B.

TECH PROJECT REPORT

WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS OF

DIFFERENT STATIONS
Submitted by
V.R. VINEETH VARMA (1210216140)
SAI BHARGHAV MANNE (1210216125)
PRATHA SARADHI (1210216145)

Under the Esteemed Guidance of

Dr. V. Sai Kumar
Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

GITAM Institute of Technology
GITAM
(Deemed to be University)

Visakhapatnam - 45

i
WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS OF
DIFFERENT STATIONS
A Project Report submitted to the Department of Civil Engineering in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Submitted by
V.R. VINEETH VARMA (1210216140)
SAI BHARGHAV MANNE (1210216125)
PRATHA SARADHI (1210216145)

Under the Esteemed Guidance of

Dr. V. Sai Kumar
Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING GITAM INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY GITAM
(Deemed to be University)
VISAKHAPATNAM-45
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled “WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
OF DIFFERENT STATION”, submitted by” V.R. VINEETH VARMA
(1210216140) SAI BHARGHAV MANNE (1210216125), PRATHA
SARADHI (1210216145)
to the DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, GITAM Institute of Technology,
GITAM (Deemed to be University) towards fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of degree of Bachelor of Technology in CIVIL ENGINEERING is a Bonafede
record of the project work carried out by him/her under my/our supervision and
guidance.
The contents in this project report, in full (or) part have not been submitted
to any other University (or) Institution for the award of any degree (or) diploma.

Prof. K. Venkata Ramesh Dr. V. Sai Kumar

Professor and HOD Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
GIT, GITAM. GIT, GITAM.
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in the project report entitled
“WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT STATIONS
” by “V.R.VINEETH VARMA, SAI BHARGHAV MANNE,PRATHA
SARADHI” in partial fulfillment of requirements for the award of degree of
B.Tech in Civil Engineering submitted to the Department of Civil Engineering at
GITAM Institute of technology, GITAM (Deemed to be University) is an authentic
record of my own work under the supervision of “Dr. V. Sai Kumar”. The matter
presented in this project report has not been submitted in any other
University/Institute for the award of any degree. I also declare that I have adhered
to all principles of academic honesty and integrity and have not misrepresented or
fabricated any idea/data/fact/source in my submission

Registration no Name Signature with date

1210216140 v.r.vineeth varma
1210215125 Sai bharghav
manne
1210215145 Partha saradhi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to place on record my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. V. Sai

Kumar, Assistant Professor, for his generous guidance, help and useful
suggestions.
We also wish to extend my thanks to Prof. Y. Satya Prabhakar, Ms. T. Raj
Priyanka, Mr. C. Surya Teja and other faculty for attending my seminars and for
their insightful comments and constructive suggestions to improve the quality of
this project work.
We are extremely thankful to Dr. K.V. Ramesh, HOD, and Dept. of Civil
Engineering, who had given a special care and attention for me in submitting the
project report.
We would like to thank Sri., Lab Technician, who has given me his support
and suggestions from the beginning.
Finally, we are indebted to our parents for their moral support and
continuous encouragement while carrying out this study.
 CONTENTS
Title Page No
Certificate iii

Declaration iv

Acknowledgements v

Contents vi-vii

List of Figures viii

List of Abbreviations ix

Abstract 1

CHAPTER I 2-4
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 2-3
1.3 Objectives 3
1.4 Scope of Work 4
CHAPTER II 5-11
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Literatures Review 5-10
2.2 Critical Review 11
CHAPTER III 12-15
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 12
3.2 Materials and chemicals used 12-13
3.3 Experiments 13-20
3.3.1 Specific Gravity 13
3.3.2 Atterberg Limits 14-16
 3.3.3 Sediment volume test 16-17
3.3.4 Compaction test 18
3.3.5 Unconfined compressive strength test 19-20
CHAPTER IV
4.1 Results and Discussions 21-25
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
5.1 Conclusion 26
REFERENCES 27-28
 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. No Description Page. No

