PROCEEDINGS BOOK OF

2ND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON TRIBOLOGY

TURKEYTRIB’18

ISBN: 978-605-9546-10-2

TURKEYTRIB’18
APRIL 18-20, 2018
ELITE WORLD PRESTIGE HOTEL
ISTANBUL, TURKEY
SPONSORS:

II
Welcome to TURKEYTRIB’18

Please Welcome and thanks for your contribution to TURKEYTRIB’18 which will be
held from 18 to 20 April 2018 at the Elite World Prestige Hotel Taksim-Istanbul-
TURKEY.
TURKEYTRIB’18 is organized by Ecovario Technology Company Istanbul-TURKEY.
TurkeyTrib’18 mainly focuses on Tribology and wide range of branches related to
tribology. More than 110 presentations have been accepted for Conference from
several countries.
The organization committee would like to thank all those who have helped in
making the Conference better. It was a great pleasure for us to bring together
specialists, research scientists and industrial technology developers together.
TURKEYTRIB’18 is expected to stimulate new ideas and concepts, promoting further
advances in the field of tribology.
I wish all participants a pleasant stay in the magnificent city of Istanbul and I am
looking forward to seeing you all together at the Second International Conference
on Tribology – probably in TURKEYTRIB’20.

CONFERENCE LINK:

http://www.turkeytribconferences.com/index.php/en/

There is Gala dinner on April 19th 2018. Gala dinner will be free only for participants
who paid registration fee.

İstanbul April, 2018 Professor Dr. Hakan KALELİ

Conference Chairman

III
International Scientific Committee

Conference Chairman

Prof. Dr. Hakan KALELİ, Turkey

Members:

Prof. Dr. Ali ERDEMIR, USA

Prof. Dr. Bharat BHUSHAN, USA
Prof. Dr. Dae-Eun KIM, South Korea
Prof. Dr. Valentin POPOV, Germany
Prof. Dr. Adrian RIENACKER, Germany
Prof. Dr. Josef SCHLATTMANN, Germany
Prof. Dr. Hüseyin ÇİMENOĞLU, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Gençağa PÜRÇEK, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Ertuğrul DURAK, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Benyebka BOU-SAID, France
Prof. Dr. Lorena DELEANU, Romania
Prof. Dr. Ripa MINODORA, Romania
Prof. Dr. Emilia ASSENOVA, Bulgaria
Prof. Dr. Mara KANDEVA, Bulgaria
Prof. Dr. Aleksandar VENCL, Serbia
Prof. Dr. Anne NEVILLE, UK
Prof. Dr. Jeng-Haur HORNG, Taiwan
Prof. Dr. Yeau-Ren JENG, Taiwan
Prof. Dr. Filiz KARAOSMANOĞLU, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Beliardouh NASSEREDDINE, Algeria
Prof. Mohamed EL MANSORI, France
Prof. Dr. Maher DAMMAK, Tunisia
Prof. Dr. Slobodan MITROVIC, Serbia
Prof. Dr. M. F. WANI, India
Assc. Prof. Dr. Eyyup GERÇEKÇİOĞLU, Turkey
Asst. Prof. Dr. Övün IŞIN, Turkey
Asst. Prof. Dr. Levent YÜKSEK, Turkey
Asst. Prof. Dr. Zeynep PARLAR, Turkey
Asst. Prof. Dr. Oday I. ABDULLAH, Iraq
Dr. Yves BERTHIER, France
Dr. Sylvie DESCARTES, France

IV
 ORAL PRESANTATIONS

THE CONCEPT OF SURFACE COMPLIANCE

DAE-EUN KIM 1
CONTROL FOR WEAR REDUCTION
ADHESIVE WEAR AND PARTICLE EMISSION: OLD
VALENTIN L. POPOV 2
CONCEPTS AND NEW ADVANCEMENTS
ADRIAN RIENÄCKER TRIBOLOGY IN AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS 3
JENG-HAUR HORNG, STRIBECK CURVE IN THREE-BODY CONTACT
4
YANG-YUAN CHEN CONDITION
NEW INNOVATIVE ASSESSMENT FOR
RUDOLF ZECHEL,
TRIBOLOGICAL PERFORMANCE OF BONDED 5
PHILIPP STAUB
COATINGS: 4D MATRIXES BC
MATTHIAS PFADT,
M. WIESBOCK,
HYDRO LUBRICANTS: OPPORTUNITIES FOR
S. EL. ALLAM,
FUTURE SPECIALTY LUBRICANTS BY THE USE OF 13
M. KUHN,
WATER
E. V. HOERSTEN,
B. VENGUDUSAMY
AHMET GUVEN MOBILE HYDRAULICS 17
GEORGE CATALIN CRISTEA,
LORENA DELEANU, TEXTURE INVESTIGATION OF SCARS RESULTED
COSMIN DIMA, FROM LUBRICATION WITH SOYBEAN OIL 18
CORNEL SUCIU, ADDITIVATED WITH NANOGRAPHITE
CONSTANTIN GEORGESCU
AMJAD AL-HAMOOD,
THE ELASTOHYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATION OF
HAZIM U. JAMALI, 19
CAM AND CHAMFERED FLAT FACED FOLLOWER
ODAY I. ABDULLAH
ILYA I. KUDISH,
STRESSED STATE OF FUNCTIONALLY GRADED
ANDREY S. VASILIEV,
ELASTIC SOLIDS INVOLVED IN HEAVILY 29
SERGEY S. VOLKOV,
LOADED LUBRICATED CONTACTS
SERGEY M. AIZIKOVICH
N.W.M. ZULKIFLI,
M.H. HARITH,
H.H. MASJUKI,
DISPERSION OF GRAPHENE IN VARIOUS BIO-
T.M. IBRAHIM,
BASED LUBRICANT AND ITS EFFECT ON 38
A.Z. SYAHIR,
TRIBOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
M.N.A.M. YUSOFF,
Z.M. ZULFATTAH,
N.A. ZAINAL
GEORGE CATALIN CRISTEA,
LORENA DELEANU, TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF SOYBEAN OIL
39
COSMIN DIMA, WITH NANO CARBON AS ADDITIVE
CONSTANTIN GEORGESCU
TRIBOLOGICAL PERFORMANCE OF PEEK WITH
BINNUR SAGBAS GREEN LUBRICANT ENHANCED BY 40
NANO HEXAGONAL BORON NITRIDE POWDER
YASIR HAMID, NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF ADIABATIC
ALI USMAN, THERMO-TRIBOLOGICAL PERFORMANCE
41
I.S.S. GHUMMAN, OF PISTON SKIRT–LINER LUBRICATION
S. KAMRAN AFAQ AT HIGH ENGINE SPEEDS
THERMAL STRESS ANALYSIS AND
ISMAIL AK,
MATHEMATICAL APPLICATIONS IN 47
BAHATTIN ISCAN
ENGINE PISTON WITH CERAMIC COATING

