Compare and contrast patterns of written texts across disciplines

1. Narration
The purpose of narration is to tell a story or relate an event. Narration is an especially useful
tool for sequencing or putting details and information into some kind of logical order, usually
chronological. Literature uses narration heavily, but it also can be useful in non-fiction,
academic writing for strong impact.
2. Description
The purpose of description is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or
action so that the reader can picture that which is being described. It is heavily based on
sensory details: sight, sound, smell, feel, taste.
3. Example
It’s common to see examples used in all kinds of situations—an idea can be considered too
general or abstract until we see it in action. Exemplification extends this idea even further: it
carries one or more examples into great detail, in order to show the details of a complex
problem in a way that’s easy for readers to understand.
4. Definition
Definition moves beyond a dictionary definition to deeply examine a word or concept as we
actually use and understand it.
5. Process Analysis
Analysing a process can also be thought of as “how-to” instruction. Technical writing
includes a lot of process analysis, for instance. Academic writing can incorporate process
analysis to show how an existing problem came to be, or how it might be solved, by following
a clear series of steps.
6. Classification/Division
Classification takes one large concept, and divides it into individual pieces. A nice result from
this type of writing is that it helps the reader to understand a complex topic by focusing on its
smaller parts. This is particularly useful when an author has a unique way of dividing the
concepts, to provide new insight into the ways it could be viewed.
7. Comparison/Contrast
Comparison focuses on similarities between things, and contrast focuses on their differences.
We innately make comparisons all the time, and they appear in many kinds of writings. The
goal of comparison and contrast in academic essays is generally to show that one item is
superior to another, based on a set of evaluations included as part of the writing.
8. Cause/Effect
If narration offers a sequence of events, cause/effect essays offer an explanation about why
that sequence matters. Cause/effect writing is particularly powerful when the author can
provide a cause/effect relationship that the reader wasn’t expecting, and as a result see the
situation in a new light.
9. Problem/Solution
This type of academic writing has two equally important tasks: clearly identifying a problem,
and then providing a logical, practical solution for that problem. Establishing that a particular
situation IS a problem can sometimes be a challenge–many readers might assume that a given
situation is “just the way it is,” for instance.

Evaluate Written text based on its properties

Identify the different properties of a well-written text
Cite the importance of a well-written text
Create a short well-written paragraph employing the properties of a well-written text.

Properties of a Well-written text

THESIS STATEMENT: For a text to be well-written, one must keep in mind these four properties.
I. Organization
 It is said that ideas are well-developed when there is a clear statement of purpose,
positions, facts, examples, specific details, definitions, explanation, justifications
or opposing viewpoints.
  Organization is achieved when these ideas are logically and accurately arranged.

If there is a
clear statement
of purpose,
position, facts, IDEAS are
examples,
formed and ORGANIZAT
specific details,
definitions, well- IONS
explanations, developed
justifications or
opposing
viewpoints

II. Coherence and Cohesion

Coherence
 This means that sentences are arranged in a logical manner, making them easily
understood by the reader
Cohesion
 Connections of ideas at sentence level
 The property of unity in a written text or a segment of spoken discourse that
stems from links among its surface elements, as when words in one sentence are
repeated in another, and especially from the fact that some words or phrases
depend for their interpretation upon material in preceding or following text
Example:
Be assured of this. Most people do not want to fight. However, they will do
so when provoked.
A. Arrange of details according to:
1. Chronological Order
 The details are arranged in the order in which they happened.
This morning was crazy. My alarm clock was set for PM instead of
AM, so I woke up really late. I just threw on some clothes and ran out the
door. I rode my bike as fast as I could and thought that I was going to be
late for sure, but when I got there everyone was outside and there were
fire trucks all lined up in front of school. I guess somebody pulled the fire
alarm before class started. It worked out though, because nobody really
noticed or minded that I was tardy.