1.1 Red Earth Soil 3

2.1 Sources of Soil Pollution 11

3.1 Casagrande Apparatus 15

3.2 Plastic Limit 16

3.3 Experimental set up for sediment volume test 17

3.4 Compaction Apparatus 18

3.5 Unconfined Compression Load Frame / Test 20

System
4.1 Liquid Limit 21

4.2 Plastic Limit 22

4.3 Red earth with 1N NaOH under different curing 23

Periods
4.4 Red earth mixed with GGBS &1N NaOH under 24
different curing periods
4.5 Red earth mixed with Fly Ash &1N NaOH under 24
different curing periods

4.6 Red earth mixed with FLYASH + GGBS (FG)&1N 25

NaOH under different curing periods
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

GGBS Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

IS Indian Standard
UCS Unconfined Compressive Strength
FA Fly Ash
FG Fly Ash and GGBS
 ABSTRACT
In this work, samples of water were collected from three different tube-wells at two different
times of the year. The first set of samples was collected in the month of November,2019 & the
second set was collected in February, 2020. Over the due course of time various parameters
regarding the water quality were analyzed & the Indian Standards: 10500 (Drinking water
specifications) was referred to in order to check the acceptability of water.

The parameters which were analyzed are as follows:

 Total Dissolved Solids

 Total Suspended Solids

 Determination of pH

 Determination of chloride content

 Conductivity

 alkalinity

Most of the parameters were not found to be in the desirable range for drinking water & hence,
appropriate measures were suggested to improve the quality of water.

Keywords – Water quality, drinking water, TSS, TDS, Turbidity, Conductivity, chloride.
Contents –

S.No. Topic Page No.

1 Introduction 8

2 Literature review 9-18

2.1 Total suspended solids 9

2.2 Total dissolved solids 10-11

2.3 Conductivity 11-13

2.4 Turbidity 13-14

2.5 pH value 15-16

2.6 Sulphate content 16-17

2.7 Chloride content 17

2.8 Iron content 18

2.9 Manganese content 18

3 Experimental procedure 19-28

3.1 TSS 19

3.2 TDS 20

3.3 pH value 21
3.4 Conductivity 21-22
3.5 Turbidity 22-23

3.6 Chloride content 23-24

3.7 Sulphate content 25-26

3.8 Iron content 26-27

3.9 Manganese content 27-28

4 Results & Discussion 29-48

4.1 TSS 29-30

4.2 TDS 31-32

4.3 pH 33

4.4 Turbidity 34-35

4.5 Conductivity 36

4.6 Chloride content 37-38

4.7 Sulphate content 39-40

4.8 Iron content 41-42

4.9 Manganese content 43-45

4.10 Final Results 46-48

5 Conclusion 49

6 References 50-51
1. Introduction

The project was based on testing the quality of water. Three different samples were collected from
‘stations’ situated in 3 districts railway stations at two different times of the year. The first set of
samples was collected after the rainy season in the month of ovember 2019. And the second set
was collected in February, 2020.

Water quality

Water quality refers to the chemical, physical and biological characteristics of water. It is a
measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and or
to any human need or purpose. It is most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against
which compliance can be assessed. The most common standards used to assess water quality
relate to health of ecosystems, safety of human contact and drinking water.

Different properties were analysed & compared during the course of the project. Some of the
properties analysed are as follows –

 Total Dissolved Solids

 Total Suspended Solids

 Determination of pH

 Determination of chloride content

 Conductivity

 Turbidity
2. Literature Review

2.1 Total suspended solids

TSS is identified as a conventional pollutant in the U.S. Clean Water Act. TSS was earlier known
as non-filterable residue (NFR). TSS is the dry-weight of particles which are trapped by a filter
having a specified pore size.

To find TSS of a water sample, measured volume of water should be passed through a pre-
weighed filter having a specified pore size, then taking the weight of filter again after drying to
evaporate the water in the filter paper. Filters composed of glass fibres are typically used for
measuring TSS. The dry weight measure of the particulates present in the water sample is the gain
in weight & it is expressed in units derived or calculated from the volume of filtered water.

Turbidity also tends to measure almost the same quality of water property as TSS, TSS is more
useful as it gives an actual weight of the undissolved material in the sample provided.

