measuring
it in an indirect way. Thread measurement by wire method is a simple and popular way of
measuring an effective diameter. Small, hardened steel wires (best-size wire) are placed in the
thread groove, and the distance over them is measured as part of the measurement process.
There are three methods of using wires: one-wire, two-wire, and three-wire methods.

One-wire Method
This method is used if a standard gauge of the same dimension as the theoretical value of
dimension over wire is available. First of all, the micrometer anvils are set over the standard
gauge and the dimension is noted down. Thereafter, the screw to be inspected is held either
in hand or in a fixture, and the micrometer anvils are set over the wire as shown in Fig. 8.22.
Micrometer readings are taken at two or three different locations and the average value
is calculated. This value is compared with the value obtained with the standard gauge. The
resulting difference is a reflection of error in the effective diameter of the screw. An important
point to be kept in mind is that the diameter of the wire selected should be such that it makes
contact with the screw along the pitch cylinder. The significance of this condition will become
obvious in the two-wire method explained in the next section.

Two-wire Method Steel Micrometer

In this method, two steel wires of identical diameter wire anvils
are placed on opposite flanks of a screw, as shown
in Fig. 8.23.
The distance over wires (M) is measured using a
suitable micrometer. Then, the effective diameter, Screw
De = T + P (8.4)
where T is the dimension under the wires and P is
the correction factor.
Fig. 8.22 One-wire method
And,
 METROLOGY OF GEARS AND SCREW THREADS 207

T = M − 2d (8.5)
where d is the diameter of the best-size wire.
These relationships can be easily derived by referring
E M to Fig. 8.24.
The two wires of identical diameter are so selected
that they make contact with the screw thread on the pitch
line. The aforementioned equations are valid only if this
Fig. 8.23 Two-wire method condition is met.
d
Accordingly, from triangle OFD, OF = cosec (x/2)
2
d d d[cosec(x/2) − 1
FA = cosec (x/2) − =
2 2 2
p
FG = GC cot (x/2) = cot (x/2) (because BC = pitch/2 and GC = pitch/4)
4
p d[cosec(x/2) − 1
Therefore, AG = FG − FA = cot (x/2) –
4 2
Since AG accounts for the correction factor only on one side of the screw, we have to multiply
this value by 2 in order to account for that on the opposite flank.
Therefore, total correction factor is as follows:
p
P = 2 AG = cot (x/2) − d[cosec(x/2) − 1] (8.6)
2
Although it is possible to measure the value of M, the distance over the wires, using a hand-
held micrometer, this method is prone to errors. A better alternative is to use a floating carriage
micrometer shown in Fig. 4.41 of Chapter 4, which helps in aligning the micrometer square to
the thread, enabling more accurate readings.

Diameter of Best-size Wire

The best-size wire, of diameter d, makes contact with the thread flank along the pitch line.

Wire of
diameter d Wire of diameter d
p/4

O
Pitch line
O
D G E M
C A B
A
E X/2 X/2
E
T
F C

Fig. 8.24 Measurements in two-wire method Fig. 8.25 Determination of the best-size wire
208 ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS

Equations (8.4)–(8.6) hold true if this condition is met. Figure 8.25 illustrates the condition
achieved by the best-size wire.
In triangle OAB, sin (AOB) = AB/OB
that is, sin (90 − x/2) = AB/OB
AB AB
or, OB = = = AB sec (x/2)
sin (90 − x/2) cos (x/2)
Diameter of the best-size wire = 2(OB) = 2(AB) sec (x/2).
However, from Fig. 8.25, AB = p/4, where p is the pitch of the thread.
Therefore, diameter of the best-size wire is
d = (p/2) sec (x/2) (8.7)

Three-wire Method
The three-wire method is an extension of the principle of the two-wire method. As illustrated in
Fig. 8.26, three wires are used to measure the value of M, one wire on one side and two wires
on adjacent thread flanks on the other side of the screw. Measurement can be made either by
holding the screw, wires, and micrometer in hand or by using a stand with an attachment to
hold the screw in position. Since three wires are used, the micrometer can be positioned more
accurately to measure M, the distance over the wires.
With reference to Fig. 8.27, let M be the distance over the wires, E the effective diameter of
the screw, d the diameter of best-size wires, and H the height of threads.
d
Now, OC = OA cosec (x/2) = cosec (x/2) (8.8)
2
p
H = cot (x/2) and, therefore, BC = H/2
2
E p
M = cot (x/2) (8.9)
4
If h is the height of the centre of wire from the pitch line,
then h = OC − BC.
d p
Fig. 8.26 Three-wire method h = cosec (x/2) − cot (x/2) (8.10)
2 4
Distance over wires, M = E + 2h + 2r, where r is the
radius of the wires.
Wire of
diameter d Therefore, effective diameter
p
E = M − d cosec (x/2) + cot (x/2) − d
2
O p
E = M − d[1 + cosec (x/2)] + cot (x/2) (8.11)
A 2
H B M Guidelines for Two- and Three-wire methods
E X/2 The ASTME has prescribed guidelines for measuring the
effective diameter of a screw thread using wire methods.
C The following points summarize this:
1. Care must be exercised to exert minimum force while
Fig. 8.27 Principle of three-wire method holding the wires against the screw thread. Since a
wire touches a minute area on each thread flank, de
 METROLOGY OF GEARS AND SCREW THREADS 209

formation of wire and thread will be sufficiently large to warrant some type of correction.
2. The wires should be accurately finished and hardened steel cylinders. The working surface
should at least be 25 mm in length. The wires should be provided with a suitable means of
suspension.
3. One set of wires should consist of three wires having the same diameter within
0.000025 mm. These wires should be measured between a flat contact and a hardened and
accurately finished cylinder having a surface roughness not over 5 µm.
4. If it becomes necessary to measure the effective diameter by means of wires other than the
best size, the following size limitations should be followed:
(a) The minimum size is limited to that which permits the wire to project above the crest of
the thread.
(b) The maximum size is limited to that which permits the wire to rest on the flanks of the
thread just below the crest, and not ride on the crest of the thread.
5. The wires should be free to assume their positions in the thread grooves without any restraint
(the practice of holding wires in position with elastic bands can introduce errors in the mea-
surement).

8.8.4 Measurement of Pitch

Usually, a screw thread is generated by a single-point cutting tool, with the two basic parameters
being angular velocity of the workpiece and linear velocity of the tool. The tool should advance
exactly by an amount equal to the pitch for one complete rotation of the workpiece. Pitch errors
are bound to crop up if this condition is not satisfied. Pitch errors may be classified into the
following types:
Progressive pitch error This error occurs whenever the tool–work velocity ratio is incorrect
but constant. Generally, it is caused by the pitch error in the lead screw of the machine. Figure
8.28 illustrates a progressive pitch error, in which the cumulative pitch error increases linearly
along the thread numbers. Other factors contributing to the pitch error are an incorrect gear train
or an approximate gear train when, for example, metric threads are being generated on basically
a system suited for producing British Standard threads.
Cumulative pitch error
Cumulative pitch error

0
5 10 15

0 5 10 15
Thread number
Thread number
Fig. 8.28 Progressive pitch error Fig. 8.29 Periodic pitch error