V
 BAHATTIN ISCAN, ENGINE OPERATION AND THERMAL STRESS IN A
48
HUSEYIN AYDIN CERAMIC COATED LHR DIESEL ENGINE
EFFECT OF ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS ON
MUSTAFA SAFA YILMAZ,
TRIBOLOGY OF MICRO ARC OXIDATION 50
ORHAN SAHIN
(MAO) COATINGS FORMED ON ALUMINUM
COMPARING THE CORROSION PROTECTION
SEPIDEH POURHASHEM,
PERFORMANCE OF GRAPHENE NANOSHEETS AND
ALIMORAD RASHIDI, 55
GRAPHENE QUANTUM DOTS AS NANOFILLER IN
MOHAMMAD REZA VAEZI
EPOXY COATINGS
Z.B. ACUNAS KARAGOZ,
REVIEW OF TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF
HAKAN KALELI,
GRAPHENE COATINGS ON PISTON RINGS IN 62
LEVENT YUKSEK,
ENGINES
EMRE CITAK
NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE
SALEH AKBARZADEH,
WEAR BEHAVIOR OF NANO TIN COATING ON 64
ALI NIKUIEMANESH
STEEL SUBSTRATE
BINNUR SAGBAS, METROLOGICAL CHARACTERISATION OF
HAKAN KALELI, METALLIC IMPLANT SURFACES COATED BY 65
SEVIL YUCEL ELECTRON BEAM DEPOSITION OF BIOGLASS
MUN HEE LEE, EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF Y-JET NOZZLE IN OIL
66
JUNG GOO HONG BURNER DEVELOPMENT
S. ASAD ALI DILAWARY,
AMIR MOTALLEBZADEH, NANOTRIBOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
MUHAMMAD AFZAL, LASER SURFACE MELTED STELLITE 12+MO 67
ERDEM ATAR, DEPOSITS
HUSEYIN CIMENOGLU
FELLAH MAMOUN,
HEZIL NAOUEL,
M. ABDUL SAMAD, TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF
TOUHAMI MHAMED ZINE, NANOSTRUCTURED Β-TI ALLOYS AS A FUNCTION 77
LEILA DEKHIL, OF MO AT.% CONTENT
ALEX MONTAGNE,
ALAIN IOST
COMPARSION OF NANOPOROUS
MAHSAN AFZALITABAR, GRAPHENE/SILICA WITH ACTIVATED
M. AFZALITABAR, CARBON/SILICA NANOHYBRIDS PICKERING 78
MAHSHAD ALAEI EMULSIONS FOR CHEMICAL ENHANCED OIL
RECOVERY (C-EOR)
INFLUENCE FERROUS BASED REINFORCEMENTS
SASA MILOJEVIC, ON TRIBOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
79
RADIVOJE PEŠIĆ OF ALUMINUM CYLINDER FOR PISTON
COMPRESSOR IN BRAKE SYSTEM OF BUS
EFFECT OF REINFORCEMENT RATIOS ON
VOLKAN BAYDAROGLU,
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND WEAR BEHAVIOR 80
MUHARREM PUL
OF B4C + SIC REINFORCED AA 7075 COMPOSITES
Z.B. ACUNAS KARAGOZ,
HAKAN KALELI, STUDY OF TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF BN AND
92
MAHDI KHADEM, DLC NANO COATINGS ON PISTON RINGS
DAE-EUN KIM
H. YANAR, EFFECT OF RESIN CONTENT ON FRICTION AND
H.H. AYAR, WEAR BEHAVIOUR OF NON-ASBESTOS
94
M. DEMIRTAS, COMPOSITE FRICTION MATERIAL
G. PURCEK USED IN BRAKE PAD

VI
 ODAY I. ABDULLAH,
JOSEF SCHLATTMANN, THERMAL STRESS ANALYSIS
95
HUSSEIN K. JOBAIR, OF A DRY FRICTION CLUTCHES
N. EDDINE BELIARDOUH
ODAY I. ABDULLAH,
ANALYTICAL SIMULATION OF FRICTIONAL HEAT
JOSEF SCHLATTMANN,
GENERATED IN THE FRICTION CLUTCHES 105
MAHIR H. MAJEED,
USING MATLAB GUI
BASHIR SALAH
H. T. BAYTEKIN, HOW ELECTROSTATIC TRIBOCHARGING DOES
115
K. SAYFIDINOV EFFECT FRICTION COEFFICIENT?
M. KHAFIDH,
D.J. SCHIPPER,
FRICTION AND WEAR MECHANISM OF SHORT-
M.A. MASEN, 116
CUT ARAMID FIBER REINFORCED ELASTOMERS
N. VLEUGELS, J.W.M.
NOORDERMEER
EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL PREDICTION
ALIREZA SAMADANI,
OF FRICTION COEFFICIENT IN LINE CONTACT IN 117
SALEH AKBARZADEH
THE PRESENCE OF LUBRICANT
KAREEM ABD-RBO, EFFECT OF SURFACE TEXTURING ON THE
ABRAHAM J. DOMB, FRICTION OF RUBBER IN LUBRICATED SLIDING 125
HAYTAM KASEM CONTACT. APPLICATION IN MEDICAL SYRINGES
HARUN YANAR,
A NEW MULTI-FUNCTIONAL TRIBOMETER:
MUHAMMET DEMIRTAS, 126
APPLICATION OF BLOCK-ON-RING TEST MODULE
GENCAGA PURCEK
M. KHAKPOUR, VIBRATION ANALYSIS OF A FLEXIBLE ROTOR
R. TIKANI, SUPPORTED BY SQUEEZE FILM DAMPERS 127
S. ZIAEI-RAD USING FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
ALI GHANBARZADEH,
A PARAMETRIC STUDY OF THE NEWLY-
FARNAZ MOTAMEN SALEHI,
PROPOSED ASPERITY-SCALE 128
MICHAEL BRYANT,
TRIBOCORROSION MODEL
ANNE NEVILLE
ALI CULHA,
EFFECT OF SHOT PEENING PARAMETERS ON
SINAN FIDAN, 129
SURFACE ROUGHNESS OF INCONEL 718
TAMER SINMAZCELIK
ALI CULHA,
EROSIVE WEAR BEHAVIOUR OF SHOT PEENED
SINAN FIDAN, 136
INCONEL 718
TAMER SINMAZCELIK
QIANG LI, WEAR ANALYSIS OF MULTIPHASIC
146
VALENTIN L. POPOV HETEROGENEOUS COMPOSITES
THE INVESTIGATION OF TRIBOLOGICAL
ISMAIL KAYA,
BEHAVIOR OF CARBON-FIBER REINFORCED 147
ZEYNEP PARLAR
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
OMER OZDEMIR,
THERMO-ELASTOHYDRODYNAMIC SIMULATION
FELIX FISCHR,
OF THE PISTON-CYLINDER CONTACT IN 153
ADRIAN RIENÄCKER,
HIGH-PRESSURE PUMPS AT 3000 BAR
KATHARINA SCHMITZ
INTERFEROMETRIC MEASUREMENTS OF SHAFT
ATAE JAFARI-TABRIZI,
POSITION IN A DYNAMICALLY LOADED 158
ZAFER DURSUNKAYA
JOURNAL BEARING
NUMERICAL STUDY OF SURFACE MODIFICATION-
ALI USMAN,
BASED IMPROVED TRIBOLOGICAL 160
CHEOL WOO PARK
PERFORMANCE OF PLAIN BEARING
CHRISTIAN BUSCH,
MOBILE INTO OLD AGE 164
PATRICK KNORR