Total Suspended Solids consist of a huge variety of material, for example, decaying plant, silt and
animal matter, sewage & industrial wastes. Water having high concentration of suspended solids
might cause problems for aquatic life & stream health.

High Total Suspended Solids in a water body might indicate higher amount of metals, pesticides,
and bacteria present in the water. Higher amount of TSS can also cause problems for industrial
usee, as the solids might clog or scour pipes and machinery.

Few Factors Affecting Total Suspended Solids

 High Flow Rates

 Soil Erosion
 Urban Runoff

 Wastewater and Septic System Effluent

 Decaying Plants and Animals

 Bottom-Feeding Fish
2.2 Total Dissolved Solids

A measure of the combined content of all inorganic and organic substances contained in a liquid
in molecular, ionized or micro-granular suspended form is called Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).
The solids should be small enough to survive filtration through a filter which has two- micrometer
(nominal size or smaller) pores. We generally discuss TDS for freshwater systems only, as salinity
consists of some of the ions contributing in the definition of TDS. The Study of water quality
for streams, rivers and lakes is the most important application of TDS, although TDS is not a
primary pollutant, but TDS is used as an indication of aesthetic characteristics of drinking water
and as an indicator of the presence of a broad array of chemical contaminants.

Agricultural and residential runoff are primary sources for TDS in receiving waters, and so are
leaching of soil contamination and point source water pollution discharge from industrial plants.
Calcium, phosphates, nitrates, sodium, potassium, sulphates and chloride comprise few of the
important chemical constituents. The chemicals might be cations, anions, molecules or
agglomerations on the order of one thousand or fewer molecules, so long as a soluble micro-
granule is formed. Pesticides arising from surface runoff are more exotic and harmful elements of
TDS. Certain naturally occurring total dissolved solids arise from the weathering and dissolution
of rocks and soils.

Gravimetry and conductivity are the two important methods of measuring total dissolved solids.
Gravimetric methods are the more accurate methods and they involve evaporating the liquid
solvent and taking the mass of residues left. This is the best method generally, but it is time-
consuming. If inorganic salts are there as the great majority of TDS, gravimetric methods are
more appropriate.

Concentration of dissolved ionized solids in the water is directly related to the electrical
conductivity of water. Ions in the dissolved solids in water generate the ability for that water to
conduct electrical current, which is measured by a TDS meter or conventional conductivity meter
. Conductivity generally provides an approximate value for the TDS concentration, usually to
within ten-percent accuracy.

Hard water has high TDS levels, which might be the reason for scale buildup in filters, pipes, and
valves, reducing performance and adding to the cost of system maintenance.
In aquariums, spas, swimming pools, and reverse osmosis water treatment systems, we can see
these effects . Total dissolved solids are tested frequently in all these applications, and filtration
membranes are also checked just to prevent adverse effects.

TDS is generally monitored in order to create a water quality environment which is favorable for
organism productivity in the case of hydroponics and aquaculture. For freshwater
oysters, trouts, and other high value seafood, highest productivity and economic returns are
achieved by mimicking the pH and TDS levels of native environment of each & every species.
Total dissolved solids is considered one of the best indices of nutrient availability for the aquatic
plants being grown for hydroponic uses.

Significance of Total Dissolved Solids in Water

The total dissolved solids concentration of good & palatable drinking water should not be more
than 500 mg/L according to general belief. However, higher concentrations might be consumed
without harmful physiological effects and might be even more beneficial indeed. This limit was
set on the basis of taste thresholds. Wildlife and livestock might get injured by drinking water that
contains total dissolved solids exceeding this limit. Continuous use of such water might cause
weakness, scouring, reduced production, bone degeneration and death. However, temporarily,
animals can drink high saline waters, but that will be harmful if used continuously.

2.3 Conductivity

The measure of the ability of an electrolyte solution to conduct electricity is called its
conductivity. Conductivity is also referred to as specific conductance. The SI unit of conductivity
is siemens per meter (S/m).

