Form Measurement

Unit 3
 Syllabus

Measurement of screw threads-Thread gauges,

floating carriage micrometer-measurement of
gears-tooth thickness-constant chord and base
tangent method-Gleason gear testing machine -
radius measurements-surface finish,
straightness, flatness and roundness
measurements
• Screw thread measurement
• Gear measurement
• Radius measurement
• Surface Finish measurement
• Straightness measurement
• Flatness and roundness measurements.
Screw thread
 Terminology
Crest
It is top surface joining the two sides of
thread.
Flank
Surface between crest and root.
Root
The bottom of the groove between the two
flanks of the thread
 Contd.,
Pitch
The distance measured parallel to the axis from a
point on a thread to the corresponding next point.
Helix angle:
The helix is the angle made by the helix of the
thread at the pitch line with the axis.
Flank angle
Angle made by the flank of a thread with the
perpendicular to the thread axis
 Contd.,
Depth of thread
The distance between the crest and root of the
thread
Major diameter:
Diameter of an imaginary co-axial cylinder which
would touch the crests of external or internal thread.
Minor diameter (Root diameter or Core diameter):
Diameter of an imaginary co-axial cylinder which
would touch the roots of an external thread.
 Contd.,
• Addendum
– Radial distance between the major and pitch
cylinders For external thread.
– Radial distance between the minor and pitch
cylinder For internal thread.
• Dedendum
– Radial distance between the pitch and minor
cylinder = For external thread.
– Radial distance between the major and pitch
cylinders = For internal thread
 Errors in Screw Thread
• Major diameter error
– reduction in the flank contact

– interference with the matching threads

• Minor diameter error

– Interference

– reduction of flank contact

 Contd.,

• Effective diameter error

• Pitch error
– the total length of thread engaged will be either too
high or too small

• Flank angles error

• Crest and root error

 Pitch Errors Classification

• Progressive error

• Periodic error

• Drunken error

• Irregular error
 Errors in Thread
1) Progressive error:
The pitch of the thread is uniform but is longer or shorter
its nominal value and this is called progressive error.
Causes o progressive error
1.Incorrect linear and angular velocity ratio
2.Incorrect gear train and lead screw
3.Saddle fault
4.Variation in length due to hardening
 Contd.,
2. Periodic error
These error repeats itself at regular intervals
along the thread.

Causes of periodic error:

•Teeth error in gears.
•Lead screw error.
•Eccentric mounting of the gears.
 Contd.,

Cumulative pitch error

Cumulative pitch error

Length of thread

Length of thread

Fig (c) Fig (d)

PROGRESSIVE ERROR ERRATIC ERRORS
 Contd.,
3) Drunken error:
Drunken errors are repeated once per turn of the thread in
a Drunken thread.
In Drunken thread the pitch measured parallel to the thread
axis. If the thread is not cut to the true helix the drunken
thread error will formed
 Contd.,

4) Irregular errors:
It is vary irregular manner along the length of
the thread.

Irregular error causes:

1. Machine fault.
2. Non-uniformity in the material.
3. Cutting action is not correct.
4. Machining disturbances
MEASUREMENT OF VARIOUS
ELEMENTS OF THREAD

1) Major diameter
2) Minor diameter
3) Effective or Pitch diameter
4) Pitch
5) Thread angle and form angle
 Major Diameter

• Ordinary micrometer

• Bench micrometer
 Measurement by Bench
micrometer:
Clamp

Fiducial Supports
Indicator

Measuring
Anvils Holding centres

Micrometer head

BENCH MICROMETER
 Measurement by Bench micrometer:

Then the cylinder is replaced by the threaded work piece and the new
reading is taken
Measurement by Bench micrometer:
Measurement by Bench micrometer:

Holding centre Holding centre

Measuring anvil Measuring anvil

Standard Cylinder

Screw Thread
Measurement of Major diameter
Measurement of the major diameter of an
Internal thread:

The major diameter is usually measured by thread

comparator fitted with ball-ended styli.

First the Instrument is set for a cylindrical reference

having the same diameter of major diameter of internal
thread and the reading is taken.

 Then the floating head is retracted to engage the tips of

the styli at the root of spring under pressure.

For that the new reading is taken,

Measurement of the major diameter of an
Internal thread:
 Measurement of Minor diameter

The minor diameter is measured by a

comparative method by using floating carriage
diameter measuring machine and small ‘ V pieces
which make contact with the root of the thread.
These V pieces are made in several sizes,
having suitable radii at the edges.
 V pieces are made of hardened steel.
The floating carriage diameter-measuring
machine is a bench micrometer mounted on a
carriage.
Measurement of Minor diameter
 Measurement of Minor diameter

The threaded work piece is mounted between the centers of

the instrument and the.V pieces are placed on each side of
the work piece and then the reading is noted.

