MACHINE DESIGN 1

Instructor: Engr. Danielle D. Cabaña, MEng.

CEA – Mechanical Engineering
Cebu Institute of Technology - University
 MODULE 5
DESIGN OF BOLTS AND
SCREWS
 Intended Learning Outcomes

ILO1: Able to understand the different types and

functions of threaded materials.
ILO2: Able to identify the parts of the thread.
ILO3: Able to design bolts and screws based on
material strength and international standards.
 Introduction
Threaded bolts and screws are used to hold the removable heads of
cylinders, machine members that must be readily disassembled, and
parts of large machines that must be built in small units for ease in
manufacturing, assembling, or shipping. Screws are also used for the
transmission of power: for instance, the lead screws on machine tools,
screws on presses, and similar devices. Screws are sometimes used as
a means of adjustment or of obtaining accurate movement in
measuring instruments such as micrometers.
 Difference between bolts and screw
It’s a common assumption that bolts are screws refer to the same
fastening hardware. But while they look similar — and have similar
characteristics — they are two unique fasteners with their own unique
applications. So, what’s the difference between bolts and screws?
The Machinery’s Handbook explains that bolts are used to assemble
unthreaded objects, typically with the use of a nut. In comparison,
screws are used to assemble objects with threads. Here’s the thing,
though: not all objects in which screws are used already have threads.
Some objects feature pre-made threads, whereas others create the
thread during the installation of the screw. So, the fundamental
difference between screws and bolts is that the former is used to
assemble threaded objects, while the latter is used to assemble
unthreaded objects. With that said, screws can make their own threads
during the installation process.
 Screw
Screws are made of threads that are formed by cutting a continuous
helical groove on a cylindrical surface. A screw made by cutting a
single helical groove on the cylinder is known as a single-threaded (or
single-start) screw and if a second thread is cut in the space between
the grooves of the first, a double-threaded (or double-start) screw is
formed. Similarly, triple and quadruple (i.e. multiple-start) threads
may be formed. The helical grooves may be cut either right hand or
left hand.
 Bolts and nuts
A screwed joint is mainly composed of two elements i.e. a bolt and
nut. The screwed joints are widely used where the machine parts are
required to be readily connected or disconnected without damage to
the machine or the fastening. This may be for the purpose of holding
or adjustment in assembly or service inspection, repair, or replacement
or it may be for the manufacturing or assembly reasons.
Terminologies used in screw
threads
The following important terms are used in screw threads:
1.Major diameter. It is the largest diameter of an external or internal
screw thread. The screw is specified by this diameter. It is also known
as outside or nominal diameter.
2.Minor diameter. It is the smallest diameter of an external or internal
screw thread. It is also known as core or root diameter.
3.Pitchdiameter. It is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder, on a
cylindrical screw thread, the surface of which would pass through the
thread at such points as to make equal the width of the thread and the
width of the spaces between the threads. It is also called an effective
diameter or mean diameter, Dm. In a nut and bolt assembly, it is the
diameter at which the ridges on the bolt are in complete touch with the
ridges of the corresponding nut.
4.Pitch.It is the distance from a point on one thread to the corresponding
point on the next. This is measured in an axial direction between
corresponding points in the same axial plane. Mathematically,
1
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤
5. Lead. It is the distance between two corresponding points on the
same helix. It may also be defined as the distance which a screw
thread advances axially in one rotation of the nut. Lead is equal to the
pitch in case of single start threads, it is twice the pitch in double start,
thrice the pitch in triple start and so on.
Lead angle - the angle between the tangent to a helix or screw thread
and the plane perpendicular to the helical axis.
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, tan 𝑥 =
𝜋𝐷𝑚
Linear velocity = (rotational speed) x (Lead)
6. Crest. It is the top surface of the thread.
7. Root. It is the bottom surface created by the two adjacent flanks of
the thread
8. Depth of thread. It is the perpendicular distance between the crest
and root.
Types of Bolts and Screws
commonly used
 Forms of screw threads

1. British standard whitworth

(B.S.W.) thread. This is a British
standard thread profile and has
coarse pitches. It is a symmetrical
V-thread in which the angle
between the flanks, measured in an
axial plane, is 55°. These threads
are found on bolts and screwed
fastenings for special purposes. The
various proportions of B.S.W.
British standard whitworth thread
2. British association (B.A.) thread. This is
a B.S.W. thread with fine pitches. The
proportions of the B.A. thread are shown in
the figure. These threads are used for
instruments and other precision works.