In many industrial and environmental applications, conductivity measurements are used as an

inexpensive, reliable and fast way of getting the measure of the ionic content in a solution. For
example. A typical way to monitor and continuously trend the performance of water purification
systems is the measurement of product conductivity.

Conductivity is directly linked to the the total dissolved solids (T.D.S.) in various cases.
Conductivity is found out by measuring the AC resistance of the solution between two
electrodes. Dilute solutions follow Kohlrausch's Laws of concentration dependence and
additivity of ionic contributions. A theoretical explanation of Kohlrausch's law by extending the
Debye–Hückel theory was given by Lars Onsager.

Units

Siemens per metre id the SI unit of conductivity and it generally refers to 25 °C. Often, the
traditional unit of μS/cm is used in industries. 106 μS/cm = 103 mS/cm = 1 S/cm. Sometimes, a
unit of "EC" (electrical conductivity) is seen on the scales of instruments: 1 EC = 1 mS/cm.
Occasionally, we also encounter is a so-called mho (reciprocal of ohm): 1 mho/m = 1 S/m.
Historically, mhos antedate Siemens by many decades; good vacuum-tube testers, for instance,
gave transconductance readings in micromhos.

The standard cell, which is most commonly used has a width of 10 mm, and thus for very pure
water in equilibrium with air would have a resistance of about 106 ohm, known as a megohm, also
sometimes known as "megaohm". Ultra-pure water can get to 18 megohms or more. Thus
megohm-cm was used earlier, sometimes spelled as "megohm". Occasionally, a conductivity is
given just in "microSiemens" (removing the distance term in the unit). While this can be seen as
an error, it can generally be assumed to be equal to the traditional μS/cm. The typical conversion
of conductivity to the total dissolved solids is done assuming that the solid is sodium chloride: 1
μS/cm is taken to be an equivalent of about 0.6 mg of NaCl per kg of water.

Molar conductivity’s SI unit is S m2 mol−1. Older publications have the unit Ω−1 cm2 mol−1.

The presence of inorganic dissolved solids such as chloride, nitrate, sulfate, and phosphate anions
(ions that carry a negative charge) or sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron, and aluminum cations
(ions that carry a positive charge) affect the value of conductivity in water. Various organic
compounds like phenol, oil, sugar and alcohol do not conduct electrical current well and therefore
possess a low conductivity in water. Temperature affects the conductivity as well: the warmer the
water, the higher the conductivity. For this reason, conductivity is often reported as conductivity
at 298.15 K.

Conductivity of water in streams and rivers is affected basically by the geology of the area
through which the water is flowing. Streams running through areas with granite bedrock generally
have lower conductivity because granite is composed of more inert materials that do not ionize
(dissolve into ionic components) when washed into the water. On the other hand,
streams that run through areas with clay soils tend to have higher conductivity because of the
presence of materials that ionize when washed into the water. Ground water inflows can have the
same effects depending on the bedrock they flow through.

Discharges to streams have the potential to change the conductivity depending on their make-up.
A failing sewage system would raise the conductivity because of the presence of chloride,
phosphate, and nitrate; an oil spill tends to lower the conductivity.

High quality deionized water has a conductivity of about 5.5 μS/m, typical drinking water in the
range of 5-50 mS/m, while sea water about 5 S/m. Distilled water has a conductivity in the range
of 0.5 to 3 µmhos/cm. Studies of inland fresh waters indicate that streams supporting good mixed
fisheries have a range between 150 and 500 µhos/cm. Conductivity outside this range could
indicate that the water is not suitable for certain species of fish or macroinvertebrates. Industrial
waters can range as high as 10,000 µmhos/cm.

2.4 Turbidity

The haziness or cloudiness of a fluid due to various individual particles ( TSS or TDS) that can be
seen with naked eyes (like smoke in air) is known as turbidity. The determination of value of
turbidity might be termed as one of the most important tests of water quality.

Fluids may have suspended solid matter comprising of particles of various different sizes. While
some will be big enough settle down quickly at the bottom of the container if a liquid sample is
left to stand, the smaller ones might settle very slowly or might not settle at all if the sample is
agitated consistently or if the colloidal particles are present. These solid particles, which are
smaller in size are the reason for any liquid to look like turbid.