VII
A.A. MUNIM ALHATTAB,
S. ASAD ALI DILAWARY, EFFECT OF ELECTRON BEAM SURFACE MELTING
AMIR MOTALLEBZADEH, ON MICROSTRUCTURE AND WEAR BEHAVIOUR 169
C. FAHIR ARISOY, OF PTA DEPOSITED STELLITE 12 HARDFACING
HUSEYIN CIMENOGLU
DILARA CELIK,
ONUR TAZEGUL, INFLUENCE OF THERMAL OXIDATION TIME ON
178
FAIZ MUHAFFEL, TRIBOLOGY BEHAVIOUR OF TI6AL4V ALLOY
HUSEYIN CIMENOGLU
ABDULLAH GOCER, THE EFFECTS OF B4C CERAMIC SIZES ON WEAR
AYDIN YILMAZ, BEHAVIOR OF AL 6063METAL MATRIX 180
M. BAKI KARAMIS COMPOSITES
BOUZIDI NEDJIMA, POROUS CERAMICS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES AS
LAHOUAZI NAIMA, FILTERS: MICROSTRUCTURE 181
BLANCHART PHILIPPE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
GULSAH AKINCIOGLU,
INVESTIGATION OF FRICTION WEAR
SITKI AKINCIOGLU,
PERFORMANCE OF BORON OXIDE ADDED 182
HASAN OKTEM,
BRAKE PADS SAMPLE
ILYAS UYGUR
GULSAH AKINCIOGLU,
SITKI AKINCIOGLU, EVALUATION OF TRIBOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF
HASAN OKTEM, ECO-FRIENDLY BRAKE PAD ADDED 183
ILYAS UYGUR, HAZELNUT SHELL DUST
FEHMI ERZINCANLI
EFFECTS OF BASALT FIBER AND BORON OXIDE
OKAN GUL,
HYBRID ADDITION ON ADHESIVE WEAR AND
N. GAMZE KARSLI, 185
THERMOMECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
TANER YILMAZ
TPE MATRIX COMPOSITES
UGUR DINCER,
AYTUNC KIZIL, ZEOLITE AND CARBON FIBER REINFORCED PPS
OKAN GUL, MATRIX HYBRID COMPOSITES: TRIBOLOGICAL 186
N. GAMZE KARSLI, AND THERMOMECHANICAL PROPERTIES
TANER YILMAZ
AYTUNC KIZIL,
INVESTIGATION THE TRIBOLOGICAL AND
UGUR DINCER,
THERMOMECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
OKAN GUL, 187
BENTONITE AND BASALT FIBER REINFORCED PPS
N. GAMZE KARSLI,
MATRIX COMPOSITES
TANER YILMAZ
POLYVINYL ALCOHOL, A NEW WAY FOR
FAROUK DEHMCHI EFFICIENT REDOX COATING PROCESS 188
FROM SAPONIFICATION OF POLYVINYL ACETATE
AHMET YAVUZ, IMPORTANCE OF SOLID PARTICLE EROSION IN
190
TAMER SINMAZCELIK INDUSTRIAL AREAS
M. FADZLI BIN ABDOLLAH,
NOREFFENDY TAMALDIN, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BIODIESEL FROM
201
LEE SHING CHUAN, VEGETABLE OIL
HILMI AMIRUDDIN
NOREFFENDY TAMALDIN,
M. FADZLI BIN ABDOLLAH, GROWTH OF GRAPHENE FROM
202
NOOR AYUMA MAT TAHIR, SOLID WASTE PRODUCTS
HILMI AMIRUDDIN
A TREATISE ON USING HEXAGONAL BORON
GOKCE MEHMET AY NITRIDE FOR SPACE LUBRICATION 203
APPLICATIONS

VIII
 M. ALPER SOFUOGLU,
SEZAN ORAK, ULTRASONIC ASSISTED MACHINING METHODS:
207
MELIH CEMAL KUSHAN, A REVIEW FROM 1984-2017
GOKCE MEHMET AY
M. ALPER SOFUOGLU,
INVESTIGATION THE EFFECTS OF ULTRASONIC
MELIH CEMAL KUSHAN,
ASSISTED TURNING ON SURFACE PROPERTIES 208
SEZAN ORAK,
OF TI6AL4V ALLOY
GOKCE MEHMET AY
MOHAMMAD SATTARI,
TWO-BODY AND THREE-BODY WEAR OF NICKEL-
SALEH AKBARZADEH, 209
TITANIUM SHAPE MEMORY ALLOY
MAHMOUD KADKHODAEI
PLANE SURFACE GRINDING IMPLEMENTATION
SENAI YALCINKAYA OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND OPTIMAL 215
SOLUTIONS WITH THE TAGUCHI METHOD
SENAI YALCINKAYA,
A RESEARCH FOR WEAR BEHAVIOURS OF
AYDAN USTUNDAG, 216
COATED CUTTING TOOLS: A MINI REVIEW
ACAR CAN KOCABICAK
ZAFER CAN TEOMAN, STRUCTURE AND TRIBOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF
FAIZ MUHAFFEL, FLUIDIZED BED NITRIDED SURFACES 218
HUSEYIN CIMENOGLU ON H13 HOT WORK TOOL STEEL
FAIZ MUHAFFEL,
DILEK TEKER AYDOGAN,
SYNTHESIS OF AN ANTIBACTERIAL AND WEAR-
MERYEM MENEKSE,
RESISTANT MULTILAYER COATING ON 219
NEVIN GUL KARAGULER,
BIOMEDICAL TITANIUM-BASED ALLOYS
MURAT BAYDOGAN,
HUSEYIN CIMENOGLU
H.E. KATTARIEA, PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF WIND
B.S. AZZAM, TURBINEBLADES COATED 220
T.A. OSMAN WITH COMPOSITE MATERIALS
NIYAZI CAVUSOGLU,
SELIM GURGEN, INVESTIGATION ON TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR
233
FATIH HAYATI CAKIR, OF LASER SURFACE TREATED TI6AL4V ALLOY
ABDULLAH SERT
TRIBOLOGICAL AND FINITE ELEMENT STUDY ON
SELIM GURGEN,
THE ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF A STEEL SPHERE 237
ABDULLAH SERT
AGAINST A DEFORMABLE FLAT MATERIAL
TRIBOCORROSION BEHAVIOR OF ELECTROLESS
HARUN MINDIVAN NI-P/NI-B DUPLEX COATING ON 241
AA7075 ALUMINUM ALLOY
SELMAN DEMIRTAS, CHARACTERIZATION OF THE FRICTION AND
HAKAN KALELI, WEAR EFFECTS OF GRAPHENE
242
MAHDI KHADEM, NANOPARTICLES IN OIL ON THE RING/CYLINDER
DAE-EUN KIM LINER OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
APPLICATIONS OF CUTTING FLUIDS ON
MURAT KIYAK 244
MACHINING
COMPARISON BETWEEN SELECTION METHODS
HANI A. AL-RAWASHDEH OF GENETIC ALGORITHM USED IN 250
SCHEDULING PROBLEMS (FSP)
TRIBOTEST OF ENGINE PISTON RING/CYLINDER
SELMAN DEMIRTAS,
LINER PAIRS WITH DIFFERENT NANOPARTICLES 251
HAKAN KALELI
ADDED INTO ENGINE OIL

IX
 The Concept of Surface Compliance Control for Wear Reduction

Dae-Eun Kim
School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea
[email protected]

It is well perceived that hardness is the most important material property related to the wear
resistance of the material. In general, hard materials indeed have better wear resistance than soft
materials, and the approach to increase the hardness has been widely applied to reduce wear in
tribological applications. However, there are many exceptions to this general rule and sometimes the
counter surface may be severely damaged if one of the contacting surfaces is too hard. In this work,
the concept of utilizing the compliance of the surface to reduce wear was explored. Basically, by
allowing the contacting asperities to deform to a certain extent, generation of high contact pressures
that may lead to material removal could be mitigated [1-3].
Several methods may be used to control the surface compliance of a material. Among them,
using microstructures proved to be an effective way to achieve the appropriate level of compliance for
a given contact condition. Particularly, compliant surface structures not only served to reduce adhesion
through contact area reduction, but also proved to be beneficial in allowing large elastic deformation
under contact sliding conditions. This approach was applied to achieve low wear rate for metallic as
well as polymeric materials [4, 5].
Keywords: Coating, Friction, Surface, Wear.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded
by the Korea government (MSIT) (No. 2010-0018289).