British association thread

3. American national standard thread. The

American national standard or U.S. or Seller's
thread has flat crests and roots. The flat crest
can withstand more rough usage than sharp
V-threads. These threads are used for general
purposes e.g. on bolts, nuts, screws and
tapped holes. The various proportions are
shown in the figure. American national standard thread
4. Unified standard thread. The three
countries i.e., Great Britain, Canada and
United States came to an agreement for a
common screw thread system with the
included angle of 60°, in order to facilitate
the exchange of machinery. The thread
has rounded crests and roots, as shown in
the figure.

5. Square thread. The square threads,

because of their high efficiency, are
widely used for transmission of power in
either direction. Such type of threads are
Unified standard thread
usually found on the feed mechanisms of
machine tools, valves, spindles, screw
jacks etc. The square threads are not as
strong as V- threads but they offer less
frictional resistance to motion than
Whitworth threads. The pitch of the square
thread is often taken twice that of a B.S.W.
thread of the same diameter. The
proportions of the thread are shown in the Square thread
figure.
6. Acme thread. It is a modification of
square thread. It is much stronger than
square thread and can be easily produced.
These threads are frequently used on screw
cutting lathes, brass valves, cocks and bench
vices. When used in conjunction with a split
nut, as on the lead screw of a lathe, the
tapered sides of the thread facilitate ready
engagement and disengagement of the Acme thread
halves of the nut when required.

7. Knuckle thread. It is also a modification

of square thread. It has rounded top and
bottom. It can be cast or rolled easily and
cannot economically be made on a machine.
These threads are used for rough and ready
work. They are usually found on railway
carriage couplings, hydrants, necks of glass Knuckle thread
bottles and large molded insulators used in
electrical trade.
8. Buttress thread. It is used for transmission of power in one direction only.
The force is transmitted almost parallel to the axis. This thread units the
advantage of both square and V-threads. It has a low frictional resistance
characteristics of the square thread and have the same strength as that of V-
thread. The spindles of bench vices are usually provided with buttress thread.
 Types of threads
• UnifiedCoarse Thread Series (UNC) is the most common
designation for general application bolts and nuts. Coarse thread is
beneficial, because they are less likely to cross thread, more tolerant
in adverse conditions and facilitate quick assembly.
• Unified Fine Thread Series (UNF) is commonly used in precision
applications. This type of thread is perfect to use in applications
where vibration is an issue, since the shallow pitch of the thread
works to prevent loosening of the fastener under vibration over time.
Fasteners with fine thread provide increases strength in shear and
tension due to their larger minor diameter.
• Unified
Extra Fine Thread Series (UNEF) are threads finer than
UNF and is mostly used in aerospace industry.
 American or National Standard
Course and Fine Threads and
SAE Extra-fine threads
Source: Vallance, A and Doughtie,
V, Design of Machine Members
2nd Ed. (MCGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc.,1943)
Standard sizes for square thread and acme thread
Source: Vallance, A and Doughtie, V, Design of
Machine Members 2nd Ed. (MCGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc.,1943)
Thread Specification
ISO METRIC THREADS

The relationship between the height H and the pitch P is found using
the following equation where θ is half the included angle of the thread,
in this case 30°:
The minor diameter Dmin and effective pitch diameter Dp are derived
from the major diameter and pitch as