Turbidity (or haze) is considered in the case of transparent solids such as glass as well. In plastic
production, the percentage of light that is deflected more than 2.5° from the incoming light
direction is known as haze.

Turbidity can also be termed as the measure of a liquid’s relative clarity. Turbidity is an optical
characteristic of water and is also an expression of the amount of light scattered by material in the
water when a light shines through the water sample. The higher the intensity of scattered
light, the higher the turbidity. Material causing water to be turbid include silt, clay, finely divided
inorganic and organic matter, soluble colored organic compounds, algae, plankton and various
other microscopic organisms.

Turbidity makes water cloudy or opaque. The water collected in the bottle is used to find out the
turbidity, which is measured by shining a light through the water and is measured in
nephelometric turbidity units (NTU). During periods of low flow (base flow), many rivers are a
clear green color, and turbidities are low, usually less than 10 NTU.

Turbidity and water quality

High concentrations of particulate matter affect light penetration and productivity, recreational
values, and habitat quality, and cause lakes to fill in faster. In streams, increased sedimentation
and siltation can take place, which might result in harming the habitat areas for fish and other
aquatic life. Particles also provide attachment places for some other pollutants, especially bacteria
and metals. That’s why, turbidity readings are used as an indicator of potential pollution in a water
body.

Turbidity and human health

Excessive turbidity, or cloudiness, in drinking water is aesthetically unappealing, and may also
represent a health concern. Turbidity can provide shelter and food for pathogens. Regrowth of
pathogens in the distribution system is promoted if the turbidity is not removed, leading to
waterborne disease outbreaks, which have caused significant cases of gastroenteritis throughout
the world. Although turbidity is not a direct indicator of health risk, numerous studies show a
strong relationship between removal of turbidity and removal of protozoa. The particles of
turbidity provide "shelter" for microbes by reducing their exposure to attack by disinfectants.
Microbial attachment to particulate material has been considered to aid in microbe survival.
Fortunately, traditional water treatment processes have the ability to effectively remove turbidity
when operated properly.
2.5 pH Value

pH is basically a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Solutions having pH

less equal to 7.

Primary pH standard values are found out by using a concentration cell with transference, simply
by measuring the potential difference between a standard electrode such as the silver chloride
electrode & hydrogen electrode. Measurement of pH for aqueous solutions can be done with a
pH meter or a glass electrode. We can also find the value of pH by using indicators.

pH measurements have significant importance in the field of biology, environmental science,

chemistry, medicine, oceanography, food science, agriculture, nutrition ,civil engineering,
chemical engineering, forestry, water treatment & water purification and many other applications.

Mathematically, it can be said that pH is the negative logarithm of the activity of the
hydrogen ion.

Importance of pH

The solubility (amount that can be dissolved in the water) and biological availability (amount that
can be utilized by aquatic life) of chemical constituents such as nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen,
and carbon) and heavy metals (lead, copper, cadmium, etc.) can be determined by pH of water.
For example, in addition to affecting how much and what form of phosphorus is most abundant in
the water, pH also determines whether aquatic life can use it. Metals are generally more toxic at
lower pH as they are more soluble.

Extremely low and high pHs can be significant for the use of water. High pH causes a bitter taste,
water pipes and water-using appliances become encrusted with deposits, and it also depresses the
effectiveness of the disinfection of chlorine, thereby generating the need for additional chlorine
when pH is a bit high. Low-pH water might corrode or dissolve metals and other substances.

Pollution has the potential to change a the pH of water, which might harm animals and plants
living in the water.
Effects on Laboratory Animals

If pH is more than 10, skin irritation might be observed in some of the animals. For rabbit, this
can be observed at a pH of about 9 as well. And if the pH is more tha 10, it might behave as an
irritant for the eyes of rabbit . But for a pH less than 5, no significant effects on eyes were
observed.