REFERENCES

[1] K.H. Kang, O.V. Penkov, H.J. Kim, D.E. Kim, "Effectiveness of bubble structure in contact damage
reduction of Au film", Trib. Int., vol. 55, pp. 40-45, 2012.
[2] H.J. Kim, D.E. Kim, "Wear minimization through utilization of atomic-scale functional surface
structure", App. Phys. Let., vol. 103, pp.151904-1-151904-5, 2013.
[3] S.Y. Yau, T.H. Kim, S.S. Yoo, D.E. Kim, “Fundamental investigation of micro-scale wear
characteristics of ultra-fine gold wires under low contact force and long sliding distance”, Wear, vol.
348-349, pp. 1-9, 2016.
[4] O.V. Penkov, A.Y. Devizenko, M. Khadem, E.N. Zubarev, V.V. Kondratenko, D.E. Kim, “Towards
zero micro/macro-scale wear using periodic nano-layered coatings”, ACS App. Mat. Inter., vol. 7, pp.
18136-18144, 2015.
[5] D.Y. Wang, C.L. Kim, D.E. Kim, “Development of flexible polymer sheet with high surface
durability using discretely embedded micro-balls”, CIRP Annals, vol. 66, pp. 527-530, 2017.

1
 Adhesive Wear and Particle Emission: Old Concepts and New Advancements

Valentin L. Popov

Technische Universität Berlin, Department of System Dynamics and the Physics of Friction,
10623, Berlin, Germany

[email protected]

In 1953, Archard [1] formulated the law of adhesive wear stating that the amount of worn material is
proportional to the normal force, the sliding way and is inversely proportional to the hardness of the
material. Based on this law, there exist is a common opinion that the higher the hardness, the less wear,
since the hardness is in the denominator of the Archard formula. This would be true if not for the
coefficient of adhesive wear which can take values that differ by seven orders of magnitude, which
deprives the law of any predictive power. The nature and the physical mechanisms determining the wear
coefficient are, however, still unclear.
Further, in the problem of wear, of interest is not only the total amount of wear, but also the distribution of
wear particles in size. Presently, the problem of emission of wear particles, for example, from brakes or car
tires, became an extremely topical, economic and political problem. However, the Arcard's law does not
tell us anything about the size of particles. The first person who suggested a way of handling this topic was
Ernest Rabinowicz. In 1958, he wrote a short article in Wear [2], in which he put forward the hypothesis of
a mechanism determining the size of wear particles. Quite recently, this idea has got a new life due to the
breakthrough works by the group of J.-F. Molinari from EPFL [3].
The new understanding of the old Rabinowicz’ criterion for adhesive wear opens new possibilities for
understanding and numerical simulation of both the coefficient of adhesive wear and the size distribution
of wear particles. In the present paper we discuss further generalizations of the Rabinowicz idea, in
particular in application to contacts of complex configuration and to the problem of determining the size
distribution of wear particles. On the other hand, we discuss the implications of the Rabinowicz logic for
heterogeneous media (coated or having surface layers due to mechano-chemical reactions).

[1] J. F. Archard, J. Appl. Phys. 24, 981 (1953).

[2] E. Rabinowicz, Wear 2, 4-8 (1958).
[3] R. Aghababaei, D. H. Warner, J.-F. Molinari, Nat. Commun. 7, 11816 (2016).

2
 Tribology in Automotive Applications

Tribology in Automotive Applications

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Adrian Rienäcker Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Gunter Knoll

Machine Elements and Tribology iST GmbH, Aachen
University of Kassel

13.04.2018 Turkeytrib ’18, 2nd International Conf. on3Tribology, April 18-20, 2018
 Stribeck Curve In Three-body Contact Condition

Jeng-Haur Horng 1 and Yang-Yuan Chen 2

1 Department of Power Mechanical Engineering, National Formosa University, Yunlin, Taiwan
[email protected]
2 Department of Power Mechanical Engineering, National Formosa University, Yunlin, Taiwan
[email protected]

Abstract
The effects of wear particle at the interfaces has been one of the important issues in tribology. In
the past time, the lubrication modes were studies in many applications of relative motion parts.
However, few studies have been conducted a three-body contact analysis that includes.
This work, based on three-body microcontact theory, study the characteristics of particle and
surface contact load and area with the various operating and particle parameters in the three lubrication
regimes.
The analysis results show that a three-body contact situation occurs in band zone of contact area
ratio versus contact load diagram. In the top of the upper bound is the surface-to-surface two-body
contact and in the bottom of the lower bound is the particle-to-surface two-body contact. The three-
body analysis shows that the MK lubrication analysis of two-body contact is the special case of the
result of the present method. At the critical speed value, larger particle size will increase the solid
contact load ratio of the interface and enter the mixed and boundary lubrication from the EHD
lubrication. It shows that the size and density of particle have a considerable effect on the stribeck
curve of contact surfaces.
Keywords: Wear particle, Stribeck curve, Film thickness, Friction coefficient.

REFERENCES

[1] H.W. Wu, Y.Y. Chen, and J.H. Horng, “Contact temperature under three-body dry friction conditions,”
Wear, vol. 330, pp. 85-92, 2015.
[2] H.W. Wu, Y.Y. Chen, and J.H. Horng, “The analysis of three-body contact temperature under the
different third particle size, density and value of friction,” Micromachines, vol. 8(10), 302, pp. 1 -16,
2017.
[3] J.H. Horng, S.Y. Chern, C.L. Li and Y.Y. Chen, “Surface temperature and wear particle analysis of
vertical motion double-nut ball screws,” Industrial Lubrication and Tribology, vol. 69, No.6, pp. 952-
962, 2017.

4
 NEW INNOVATIVE ASSESSMENT FOR TRIBOLOGICAL PERFORMANCE OF
BONDED COATINGS: 4D MATRIXES BC

Rudolf ZECHEL1)*, Philipp STAUB²)

1)
New Business Development, Klüber Lubrication München SE & Co KG, München, Germany
²) Tribology-Fundamentals, Klüber Lubrication München SE & Co KG, München, Germany
*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Bonded coatings (BC) serve for protecting components made of metal, plastic or
elastomer materials against wear and optimise their friction behaviour. For lubricants based on oil
the friction behaviour at different speeds, temperatures and loads can be shown by means of Stribeck
curves. However, in the case of bonded coatings for dry lubrication, such behaviour has not yet been
examined in detail. Using a new method bonded coatings are analysed at low to high temperatures
and loads along with increasing relative sliding speeds. By combining the curves in the friction
coefficient matrix a characteristic diagram is generated for the user to select the bonded coating best
suited for his application. In this context, the paper presents examples of different bonded coating
systems and possible areas of application. The focus will be especially on the 4D behaviour of epoxy
resin PTFE BC plus the influence of polyamidimide resin and the influence of MoS2 solid lubricant.