Woke up late  Got Ready  Rode Bike to school  Saw People

outside

2. Spatial Order
 The sentences of a paragraph are arranged according to geographical
location, such as left-to-right, up-to-down, etc
The inside of Bill’s refrigerator was horrible. On the top shelf was a
three-week old carton of milk. Next to it sat a slice of melon that had
started to get moldy. To the right of the melon sat the remains of a
macaroni and cheese dinner that had been served a week earlier. On the
 shelf below was a slice of cake from his sister’s birthday party. Thought
there was food, none of it was edible.
3. Emphatic Order
 Is when information found in a paragraph is arranged to emphasize
certain points depending on the writer’s purpose.
The coherence of the paragraph is established in one of two ways:
 From least to most important
 From most to least important
After looking at all the brochures and talking to several salesmen, I
decided to purchase an SLR camera. For several years I had been
dissatisfied with the results I was getting from my point-and-shoot
camera. The framing was imprecise and the focus was not always
accurate. I had planned a vacation to an area that promised many
fabulous photo opportunities, and I wanted to capture each one with
accuracy. But the most important reason I decided on the SLR camera
was the great versatility it offered.
In the above paragraph, the organization moves from the least
important idea (dissatisfaction with the results of the point-and-shoot
camera) to the most important idea (the versatility offered with the SLR
camera).
B. Signal Devices
 Words that give readers an idea of how the points in your paragraph are
progressing
1. Transitions
 Words that connect one idea to another, in order for our ideas to flow
smoothly
a. Time
 first, immediately, afterward, before, at the same time, after, earlier,
simultaneously, finally, next, in the meantime, later, eventually, then,
meanwhile, now, subsequent, etc.
b. Sequence
 moreover, furthermore, next, also, finally, last, another, first, second,
third, besides, additionally, etc.
c. Space
 above, next to, below, behind, beside, etc.
d. Illustration
 for instance, specifically, for example, namely, in this case, to
illustrate, etc.
e. Comparison
 similarly, also, in the same way, still, likewise, in comparison, too,
etc.
f. Contrast
 but, despite, however, even though, yet, on the other hand, although,
on the contrary, otherwise, conversely, etc.
g. Cause and Effect
 because, as a result, consequently, then, so, since, etc.
h. Conclusion
 thus, therefore, in conclusion, in short, etc.
2. Repetitions
 Repetitions of main ideas keep continuity and highlight important ideas
 It could be a word, a phrase, or a full sentence, or a poetical line repeated to
emphasize its significance in the entire text
Examples:
 If you think you can do it, you can do it.
  The boy was a good footballer, because his father was a footballer,
and his grandfather was a footballer.
 The judge commanded, stamping his mallet on the table. “Order in
the court, order in the court.”
 The president said, “Work, work, and work,” are the keys to
success.
3. Synonyms
 These are words similar in meaning to important words or phrases that
prevent tedious repetitions
4. Pronouns
 Words that connect readers to the original word that the pronouns replace
Examples of Pronoun used in an actual sentence:
 INCORRECT: Rodrigo Duterte is the 16th President of the Republic
of the Philippines. Aside from that, Rodrigo Duterte also served as
Davao City’s Mayor for a long period of time. Rodrigo Duterte is
also known by the populace as an adamant leader…
 CORRECT: Rodrigo Duterte is the 16th President of the Republic of
the Philippines. Aside from that, he also served as Davao City’s
Mayor for a long period of time. He is also known by the populace as
an adamant leader…
III. Language Use
 Appropriateness of word/vocabulary usage
Words and Phrases one must to use in order to practice appropriate Language Use:
Table of contents
1. Too informal
Taboo Example Alternative
A bit The interview were a The interviews were
bit difficult to schedule (difficult/somewhat
difficult) to schedule
A lot of, a couple of A lot of studies (Many/ several/ a great
number of /eight)
America A researcher in A researcher in (the
America United states/the US/the
USA)
isn’t, can’t doesn’t, The sample isn’t The sample is not
would’ve (or any other
contraction)
Kind of, sort of The finding were kind The finding were
of significant (somewhat significant to
some degree)
Til, till From 2008 till 2012 From 2008 (until/to) 2012
You, your (i.e, the You can clearly see the One can clearly see the
second-person point of results results
view) The results can clearly be
seen
2. Too unsophisticated
Taboo Example Alternative
Bad A bad result A (poor/negative) result
Big, humungous A big sample A (large/sizable) sample
Get This model gets This model receives attention
attention
Give This chapter gives This chapter
an overview (provides/offers/presents) an
overview
 Good A good example A (useful/prime) example
Show The below figure The below figure
shows (illustrates/demonstrate/reveals
)
3. Too vague
Taboo Example Alternative
Stuff People are People are concerned about their
concerned about (belongings, possessions, personal
their stuff effects)
Thing The report present The report presents many
many things (details/findings/recommendation)
4. Other tips
 Jargon (i.e. “insider” terminology that may be difficult for readers from
other fields to understand)
 Clichés (which are expressions that are heavily overused, such as think
outside of the box and but at the end of the day)
 Everyday abbreviations (e.g. photos, fridge, phone, info)
 Slang (e.g. cops, cool)
 Not gender neutral (e.g. firemen, mankind)
IV. Mechanics
 Set of conventions on how to spell, abbreviate, punctuate and capitalize
 Avoid contractions and exclamation points (unless part of a direct quotation)
 Mention the full name before the abbreviation
 Numbers from 0-10 must be spelled out