Effects on Humans

If human beings are exposed to extreme pH values, it might cause irritation to the eyes, skin, and
mucous membranes. Eye irritation and exacerbation of skin disorders have been associated with
pH values greater than 11. In addition, solutions of pH 10–12.5 are said to cause hair fibres to
swell. In sensitive individuals, gastrointestinal irritation may also occur. Exposure to low pH
values can also result in similar effects.

2.6 Chloride Content

Naturally, chlorides are found as salts such as sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium chloride (KCl),
and calcium chloride (CaCl2). Chlorides are leached from different rocks into soil and water due
to weathering. The chloride ion is generally mobile and is shifted to oceans or closed basins. It is
found that chloride concentration in groundwater and drinking-water is consistently increasing,
but there have been a few exceptions. Chloride levels in unpolluted waters are generally below

10 mg/litre and sometimes even below 1 mg/litre. Chloride in water may be significantly
increased by treatment processes in which chlorine or chloride is used.

Effects on Humans

Chloride toxicity has not been observed in humans except in the exceptional case of impaired
sodium chloride metabolism. Healthy human beings can tolerate the intake of large quantities of
chloride if there is a sufficient intake of fresh water. Chloride increases the electrical conductivity
of water and also its corrosivity. Chloride concentrations in excess of about 250 mg/litre can give
rise to detectable taste in water, but the threshold depends upon the associated cations. Consumers
can, however, become accustomed to concentrations in excess of 250 mg/litre. No health-based
guideline value is proposed for chloride in drinking-water.
 Experimental Procedures

3.1 Total Suspended Solids Theory

The solids which can’t survive the filtration through a filter with 2 micrometer pores are called
TSS. And hence, we use that procedure to find TSS.

Apparatus Required

1. Funnel

2. Conical Flask

3. Filter paper

4. Oven

5. Weighing Machine

6. Measuring Cylinder

7. Beaker

Procedure

 10 ml of water sample is measured using the measuring cylinder.

 Water sample is transferred into a beaker.

 Weight of the filter paper is recorded.

 Filter paper is adjusted in the funnel.

 Water is transferred to the conical flask through the filter paper.

 Filter paper is kept in the oven in order to get it dried.

 Once the filter paper gets dried, it is taken out.

 The weight of filter paper is then recorded.

 The initial weight of the filter paper is then subtracted from the final weight.

 The result which we get is the amount of suspended solids in 10 ml of water.

 It is divided by 10 in order to get the amount of TSS per ml of water.

3.2 Total Dissolved Solids Theory

The definition of TDS says that the dissolved solids which are small enough to survive filtration
through a filter with two micrometer pores are TDS. And that is the procedure used here. The
water is evaporated after the filtration & TDS is measured.

Apparatus Required

1. Conical flask

2. Petridish

3. Oven

4. Weighing machine

Procedure

 TDS is measured in continuation to the procedure of finding TSS.

 A petridish is taken.

 Weight of the petridish is recorded.

 Filtered water from the TSS process is transferred into the petridish.

 Petridish is then kept in the oven.

 The temperature of the oven is set at over 100° C.

 After sometime, water is evaporated.

 The petridish is then taken out.

 The weight of petridish is then recorded.

 The initial weight of the petridish is then subtracted from the final weight.

 The result which we get is the amount of dissolved solids in 10 ml of water.

 It is divided by 10 in order to get the amount of TDS per ml of water.

3.3 pH value Apparatus Required

1. pH meter

2. Beaker

Procedure

 All the samples are taken in the beaker one by one.

 The pH value is recorded for all the sample using the pH meter.

3.4 Conductivity Apparatus Required

1. Conductivity meter

2. Potassium Chloride (KCl)

3. Small Beaker

4. Distilled Water

Procedure

 First, some amount of Potassium Chloride is taken.

 Then, KCl is dissolved in distilled water & the potassium chloride solution is prepared.

 Conductivity of KCl is checked using conductivity meter.

 If there is some error in the conductivity of KCl, then the settings of the conductivity meter
is adjusted accrordingly.

 Then, the sample is taken in the beaker.

 The conductivity of the sample is measured.

 The same procedure is repeated for all the samples.

 Hence, the conductivity of all the samples are recorded.