A metric ISO screw thread is designated by the letter M followed by

the value of the nominal diameter D (the maximum thread diameter)
and the pitch P, both expressed in millimetres and separated by a dash
or sometimes the multiplication sign, × (e.g. M8-1.25 or M8×1.25). If
the pitch is the normally used "coarse" pitch listed in ISO 261 or ISO
262, it can be omitted (e.g. M8).
 Bolt Materials and Strength
The strength of steels used for bolts and screws is used to determine
its grade, according to one of several standards. Three strength ratings
are frequently available: the familiar tensile strength and yield strength
plus the proof strength. The proof strength, similar to the elastic limit,
is defined as the stress at which the bolt or the screw would undergo
permanent deformation. It usually ranges between 0.90 and 0.95 times
the yield strength.
SAE standards for bolt steels
ASTM standards for bolt steels
 Materials used for bolts
• Aluminum is used for its corrosion resistance, light weight, and fair
strength level. Its good thermal and electrical conductivity may also
be desirable. The most widely used alloys are 2024-T4, 2011-T3, and
6061-T6.
• Brass, copper, and bronze are also used for their corrosion
resistance. Ease of machining and an attractive appearance are also
advantages. Certain alloys are particularly good for resistance to
corrosion in marine applications.
• Nickel and its alloys, such as Monel and Inconel (from the
International Nickel Company), provide good performance at
elevated temperatures while also having good corrosion resistance,
toughness at low temperatures, and an attractive appearance.
• Stainless steels are used primarily for their corrosion resistance.
Alloys used for fasteners include 18-8, 410, 416, 430, and 431. In
addition, stainless steels in the 300 series are nonmagnetic.
• A high strength-to-weight ratio is the chief advantage of titanium
alloys used for fasteners in aerospace applications.
• Plastics are used widely because of their light weight, corrosion
resistance, insulating ability, and ease of manufacture. Nylon 6/6 is
the most frequently used material, but others include ABS, acetal,
TFE fluorocarbons, polycarbonate, polyethylene, polypropylene and
polyvinylchloride.
• Coatings and finishes are provided for metallic fasteners to improve
appearance or corrosion resistance. Some also lower the coefficient
of friction for more consistent results relaying tightening torque to
clamping force. Steel fasteners can be finished with black oxide,
bluing, bright nickel, phosphate, and hot-dip zinc. Plating can be
used to deposit cadmium, copper, chromium, nickel, silver, tin, and
zinc. Various paints, lacquers, and chromate finishes are also used.
Aluminum is usually anodized. Check environmental hazards for
coatings and finishes.
 Stress in bolts and screws
Effects in initial tension
The bolt is subjected to direct tension, compression on the threads, shear across the
threads, and torsional shear in the body of the bolt as a result of the turning of the nut.
Since none of these stresses can be accurately determined, bolts are designed on the
basis of the direct tension stress with a comparatively high factor of safety to allow for
the undetermined stresses. Calculations and experimental evidence indicate that the
tensile load in pounds applied by an experienced mechanic when tightening a bolt with
a wrench of ordinary proportions, is about 16,000 times the bolt diameter. Subsequent
loads may or may not increase this tension.
F = Final load on bolt
Fa = External or applied load
Fi = Initial load due to tightening
C = Final compressive load on packing or spring
e = Elongation of the bolt per unit load
c = Compression of packing per unit load
When the bolt is first tightened, and before the external load is applied, the
tension on the bolt and the compression on the packing will be equal, and the
corresponding deformations will be
Fie = Initial elongation of the bolt
Fic = Initial compression of the packing
Application of the external load Fa increases the length of the bolt and
the packing an amount equal to (F – Fi)e. Hence the final deformation
of the packing is

and the compression load on the packing is

The final tension load on the bolt is the sum of the packing load and the
applied external load, hence,

From which,
This equation indicates that the final load carried by the bolt depends
upon the initial tension, the external load, and the factor K, which is a
measure of the relative stiffness of the packing and the bolt.
Allowable stresses in tension bolts
The initial load due to the tightening the nut on a standard ½-in.
National Coarse bolt is approximately 16,000 x ½ or 8,000 lb. The
stress at the thread root produced by this load is

This stress is equal to or greater than the ultimate strength of the

materials generally used for bolts. Bolts smaller than-~ in. are
undesirable in any joint subjected to applied loads, and in many types
of machines ¾ -in. bolts are the smallest permitted. Smaller bolts must
be used in some designs and, ·when used, should be made of alloy
steels.
 The torsional shear, combined with the direct tensile stress in the bolt,
produces an equivalent tension about 25 per cent greater than the initial
tensile stress. It is evident that the actual loads and stresses imposed on bolts
are very indefinite, and that the actual design must be based on empirical
formulas that reduce the apparent working stresses as the bolt diameter is
reduced. One formula, proposed by Seaton and Routhwaite, giving reasonable
results when used for bolts made of steel containing from 0.08 to 0.25 per
cent carbon and with diameters of ¾ in. and over, is

from which the total load capacity of the bolt is

where Fa is the applied load (not including the initial tightening load),
sw is the permissible working stress, Ar is the root area.
The constant C may be taken as 5,000 for carbon-steel
bolts of 60,000 psi ultimate tensile strength, and up to
15,000 for alloy-steel bolts, increasing in direct proportion
to the ultimate strength of the steel. For bronze bolts, C
may be 1,000.