After taking this reading the work piece is then replaced by

a standard reference cylindrical setting gauge.
 Measurement of Minor diameter
of Internal threads:

The Minor diameter of Internal threads

are measured by
1. Using taper parallels
2. Using Rollers.
 Measurement of Minor diameter
of Internal threads:
1. Using taper parallels:
 For diameters less than 200mm the use of Taper
parallels and micrometer is very common.
 The taper parallels are pairs of wedges having reduced
and parallel outer edges.
 The diameter across their outer edges can be changed
by sliding them over each other.
Measurement of Minor diameter
of Internal threads:
Using rollers:

 For more than 200mm diameter this method is

used. Precision rollers are inserted inside the thread
and proper slip gauge is inserted between the rollers.

The minor diameter is then the length of slip gauges

plus twice the diameter of roller.
Measurement of Effective Diameter

• One wire

• Two Wires

• Three wires method

One wire method
 Two wire method
In this method wires of suitable size are
placed between the standard and the
micrometer anvils
Three Wire Method
 Pitch measurement

• Pitch measuring machine

• Tool makers microscope

• Screw pitch gauge

Pitch measuring machine
Tool makers microscope
 Thread form and flank angle measurement

• Thread gauge

• Ring gauge

• Optical projectors
 Gear Measurement
Types of gears
– Spur gear
– Spiral gear
– Helical gears
– Bevel gears
– Worm and Worm wheel
– Rack and Pinion:
 Slipping of a belt or rope is a common phenomenon, in
the transmission of motion or power between two shafts. The
effect of slipping is to reduce the velocity ratio of the system.

In precision machines, in which a definite velocity ratio is of

importance (as in watch mechanism), the only positive drive is
by means of gears or toothed wheels.

A gear drive is also provided, when the distance between the

driver and the follower is very small.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Gear Drive
The following are the advantages and disadvantages of the gear drive as
compared to belt,rope and chain drives :

Advantages
1. It transmits exact velocity ratio.
2. It may be used to transmit large power.
3. It has high efficiency.
4. It has reliable service.
5. It has compact layout.

Disadvantages
1. The manufacture of gears require special tools and equipment.
2. The error in cutting teeth may cause vibrations and noise during
operation.
 Classification of Toothed
Wheels

The gears or toothed wheels may be classified as follows :

1. According to the position of axes of the shafts. The axes of the two
shafts between which
the motion is to be transmitted, may be
(a) Parallel, (b) Intersecting, and (c) Non-intersecting and non-parallel.
The two parallel and co-planar shafts connected by the gears is. These gears are called
spur gears and the arrangement is known as spur gearing. These gears have teeth
parallel to the axis of the wheel. Another name given to the spur gearing is helical
gearing, in which the teeth are inclined to the axis. The single and double helical
gears connecting parallel shafts. The double helical gears are known as herringbone
gears. A pair of spur gears are kinematically equivalent to a pair of cylindrical
discs, keyed to parallel shafts and having a line contact.
The two non-parallel or intersecting, but coplanar shafts connected by gears
These gears are called bevel gears and the arrangement is known as bevel gearing.
The bevel gears, like spur gears, may also have their teeth inclined to the face of the
bevel, in which case they are known as helical bevel gears.
The two non-intersecting and non-parallel i.e. non-coplanar shaft connected by gears is
These gears are called skew bevel gears or spiral gears and the arrangement is
known as skew bevel gearing or spiral gearing. This type of gearing also have a
line contact, the rotation of which about the axes generates the two pitch surfaces
known as hyperboloids.
Cycloidal Teeth

A cycloid is the curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle

which rolls without slipping on a fixed straight line.

When a circle rolls without slipping on the outside of a fixed circle,the curve
traced by a point on the circumference of a circle is known as epi-cycloid.

On the otherhand, if a circle rolls without slipping on the inside of a fixed

circle, then the curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle is
called hypo-cycloid.
Gear tooth Terminology
• Tooth profile
– It is the shape of any side of gear tooth in its cross
section

Base circle :It is the circle of gear from which the involute
profile is derived
• Pitch circle
– It is the imaginary circle of gear that rolls without slipping
over the circle of its mating gear.
• Addendum circle or Tip circle
– The circle coincides with the crests (or) tops of teeth.
• Dedendum circle (or) Root circle
– This circle coincides with the roots (or) bottom on teeth
• Module(m)
– It is the ratio of pitch circle diameter to the
total number of teeth
Pressure angle : it is the angle made by the
action with the common tangent to the pitch
circles of mating gears
• Face :Part of the tooth in the axial plane lying
between tip circle and pitch circle.