 Conductivity meter

3.5 Turbidity Apparatus Required

1. Turbidity meter

2. Distilled Water

3. Beaker

Procedure

 First, the beaker is taken & is washed properly.

 Then, distilled water is poured into the beaker.

 Turbidity of distilled water is measured by the turbidity meter.

 If the turbidity is not zero, then the settings are adjusted as to make it zero.
 Then, the beaker is again washed properly.

 Then, the sample is poured into the beaker.

 The turbidity of the beaker is measured using the turbidity meter.

 The same procedure is repeated for all the samples.

 Turbidity meter

3.6 Chloride content in water Theory

The amount of chloride present in water can be easily determined by titrating the given water
sample with silver nitrate solution. The silver nitrate reacts with chloride ion according to1 mole
of AgNO3 reacts with 1 mole of chloride. The titrant concentration is generally 0.02 M. Silver
chloride is precipitated quantitatively, before red silver chromate is formed. The end of titration is
indicated by formation of red silver chromate from excess silver nitrate.

Chemicals Required

1. Potassium Chromate

2. Phenolphthalein Indicator

3. Sodium Chloride

4. Silver Nitrate
Apparatus Required

1. Conical Flask

2. Standard Flask
 3. Beaker

4. Burette

5. Pipette

6. Wash Bottle

Procedure

First, a standard NaCl solution is prepared.

 1.648 g of NaCl is measured.

 NaCl is dissolved in distilled water.

 Volume is made upto 100 ml.

 Solution is transferred to a 100 ml standard flask.

Then, a standard silver nitrate solution is prepared.

 4.791 g of Silver Nitrate is dissolved in distilled water & the volume is made upto 100 ml.

 This solution is standardized against the NaCl Solution.

Then, the potassium chromate indicator is prepared.

 25 g of Potassium Chromate is taken & is transferred to the beaker containing distilled

water.

 Few drops of silver nitrate solution is added until slight red precipitate is formed.

 It is allowed to stand for 12 hrs & then, it is filtered.

 The filtrate is diluted to 1000 ml

 20 ml of sample is taken in a 250 ml flask.

 1 ml of the indicator is added to get a slight yellow colour.

 The sample is titrated against the silver nitrate solution until a brick red colour is observed.
Results average

Property Sample collected Sample Collected Desirable

in November, 2019 in February, 2020
Limit

Total Suspended 2 grams/litre 1.1 grams/litre Not more

Solids than 150
mg/l

Total Dissolved 7 grams/litre 8.8 grams/litre Not more

Solids than 2 g/l

pH 7 (Neutral) 7 (Neutral) 6.5 – 8.5

Conductivity 0.306 mS/cm 0.385 mS/cm 0.05 – 0.5

mS/cm

Turbidity 1.5 NTU 1.1 NTU Not more

than 5 NTU

Sulphate content 2.57 mg/l 2.83 mg/l Not more

than 200
mg/l

Chloride content 92.47 mg/l 97.47 mg/l Not more

than 250
mg/l
4. Conclusion

It can be seen that the amount of total suspended solids has decreased from November, 2019 to
February, 2020 in all the 15 railway stations. The reason might be the dirt particles which are
more significant in the rainy season than in the summer.

As far as the TDS (total dissolved solids) is concerned, the value of TDS increases across the
three samples. Lower flow volume & evaporation might be the reason.

If we take a look at the pH value, it decreases a bit in samples B & C, but is pretty much constant
in sample A.

Conductivity increases in the second set of samples and so is TDS along with that. The reason
being evaporation and lower flow volume again.

Turbidity decreases in the second set of samples. The reason might be the lower TSS.

There is a significant increase in both the sulphate content & chloride content in the second set of
samples. TDS increases and so is the amount of salts dissolved in water.

If we compare the 2 samples , then the water from A seems to be the purest as it is colourless on
both the occasions, is neutral & has the least TSS.

Sample B might be termed as the most impure among the three.

Hence, the required properties of all the three samples collected at two different times of the year
were analysed and compared & appropriate measures were suggested wherever required.
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