Keywords: bonded coating, friction coefficient, wear reduction, dry lubrication, Klüber
Lubrication

1. Introduction
The lubricant sector today is attentive to the demand for faster, higher, stronger performance,
as well as for longer re-lubrication intervals or even lifetime lubrication, lower lubricant consumption
or minimum-quantity lubrication. A further development is dry surfaces to avoid a "greasy" feel and
prevent components from sticking together, thus facilitating component separation during automatic
assembly. Further advantages of dry lubrication include lifetime lubrication, the prevention of stick-
slip and effective separation of surfaces also at low sliding speeds. Still, bonded coatings, too, have to
transfer loads from one friction surface to the other under a defined friction coefficient.
A bonded coating is normally a dispersion consisting of organic or inorganic binders, solid
lubricants, solvents and additives. The solid lubricants, and sometimes also the binders, provide the
lubricating effect, the binders ensure firm adhesion to the surface of the component, and the solvents
are required to apply a thin, uniform layer. Additives are used, for example, to reduce foam formation
when stirring the product, to enable good surface crosslinking, or a good anticorrosive effect.

5
 Figure 1 Cross section of bonded coating layer [1]

To protect surfaces against friction and wear, the bonded coating can be sprayed on in thin
layers following a suitable pre-treatment of the surface. Mass coating of small components can also be
done by drum spraying, dip/spin coating or immersion. Upon application, the coatings have to harden
at ambient or elevated temperature.
Figure 1 shows a schematic cross section of a layer of bonded coating after application,
hardening (A) and running-in (B).
For the design of tribological contacts the most important value is the coefficient of friction
(CoF), in addition to the wear prediction. For oil-lubricated mechanical contacts Stribeck curves can
normally be used for the description of the coefficient of friction depending on the sliding speeds [2].
By changing temperature and load, the oil viscosity and film thickness will be influenced and
consequently the course of the Stribeck curve as shown at the left side of Figure 2 [3].

Figure 2 Course of the Stribeck curve at different temperatures and loads (following [3])

Due to the advantages mentioned, dry lubricants especially in the form of bonded coatings
(bc) are used in many applications and in different industries. Their frictional behaviour is totally

6
different from viscous lubricants and therefore it is necessary to find appropriate test methods for the
curve of friction coefficient depending on sliding speed, temperature and load. Up to now tribological
tests are used where one combination of load, temperature and speed leads to one result considering
friction coefficient and wear behaviour. For a variation of parameters additional tests have to be
started. This requires many individual tests for the description of friction and wear behaviour.

2. Test method 4D Matrixes BC

For measuring the coefficient of friction between extremely low and high speeds a very
sensitive test rig is required. Therefore an unidirectional set-up with a high-precision speed and load
control technology is used. This method must also be able to determine friction values inside the
complete test range with the aid of a very senstive measuring technology. For each measurement one
100Cr6 steel specimen is sandblasted and coated with bc. The counter body consists of 100Cr6 and
remain uncoated with a surface roughness Ra=0.02-0.06 µm. In this way one friction curve versus
sliding speed is generated for each temperature/load combination. For the entire description of a bc
inside a wide range of operational parameters these curves are measured for bc applications with
typically occurring temperature and load variations. The used measuring parameters are shown in
Table 1.

Table 1 Combination of measuring parameters

The stable and high-quality test method shows no remarkable differences in 3x repetitions of
the test. After the test run including repetitions the volumetric wear of the specimen surface is
measured using a WLI (White Light Interferometer). For an appropriate bc concept the three test run
curves should not show significant differences and the wear result should stay low. If there is high
wear, the decrease of surface pressure due to the higher contact area should be taken into account. For
a good overview the results of different test runs with different parameter combinations are
summarised in a “4D matrix” as shown in Figure 3.

7
 Figure 3 4D Matrix of a bonded coating containing PTFE

3. Results and Comparison

3.1 BC containing epoxy binder and PTFE
The matrixes of a bc containing an epoxy binder highly filled with PTFE and the curves of
the 3 test runs are summarised in Figure 4. As shown in the drawings, the CoF of this bc remarkably
depends on the sliding speed as well as on the temperature. The lowest CoF (approx. 0.025) occurs at
low speed up to 0.05 m/s, high temperature and low pressure. At higher pressure (500 MPa) the CoF
rapidly increases and at -20 °C and >0.15 m/s the highest CoF (0.2) is achieved.

Figure 4 CoF curve of bc containing epoxy binder highly filled with PTFE

8
 Considering additionally the results of the volumetric wear after the 3rd run in Figure 5, it is
obvious that this bc clearly exceeds its limit at 150 °C and 500 MPa. This shows directly that the wear
measurement after the test runs is essential for the assessment of CoF validity.

Figure 5 4D Matrix and Wear of bc containing epoxy binder highly filled with PTFE

3.2 Influence of polyamidimide on 4D Matrix BC

By the use of polyamidimide (PAI) instead of an epoxy binder system the basic structure
becomes more resistant and the challenging combination of 150 °C with 500 MPa is feasible as
indicated in Figures 6 and 7.

Figure 6 CoF curve of bc containing polyamidimide binder filled with PTFE

9
 Figure 7 Comparison of standard PTFE with PAI PTFE bc

3.3 Influence of molybdenum-disulfide (MoS2)

Molybdenum-disulfide (MoS2) is well known for its higher load carrying capacity and low
CoF at high surface pressures. This is apparent at the CoF Matrix in Figure 8, too. Besides the sliding
speed the most remarkable influence on the friction behaviour is shown by the pressure and then by
the temperature. The lowest CoFs of approx. 0.025 to 0.05 are achieved at high surface pressure (500
MPa), high temperature (150 °C) and high sliding speed (3 m/s). Generally, across the whole range of
sliding speeds, the CoF increases at a reduction of temperature and falls with an increase of surface
pressure.

Figure 8 CoF curve of bc containing solid lubricant MoS2

10
 In this way various investigations in different combinations are possible. For example the
analysis of two different bc containing MoS2 for the application with a wide service temperature
range. While MoS2 coating No.1 in figure 9 shows a complete qualification in the tested parameter
field MoS2 coating No. 2 reveals a serious weakness concerning friction and wear outside room
temperature regions.

Figure 9 Comparison of two different bc concepts containing solid lubricant MoS2

4. Conclusion
Up to now performance measurements for bonded coatings have been carried out in single
operating points with constant sliding speed, surface pressure and operating temperature. By using a
very sensitive test rig with a high-precision speed and load control technology a wide range of friction
matrixes from extremely low to high speeds gives the user important information for design activities.
Depending on the solid lubricants and bonding agents contained in the bonded coating, an optimised
friction coefficient can be achieved at different ambient conditions. By combining the curves in the
friction coefficient matrix a characteristic diagram is generated for the user to select the bonded
coating best suited for his application. Thus, a quick and targeted selection of bonded coatings for
taxing and exceptional operating conditions is possible.
In this context, the paper presents examples of different bonded coating systems and possible
areas of application. The focus will be especially on the 4D behaviour of epoxy resin PTFE BC plus
the influence of polyamidimide resin and the influence of MoS2 solid lubricant. By using this data, the
presentation will also deal with the question how one can select high-performance bonded coatings.