In this activity, I will be presenting you excerpts or examples from a text. You will try to
determine what property of a well-written text is present/used in it.
Example:
Michael took the children with him.
Answer:
Coherence and cohesion, Pronouns
Question no. 1:
Central Idea: The Eiffel Tower is divided into three sections.
Main Points:
a. The lowest section of the tower contains the entrance, a gift shop and a restaurant.
b. The middle section of the tower consists of stairs and elevators that lead to the
top.
c. The top section of the tower includes an observation deck with a spectacular view
of Paris.
Answer: Coherence and Cohesion, Spatial Order

Question no. 2:
During the early twentieth century, in addition to industrialization, urban
growth and technological development, Australian society was experiencing a
transformation of the domestic ideal. Consequently, people were subject to an
increasing array of government and professional programs aiming to manage and
regulate life, particularly family life. Some of these programs were…
Answer: Coherence and Cohesion, Signal Devices/Transitions

Question no. 3:
ALTERNATE: A poor or negative result
Instead of: A bad result
Answer: Language Use
Question no. 4:
 (Aside from transitions)
During the early twentieth century, in addition to industrialization, urban
growth and technological development, Australian society was experiencing a
transformation of the domestic ideal.
Answer: Mechanic

Question no. 5:
This morning was crazy. My alarm clock was set for PM instead of AM, so I
woke up really late. I just threw on some clothes and ran out the door. I rode my bike
as fast as I could and though that I was going to be late for sure, but when I got there
everyone was outside and there were fire trucks all lined up in front of school. I guess
somebody pulled the fire alarm before class started. It worked out though, because
nobody really noticed or minded that I was tardy.
Answer: Coherence and cohesion, Chronological order

Question no. 6:
President Rodrigo Duterte was the 16 th President of the Republic of
Philippines. He is also the former Mayor in Davao City for a long time.
Answer: Coherence and Cohesion, Pronouns

Question no. 7:
INCORRECT: The value in this variable is used to determine when to pause during
long display output. Such as during a software dump. Its value is reset each time the
ok prompt is displayed.

CORRECT: The value in this variable is used to determine when to pause during long
display output, such as during a software dump. The variable’s value is reset each
time the ok prompt is displayed.
Answer: Mechanics

IDENTIFICATION
Direction: Identify the following by writing it on the space before the item number.
____________ 1. This achieved when these ideas are logically and accurately arranged.
____________ 2. The details of a paragraph are arranged according to the order in which
they happened.
____________ 3. It is a set of convention on how to spell, abbreviate, punctuate and
capitalize
____________ 4. These are words that connect one idea to another, in order for our ideas to
flow smoothly.
____________ 5. This means that sentences are arranged in a logical manner, making them
easily understood by the reader.
____________ 6. These are words similar in meaning to important words or phrases that
prevent tedious repetitions.
____________ 7. The sentences of a paragraph are arranged according to geographical
location, such as left-to-right, up-to-down, etc.
____________ 8. These are words that give readers an idea of how the points in your
paragraph are progressing.
____________ 9. These are the words that connect readers to the original word that they
replace.
____________ 10. To attain this property, one must be consistent with the use of pronouns.

Answer:
1. Organization
2. Chronological/Order
3. Mechanics
 4. Transitions
5. Coherence
6. Synonyms
7. Spatial/Order
8. Signal Devices
9. Pronouns
10. Language Use

Identify claims explicitly or implicitly made in a written text

 Claims of Fact
 A claim of fact posits whether something is true or untrue, but there must always be
the potential for controversy, conflict and conversion. i.e. The sun is shining today is
not a claim of fact, but signs and symptoms of a medical emergency can be, as well as
a defendant accused of a crime.
 For your papers, think of the claim of fact as a problem to be solved with the claim of
policy.
 Claims of fact must be specific as to time, place, people involved, and situation.
 Can you investigate your claim of fact through original research such as interviews or
field work?
 If it is a text, how thoroughly, closely and critically can you read it to determine its
flaws and strengths?
 Using descriptive and analytical writing, explore every angle of your problem, or
claim of fact, to assess its level of truth.
 By limiting the scope of your study through specific claims of fact, you may avoid
logical fallacies.
 Write down at least one counterclaim to your claim of fact.
 Be aware of fallacies of relevance, presumption, and ambiguity that may color your
and your opponent’s arguments
Definitions
 Before proceeding to claims of value, define every aspect of your problem in
your own words, aided of course by thesaurus and dictionary. Be aware of
connotative and denotative, implicit and explicit meanings.
 Make a list of the abstract words attached to your topic and how they relate to
your claim of fact
 See how these definitions help categorize your topic and put it in perspective.