Bolts 2 in. and larger are generally designed for a stress of

7,000 to 8,000 psi ·with carbon steels, and up to 20,000
psi with alloy steels, the initial tension being disregarded.
 Tensile stress area of the thread
For Unified threads, the tensile stress area As is equal to the root area which is
expressed in the equation,

where, dm and dp thread minor diameter and pitch diameter, respectively.

The tensile stress area for UNC or UNF threads of the American Standard
system is,

where, D = Major thread diameter

p = Pitch of the thread

For metric threads, the tensile stress area is,

 Tabulated formulas from Vallance and Faires
VALLANCE FAIRES
Tensile Stress in bolts 𝑠𝑤 = 𝐶 𝐴𝑠 0.418 𝑆𝑦
𝑆𝑑 = 𝐴𝑆 1/2
𝐹𝑎 = 𝐶 𝐴𝑠 1.418 6
Where: 𝑆𝑦
𝐹𝑒 = 𝐴𝑆 3/2
𝑠𝑤 = permissible working 6
stress Where:
𝐹𝑎 = applied load 𝑆𝑑 = design tensile stress
𝐴𝑠 =root area 𝐹𝑒 = tensile load
C = 5,000 for carbon steel 𝐴𝑠 = stress area
= 15,000 for alloy steel 𝑆𝑌 = yield stress
Depth of tap 1.5D in cast iron 1.5D in cast iron
1.25 D in steel D in steel and wrought iron

D = nominal diameter D = nominal diameter

Initial tension and torque T=0.2FaD T=CFiD

Where: Where:
T = torque 𝐹𝑖 = initial tension
𝐹𝑎 = initial tension D = nominal diameter
D = nominal diameter C = 0.2 for as received
= 0.15 for lubricated
 Working Strength of Bolts
When the nut on a bolt is tightened, an initial tensile load is placed on
the bolt that must be taken into account in determining its safe
working strength or external load-carrying capacity. The total load on
the bolt theoretically varies from a maximum equal to the sum of the
initial and external loads (when the bolt is absolutely rigid and the
parts held together are elastic) to a minimum equal to either the initial
or external loads, whichever is the greater (where the bolt is elastic
and the parts held together are absolutely rigid). No material is
absolutely rigid, so in practice the total load values fall somewhere
between these maximum and minimum limits, depending upon the
relative elasticity of the bolt and joint members.
 From the Machinery’s Handbook 29th Ed., Industrial Press New York,
2012, the empirical formula to solve for the working strength in lbs of
bolts used for of bolts used for packed joints or joints where the
elasticity of a gasket is greater than the elasticity of the studs or bolts
is,

Where St = allowable working stress, psi, d is the nominal diameter of

the bolt in inches.

Reference: Vallance, A and Doughtie, V, Design of Machine Members 2ndEd.,

MCGraw-HillBook Company, Inc., 1943
 Example 1

Determine the size of bolt required for the head of a 12-in.

cylinder containing steam at 200 psi. Assume a hard
gasket used in making up the joint. Take note that the
initial load applied is about 16,000 times the bolt diameter
and the ultimate tensile strength for carbon-steel bolts, is
about 60,000 psi. Assume that the diameter of the bolt
circle will be approximately 14 in, n=12 bolts , and the
steam may enter under the head to the bolt circle.
Assume that the diameter of the bolt circle will be approximately 14
in, n=12 bolts , and the steam may enter under the head to the bolt
circle. The load per bolt is,

Solving for the root area,

Using Table 26 of Vallance, the root area of 0.625 in2 is near 0.6931 in2 for a
standard bolt size of 1 1/8 in.
Checking for the allowable stress:

Solving for the final stress:

For K= 0.25 using Table 29

For carbon-steel bolts, the ultimate tensile strength is

about 60,000 psi. Thus, the design is safe.
 Example 2
Estimate the working strength of a 1-inch bolt that is screwed
tightly in a packed joint when the allowable working stress is
10,000 psi? Use the Machinery’s Handbook.

Using the empirical formula of the Machinery’s Handbook 29thEd.,

the permissible load or the working strength of the bolt is,