5. References
[1] R. Zechel, S. Hartl and P. Staub, “High-Performance Verschleißschutz mit nanopartikelhaltigen
Gleitlacken“, Gesellschaft für Tribologie, 51. Tribologie-Fachtagung, Göttingen (Germany), pp. 63/1-
11, Sep 2010
[2] W.J. Bartz and U.J. Möller, “Expert Praxis Lexikon Plus“, Expert Verlag, Renningen (Germany),
2010
[3] A. Juyeong, “Bestimmung der Schmierungs- und Reibungsverhältnisse im Kontakt Kolbenring
gegen Zylinderlaufbahn von Verbrennungsmotoren in einem Modelltribometer“, Dissertation,
Bochum (Germany), with link to W. Weisbach, „Werkstoffkunde: Strukturen, Eigenschaften,
Prüfung“, Springer Verlag Werkstoffkunde, Berlin Heidelberg, 2010

11
Klüber Lubrication Klüber Lubrication München SE & Co KG
Yağlama Ürünleri San. ve Tic. A.Ş. Geisenhausenerstr. 7
Çerkezköy Organize Sanayi Bölgesi, 81379 München
Karaağaç Mah. 10. Sok. No:7 Germany
Kapaklı / Tekirdağ / Türkiye www.klueber.com
http://www.klueber.com.tr
Phone: +90 282 758 15 30 / ext. 116
Fax : +90 282 758 29 35
E-mail: [email protected]

12
 HYDRO LUBRICANTS: OPPORTUNITIES FOR FUTURE SPECIALTY LUBRICANTS BY THE USE OF
WATER

Matthias Pfadt*, M. Wiesböck, S. El. Allam, M. Kuhn, E. v. Hoersten and B. Vengudusamy

Klüber Lubrication München SE & Co.KG, Munich, Germany

*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Hydro Lubricants unfold their innovative traits by using water either as a base oil
or as an additive, hence the name ‘‘Hydro Lubricants’’. Initial results indicate that it is a
promising technology with a great potential to deliver high performance; some include high
thermal and electric conductivity, resistance towards water intrusion, superlow friction and
good load-carrying capacity on the FZG four-square test machine. Some key challenges of
Hydro Lubricants like freezing point and corrosion protection have been solved by proper
and advanced formulation. With the wide range of benefits, different Hydro Lubricants have
been developed for applications like gears, hydrodynamic bearings and industrial chains.
Keywords: Hydro Lubricants, Waterbased lubricant, Superlow friction, Electrical
conductivity, Sustainable formulation

1. Introduction
Although different base oil types exist in the market and are widely in use, the majority of industrial lubricants are
still based on mineral oils due primarily to low cost and easy miscibility with other oils. However, despite their
widespread use, conventional lubricants reach functional limits in various scenarios. In addition to the limitations of
natural resources, their safe and environmentally sound handling, use and disposal often require considerable efforts.
At the same time, industrial operators’ expectations towards innovative specialty lubricants are increasing. They
range from operational and food safety to biodegradability, longer life cycles and reduced emissions and energy
consumption.
While searching for a material that meets all of these general and branch-specific requirements, water is a visionary
but yet an obvious raw material available worldwide, non-toxic, non-combustible. The benefits are clear but some
challenges include its low viscosity, evaporation, freezing point, corrosiveness and sensitivity against microbiological
growth. Overcoming these challenges would bring a more sustainable solution to the industry (e.g. gear industry) with
higher machine efficiency and energy savings than existing. This paper presents one such lubricant concept based on
water and highlights its benefits in comparison to a conventional polyglycol (PG)-based synthetic gear lubricant Tab. 1.

Table 1 Test Lubricant description; AW: Antiwear, EP: Extreme pressure

Lubricant Hydro Lubricant PG gear oil

ISO viscosity grade, DIN ISO 3448 460 460

Base fluid 1 Water Polyglycol
Base fluid 2 Synthetic fluid -
Additives EP / AW EP /AW
Viscosity Index (VI), DIN ISO 2909 ≥ 200 ≥ 200

13
2. Definition and properties of Hydro Lubricants
Hydro Lubricants unfold their innovative traits by using water either as a base oil or as an additive, hence the name
‘‘Hydro Lubricants’’. Initial results indicate that it is a promising technology with a great potential to deliver high
performance; some include high thermal and electric conductivity, resistance towards water intrusion, superlow friction
and good load-carrying capacity on the FZG four-square test machine. The Hydro Lubricant presented in this study is of
ISO VG 460 suitable for gear applications. From the large study conducted, some example results are shown.

2.1. Friction measurements

Friction measurements were made on steel/steel contact using a ball-on-disc tribometer (EHD2, PCS Instruments) at
a realistic test temperature of 60°C and a mean speed ensuring EHD full film condition (2.5 m/s). It is evident from Fig.
1 that the Hydro Lubricant exhibits a superlow friction compared to the conventional PG gear oil.
It should be noted that among the different base oil types available, PGs are known for its low friction properties
due to its easy-shearing molecular structure. The Hydro Lubricant presented in this study shows a much lower friction
than the current low friction PG, indicating that the Hydro Lubricant can potentially offer a significant energy saving
benefit.
Friction coefficient

PG gear oil, ISO VG 460

Figure 1 Traction curves showing EHD friction coefficients measured at 2.5 m/s mean speed and 60°C

2.2. Load-carrying capacity

The load carrying-capacity was evaluated by a modified scuffing test using a FZG four-square test machine
according to ISO 14635-1 [1]. The Hydro Lubricant was tested at a reduced starting temperature of 30°C (FZG
A/8.3/30) instead of 90°C. In this test, elevated surface temperatures due to high surface pressures and sliding velocities
cause a local welding of the tooth flanks of pinion and wheel. A higher failure load stage from this test is an indicative
measure of high relative scuffing load carrying capacity of gear lubricants. The tested Hydro Lubricant reached a failure
load stage greater than 12.
The result clearly indicates that the Hydro Lubricant provides a good tooth flank surface protection even at high
temperatures in the gear mesh.

14
2.3. Corrosion protection
The ability of lubricants to prevent corrosion was evaluated by (a,b) a copper corrosion test conducted according to
DIN EN ISO 2160 [2] but at a relatively low temperature of 80°C and (c) a steel corrosion test according to DIN ISO
7120 [3] method A. The results of the ISO VG 460 Hydro Lubricant are shown in Fig. 2 where it can be seen that the
Hydro Lubricant exhibits good anticorrosion properties. The Hydro Lubricant showed a copper corrosion value which
equals the protection level commonly offered by conventional gear oils. The steel corrosion test also showed an
excellent result with the Hydro Lubricant.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2 Anti-corrosion properties Hydro Lubricant ISO VG 460. Copper plate from the copper corrosion test (a)
before test, (b) after 24 h at 80°C and (c) steel finger after corrosion test

2.4. Electrical resistivity

Another important character of lubricants that contain a significant amount of water is the low resistivity. As shown in
Fig. 3, the ISO VG 460 Hydro Lubricant shows almost the same value as tap water but a different magnitude compared
to the conventional PG gear oil.

Figure 3 Comparison of resistivity of test fluids

This behavior is particularly beneficial in systems where Electric Discharge (ED) is a problem, such as those found in
electric motors. It is well known that bearings used in variable speed electric motors experience fluting; a damage
commonly found on the surface of bearing raceways caused by electric arcs that surpass the lubricant. The resulting
electric discharge could potentially degrade the lubricants by high local temperature rise. One way to reduce the risk
and severity of damages caused by ED is to use lubricants with high electrical conductivity [4]. The Hydro Lubricant
presented in this study possesses an excellent electrical conductivity property compared to the conventional oils,
indicating that it could potentially reduce the damage caused by ED.