 Claims of Value
 Once you have your definitions, claims of value are easier to understand because of
the many interpretations of those definitions.
 Examine your topic in terms of the phrases, “it is better to…, it is unethical that…, it
is wrong to…, …is more beautiful than….
 Allow your prejudices to surface in order to examine them.
 Claims of value also involve “taste” in art, literature, music, film, food etc.
 Claims of value involve judgments, appraisals, and evaluations.
 Everyone has a bias of sorts, often embedded in social, religious, and/or cultural
values.
 At this point, you can OPEN UP your topic by comparing and contrasting your
problem with a similar one in another time and/or place.
 When you “fight” with friends and colleagues over intellectual issues, you are usually
debating claims of value.
 What are the competing values around this topic?
 Is it good or bad in whose eyes?
 Has the value been properly applied to the claim of fact?
  For example, you determined that the Menendez brothers killed their parents with a
shotgun in the claim of fact, but the claim of value investigates all the reasons, good
and bad, for this act, in order to establish intent and/or mitigating circumstances.

 Claims of Policy
 Claims of policy typically provide a solution or another series of questions in
response to the claims of fact.
 Claims of policy are often procedural, organized plans.
 A counterclaim of policy posits that the problem exists, it’s good to solve it a certain
way, but there is a better solution than the one you have proposed.
 In medicine, claims of policy debate the best treatment for a certain condition. For
example, Johnny has a bad back, caused by a herniated disc. It is imperative that he
fix this problem because he is a fitness instructor. But there are three competing
claims of policy for his treatment: back surgery, chiropractic treatment, or
massage/exercise/postural retraining. Dr. Keefer posits that the third claim of policy
is the best way to solve the initial claim of fact.

 Line of Reasoning
 In law, the claim of fact posits that O.J.Simpson is guilty of killing his wife.
 The claim of value would investigate intent, whether it is first ‐degree, manslaughter,
accident or whatever.
 The claim of policy would determine the punishment, be it acquittal, imprisonment,
execution etc.
 Claims in the Humanities
 Claims of fact center around a critical analysis of the text.
 Claims of value involve interpretations of the text to determine what is good, bad,
pleasing, etc.
 Claims of policy could involve a new procedure regarding the text, awarding prizes,
or making this interpretation part of some pedagogy.
 Toulmin Chain
 Stephen Toulmin’s chain of reasoning is another way to organize the presentation of
claims, especially good when you must think quickly in a specialized setting, like
assessing a medical emergency.
 You move from data to claim, based on evidence, interpreted by warrant, making
allowances for reservations. In other words, you examine the patient for signs and
symptoms of diseases, previously described in Physicians, Desk Reference, except
when such and such occurs, and then you determine the treatment, based on the data.
 Formal Logic
 Formal logic can be mathematical or deductive, proceeding from necessity from
premises to conclusion, stated as categorical, disjunctive, or conditional syllogisms.
 While 20th and 21st century rhetoricians use informal logic and inductive thinking,
reasoning from probability, it is still good to identify syllogisms and use them when
appropriate.
 Aristotle identified and described this type of logic as early as 5th Century B.C. in
Athens.
 This logic is based on syntax and empirical thinking.
 Kinds of Logic
 Boolean logic began in the nineteenth century under Georges Boole, and was further
developed recently with Venn diagrams and the kind of and, or, but Internet searches
we do today.
 Since so much of our contemporary knowledge is abstract, mathematical, i.e. non‐
empirical such as particle physics, we need many ways of determining the truth or
validity of such knowledge.
 Languages create their own logic, embedded in syntax, and mixtures of languages
obviously confuse this.
  Cyberspace has its own kind of rhetoric, with hypertext, and intricate pathways to
places where we have a hard time discerning what is true or real!
 Your Reasoning Chain
 Regardless of your discipline, identify claims of counterclaims of fact, definition,
value, and policy as an exercise to help you develop your own argumentation.
 Distinguish between argumentation and the kind of slippery rhetoric used by
advertising in which language and images manipulate logical fallacies to create a
false truth that is good only for the advertisers.
 See through the logical fallacies in your counterclaims in order to strengthen your
own claims
 Outline
 Go back to your five or six part outline and re‐organize it in terms of claims and
counterclaims of fact, value, and policy.
 Examine your bibliography to see how you are using all that information as evidence
for specific claims.
 Refine your thesis as a dilemma throughout all the claims in order to make your
reasoning more cohesive and organized.