• Flank :Part of the tooth lying between pitch

circle and root circle.
• Top land:Top surface of a tooth
 Gear Errors
• Profile error
– The maximum distance of any point on the tooth
profile form to the design profile.
• Pitch error
– Difference between actual and design pitch
• Cyclic error
– Error occurs in each revolution of gear
• Run out: -
– Total range of reading of a fixed indicator with the
contact points applied to a surface rotated,
without axial movement, about a fixed axis
 Gear Errors
• Eccentricity: -
– Half the radial run out
• Wobble
– Run out measured parallel to. the axis of
rotation at a specified distance from the axis
• Radial run out
– Run out measured along a perpendicular to
the axis of rotation.
 Gear Errors
• Eccentricity: -
– Half the radial run out
• Wobble
– Run out measured parallel to. the axis of
rotation at a specified distance from the axis
• Radial run out
– Run out measured along a perpendicular to
the axis of rotation.
 Gear Errors
• Axial run out
– Run out measured parallel to the axis of
rotation at a speed
• Periodic error
– Error occurring at regular intervals
 GEAR MEASUREMENT
1. Runout.
2. Pitch
3. Profile
4. Lead
5. Back lash
6. Tooth thickness
7. Concentricity
8. Alignment
 Run out
• It means eccentricity in the pitch circle.
• It will give periodic vibration during each revolution of
the gear.
• This will give the tooth failure in gears.
• The run out is measured by means of eccentricity
testers.
In the testing the gears are placed in the mandrel and
the dial indicator of the tester possesses special tip
depending upon the module of the gear and the tips
inserted between the tooth spaces and the gears
 Pitch measurement

• Point to point measurement (i.e. One tooth

point to next tooth point)

• Direct angular measurement

 Tooth to Tooth measurement

The distance between the fixed and sensitive tip is equivalent to base pitch of the
gear.
v All the three tips are contact the tooth by setting the instrument and the reading on
the dial indicator is the error in the base pitch.
 Direct Angular Measurement
• Measuring the error by using set dial gauge
against a tooth in this method the position of a
suitable point on a tooth is measured after the
gear has been indexed by a suitable angle
• If the gear is not indexed through the angular
pitch the reading differs from the original
reading.
• The difference between these is the cumulative
pitch error
 Profile checking
• Optical projection method
The profile of the gear is projected on the
screen by optical lens and then the
projected value is compared with the
master profile.

• Involute measuring machine

 Involute measuring machine

In this method the gear is held on a mandrel and circular disc of same diameter as the
base circle of gear for the measurement is fixed on the mandrel.
After fixing the gear in the mandrel. The straight edge of the instrument is brought in
contact with the base circle of he disc.
Now, the gear and disc are rotated and the edge moves over the disc without slip.
The stylus moves over the tooth profile and the error is indicated on the dial gauge.
 Backlash
• Backlash is the distance through which a gear
can be rotated to bring its nonworking flank in
contact with the teeth of mating gear
• The determination of backlash is, first one of
the two gears of the pair is locked, while other
is rotated forward and backward and by the
comparator the maximum displacement its
measured by the comparator.
• 1. Circumferential backlash
• 2. Normal backlash
 Tooth thickness measurement

• Gear tooth vernier caliper method

(Chordal thickness method)

• Base tangent method

• Constant chord method.
• Measurement over pins or balls.
Gear tooth vernier caliper
Base tangent method
In gear tooth vernier method the thickness is measured at the pitch line.

 Gear tooth thickness varies from the tip of the base circle of the tooth, and
the instrument is capable of measuring the thickness at a specified position
on the tooth.

 The tooth vernier caliper consists of vernier scale and two perpendicular
arms.

 In the two perpendicular arms one arm is used to measure the thickness
and other arm is used to measure the depth.
Horizontal vernier scale reading gives chordal thickness (W) and vertical
vernier scale gives the chordal addendum. Finally the two values are
compared.
The theoretical values of ‘W’ and ‘ d’ can be found out by considering one
tooth in the gear and it can be verified.
 Measurement over Rolls or
balls:
• A very good and convenient method for
measuring thickness of gear.
• In this method two or three different size
rollers are used for checkup the vibrations
at several places on the tooth.

• .
 6. Measurement of concentricity:

• In setting of gears the centre about which

the gear is mounded should be coincident
with the centre from which the gear is
generated.
• It is easy to check the concentricity of the
gear by mounting the gear between centres
and measuring the variation in height of a
roller placed between the successive teeth.
• Finally the variation in reading will be a
function of the eccentricity present
PARKINSON GEAR TESTER
• The master gear is fixed on vertical spindle
and the gear to be tested is fixed on similar
spindle which is mounted on a carriage.
• The carriage which can slide either side
and these gears are maintained in mesh by
spring pressure.
• When the gears are rotated, the movement
of sliding carriage is indicated by a dial
• indicator and these variations arc is measure
of any irregularities in the car under test. Fig
• The variation is recorded in a recorder which
is fitted in the form of a waxed circular chart.
• In the gears are fitted on the mandrels and are
free to rotate without clearance and the left
mandrel move along the table and the right
mandrel move along the spring-loaded
carriage.
Limitations of Parkinson gear tester:
1. Accuracy±0.001mm
2. Maximum gear diameter is 300mm
3. Errors are not clearly identified:
4. Measurement dependent upon the master
gear.
5. Low friction in the movement of the
floating carriage.