Some key challenges of Hydro Lubricants like freezing point, corrosion protection and microbiological growth have
been solved by proper and advanced formulation. With the wide range of demonstrated benefits different Hydro
Lubricants have been developed for applications like gears, hydrodynamic bearings and industrial chains.

15
3. Conclusion
Results demonstrate that the Hydro Lubricant presented in this study exhibits properties like superlow friction, good
load carrying capacity, excellent corrosion protection and high electrical conductivity superior to that of conventional
PG-based gear oil. The results highlight that the Hydro Lubricant can offer a more sustainable solution without
compromising the high performance and that the Hydro Lubricant has a great potential in a wide range of industrial
applications that particularly demand for huge energy savings.

4. References
1. ISO 14635-1 FZG test method A/8.3/90 for relative scuffing load-carrying capacity of oils, 2006
2. DIN EN ISO 2160 Petroleum products – Corrosiveness to copper – Copper strip test, 1999
3. DIN ISO 7120 – Petroleum products and lubricants – Petroleum oils and other fluids – Determination of rust-
preventing characteristics in the presence of water, 2000
4. Gemeinder, Y.: Lagerimpedanz und Lagerschädigung bei Stromdurchgang in umrichtergespeisten elektrischen
Maschinen, IWV, Bonn, 2016

16
 Mobile Hydraulics

Ahmet Güven

Abstract

Air contamination in hydraulic systems may lead to numerous problems like “spongy movements- high
noise-erosion-diesel effect-accelerated oxidation-poor lubrication. Shell Lubricants have done two
different studies to understand the consequences of air entrainment.
This presentation briefs mainly briefs two subjects
 Sources and consequences of air contamination
 a study done with hydraulic fluids of varying base oils and additive compositions. Presentation
summarizes the findings in a special circuit where a dynamometer fitted with a reservoir that
incorporated an aerator at the inlet, and a mass flow meter at the outlet.
The effects of aeration on piston pump efficiency and air borne noise generation were evaluated.
Hydraulic oils that entrained a greater volume of air demonstrated lower volumetric efficiencies and
higher sound levels. The fluids differed in volumetric efficiency by as much as 8% and perceived sound
level by as much as 50%. Based upon 2,500+ hours of testing in a high-intensity loader application, the
performance benefits of the low aeration fluid were persistent.

Keywords: Entrained air, Dry case, synthetic fluids, mineral oils Fluid properties, air release, density
method, sound analysis

17
Texture Investigation of Scars Resulted from Lubrication with Soybean Oil
Additivated with Nanographite

George Catalin Cristea1, Lorena Deleanu1, Cosmin Dima1, Cornel Suciu2 and Constantin
Georgescu1
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, “Dunarea de Jos” University, Galati, Romania
[email protected]
2 Department of Mechanics and Technologies, “Stefan cel Mare” University, Suceava,
Romania
[email protected]

The recent studies on surface topography [1], [2], are characterized by several features: studies
are statistical, there is no general methodology for characterizing the texture of worn surfaces and the
methodology depends on: shape and size of triboelements, the available equipment and software, the
set of parameters selected, the user experience and ingenuity. The paper presents an investigation of
wear scars resulted on the balls from a set of tests on a four ball machine, using lubricants based the
soybean oil additivated with nano graphite as environmentally friendly lubricants are of high interest
nowadays [3].
The authors proposed an original methodology for evaluating 3D texture parameters on the
entire wear scar. The lubricants based on soybean oil are supplied by Prutul Galati and nano graphite
materials in concentrations of 0.25 wt%, 0.5 wt% and 1.0 wt%, respectively. The test parameters for
each tested lubricant were: loading force - 100 N, 200 N and 300 N (± 5%), sliding speeds of 0.383
m/s, 0.537 m/s and 0.691 m/s, corresponding to the spindle speeds of the four-ball machine 1000 rpm,
1400 rpm and 1800 rpm (± 6 rpm), test time - 60 minutes (± 1%).
The surface quality was also evaluated by a dimensional parameter St/Sa, which brings together
an averaging parameter (Sa) and an extreme parameter (St), which justifies why single elements, such
as very rare and very high asperities, have a great influence on the tribological behavior, especially for
lubricated contacts.
Keywords: soybean oil, nano graphite, four ball test, 3D profilometry

REFERENCES
[1] L. Blunt and X. Jiang, Advanced techniques for assessment surface topography, London, Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2003.
[2] H. McCormick and K. Duho, “A brief history of the development of 2-d surface finish characterization and
more recent developments in 3-d surface finish characterization”, Contract DAAE07-C-L130 issued by the
U.S. Army TACOM, Warren, MI., http://www.c-kengineering.com/images/pdf/product/surface%20finish/
see%203di/3-D%20Surface%20Measurement.pdf, 2004.
[3] L.A.T. Honary and E. Richter, Biobased Lubricants and Greases. Technology and Products, John Wiley and
Sons, Chichester, 2011.

18
 The Elastohydrodynamic lubrication of Cam and Chamfered Flat Faced Follower

Amjad Al-Hamood1, Hazim U. Jamali2 and Oday I. Abdullah3,4

1 Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Kerbala, Kerbala, Iraq

[email protected]
2 Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Kerbala, Kerbala, Iraq
[email protected]
3 Energy Engineering Department, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq
4 System Technologies and Engineering Design Methodology, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany
[email protected]

Abstract
The lubrication of the cam and follower mechanism is one of the most complicated elastohydrodynamic (EHL)
lubrication contact problems. Usually, during the operation of this mechanism, the contact regime undergoes EHL
lubrication under sever conditions of sliding speed, geometry, and loading. In this study, the EHL lubrication of the
cam and flat faced follower is studied with the consideration of chamfering the follower. A point contact EHL numerical
analysis is used to simulate the problem. This is based on the solution of Reynold’s equation which represents the
lubricant fluid film in conjunction with the elastic equation of the contacting surfaces. In this solution, a non-Newtonian
oil behavior is used for the determination of the flow factors. The results showed that introducing an axial chamfer has
significant consequences on the characteristics of the elastohydrodynamic performance of the cam and follower contact
problem.

Keywords:Cam, follower, flat, chamfer, elastohydrodynamiclubrication.

Introduction

A cam and follower pair is the mechanism which converts rotational motion into reciprocating or oscillating motion.
This mechanism is considered as less expensive and reliable if compared with other mechanisms. This makes the
mechanism widely used in many common machines like in the timing of the valves in internal combustion engine. The
requirements and the function of the machines identify the type of the cam and follower to be selected which are, in
fact, have a large diversity of types. Details about the cam types and analysis can be found in [1].

The lubrication and wear of the cam are considered as important issues for the designers due to the nature of the
contact. The relatively localized contact region is considered either as a point or line contact problem. Usually, in these
types of contacts, with the existence of lubricating fluid, an elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) is developed. In this
type of lubrication, the lubricating fluid isolates the contacting surfaces, while they deform elastically within the contact
region. The EHL analysis of the contact problem depends on the geometry of the contacting surfaces in addition to the
loading and kinematic analysis. In general, the main function of lubrication is to eliminate the wear of the contacting
surfaces in addition to reducing the friction forces which lead to minimize the power lost. This gave the researchers a
continuous motivation to focus on studying the lubrication problems.

Dyson and Naylor [2] studied the lubrication of cams especially the distresses of the tappet which are controlled by the
temperature in the contact region as they believed. Muller [3] also studied experimentally the lubrication of the cam and
tappet and found that, in the contact zone, the oil film is a significant parameter in the design. Dyson [4] established that
the contacting Hertzian stresses and the thickness of the lubricant film along the cam would be considered and
compromised in the cam design. Bair et al [5] measured the load at cam-follower contacting zone in addition to the
friction force where they are complicated to determine analytically. Ball [6] carried out a comprehensive analytical
study on the Tribology of automotive cams which lead to evaluating important lubrication parameters. An important
review study on valve train lubrication (cam-follower lubrication) had presented by Tylor [7]. More recently, Ciulli [8]
carried out an experimental study on the cam-follower focusing on eccentricity and surface roughness. Wu et al [9]
studied the thermal elastohydrodynamic lubrication of cam tappet pair considering smooth contacting surfaces. Their
study showed that the isothermal analysis gives overestimation of the film thickness if compared with thermal analysis.

Although extensive works have been carried out during the previous decades on the analyses of the cam follower
contact problem, the effect of the chamfer on the performance of the system still requires more investigation. This is
clear at least from the lubrication point of view. The chamfer is performed in order to avoid the edge contact between
the elements. Considering the chamfer in the analyses, requires the modeling of the resulting contact problem as a
19
point contact case. The chamfer can be performed in the follower or the cam itself or both of them. This paper presents
EHL solution of the cam and follower contact problem with the consideration of follower chamfering.

Cam-Follower Kinematics and Loading

A cam and a flat face follower is shown in Figure (1) where the rotational motion is converted to reciprocating motion
through the follower.

motion

Flat face follower

Cam

motion

Figure 1 A schematic diagram shows a cam and flat face follower.

The kinematics, geometry and loading within the contact zone should be known in order to analyze
anyelastohydrodynamic lubrication problem. For the present case, the cam profile, rotational velocity and the follower
specification determine the EHL solution. The cam profile used in this paper is a type of a smooth four polynomial
function representing the follower lift Lf for a cam angle φas following [6]
𝐿 = 𝐿 +𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 (1)
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 𝐿𝐿 + 𝐿𝐿 (𝐿 ) + 𝐿𝐿 (𝐿 ) + 𝐿𝐿 (𝐿 )
(𝐿 ) 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝐿
Where

YR= height of the ramp,

Lfmax= the maximum follower lift.

𝐿𝐿= the cam half period.

𝐿, 𝐿, 𝐿, 𝐿, 𝐿𝐿, 𝐿𝐿, 𝐿𝐿, 𝐿𝐿are parameters that determine the cam characteristics.

The relative velocity of the cam and follower that relative to the contact point are given in the following forms [6]:

For the cam

𝐿 2𝐿 𝐿
𝐿=Ω( +𝐿 +𝐿 ) (2)
𝐿 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿 𝐿

and for the follower

𝐿2𝐿𝐿
𝐿 = Ω( ) (3)
𝐿𝐿2
𝐿

Where

Ω = the angular velocity of the cam.

rB= the radius of the base circle of the cam.

20
Figure (2) shows the velocity of the cam and the follower relative to the contact point, versus cam angle starting from
the nose to the base circle. The data used in this Figure and the Figures (3 and 4) are plotted using the data of Harrison
[10]. In this Figure it can be seen that the maximum velocity of the cam and the follower is maximum at the cam flank.

Velocity (mm/s)

Cam angle starting from the nose (degree)

Figure 2 The velocity of cam and follower relative to the point of contact

The difference between the cam and follower velocities (𝐿𝐿 − 𝐿𝐿) is known as the sliding velocity. This is considered as
an important factor in the EHL formulation, so that it will investigate carefully over the cam profile. In Figure (2), it can
be note that the velocity of sliding is maximum the cam nose, so that this region will be considered in this work in terms
of EHL point of view.

For the EHL solution an equivalent radius of curvature of the contacting surfaces should be considered as following [6]:
1 1 1 (4)
= +
𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿

Where

R= equivalent radius of curvature.

Rc= cam radius of curvature.

Rf= follower radius of curvature.

The equivalent radius of curvature for the cam and follower used in this paper is equal to [6]:
𝐿2𝐿𝐿
𝐿= +𝐿 +𝐿 (5)
𝐿𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
2

Figure (3) shows the equivalent radius of curvature versus angle of cam rotation. It can be seen that the radius of
curvature is maximum at the angle of approximately 57.4 o. This should be studied in the analysis of the EHL.

21
 curvature (mm)

Figure 3 equivalent radius of curvature of the cam and the follower

The load at the contact region is considered as an important parameter in the EHL solution. For the cam-follower
mechanism, the load is contributed by the follower inertia force and the spring force which holds the follower, friction
force between the follower and its holder is neglected in this study. Accordingly, the load is represented by two terms in
equation (6) below, the first for the spring force and the second for the inertia force [6].
𝐿 2 𝐿𝐿
𝐿= + 𝐿) + 𝐿Ω2 ( ) (6)
𝐿𝐿2
𝐿(𝐿𝐿

Where
k = spring constant.
δ = initial deflection in the spring.
M = mass of the follower.
𝐿 2𝐿 𝐿
( ) = the acceleration of the follower.
𝐿𝐿2

Figures 4 shows the load represented by equation (6)

Load (N)

Cam angle starting from the nose (degree)

Figure 4 load on the contact region between the cam and follower

In Figure (4) it can be seen a similar trend to the previous figures where the maximum is at the flank. It can also see that
the load at the nose is higher than it at the base circle. The region of maximum load will be studied in this work in terms
of EHL point of view.

Solution of the contact problem:

22
 In order to solve the problem of the elastohydrodynamic lubrication between the cam and chamfered follower, the
governing equations are the Reynolds and film equations which are [11]

  y   uh vh  0
  p    p   
 x  (7)
x    y  y  x y
x 

h(x, y)  gap(x, y)  (x, y)  co (8)

Where

𝐿 − 𝐿 plane: solution domain (tangent plane to the surfaces)

u  uc u f 2 and v =0: entrainment velocities in the x and y direction respectively.

In the case of Newtonian oil behavior, the flow factors are: 


 h3
   (9)
12
x y

However, in this analysis anon-Newtonian behavior is considered where the model of Johnson and Tevaarwerk [12] is
used for the calculation of flow factor which has the following form:

u  0    
z   sinh  (10)
 0 


The viscosity –pressure relation given by Roeland [13] is used in the current work in the form given by Lugt and
Morales [14] as

 
 p 
z

  o exp ln o  9.671  8
1 

    1.962 *10    (11)

Where

1.962 *108 
z 
ln(o )  9.67
Dowson and Higginson [15] equation is considered to relate the density and pressure which is
p
   (1  ) (12)
1  p
o

The gap between the contacted surfaces depends on the radii of curvature, thus the gap between the cam and follower is
[16]

x2
gapo  (13)
2R
When the follower is chamfered by either a linear or second order curve as shown in Figure5, the gap becomes:

Δ Δ

y y

L L
Figure 5 Forms of follower chamfer; left: linear, right: second order curve.

23
 a- Second order curve

gapchamfer 
y  L 2  Lc 2 

L2c
(14)

b- Linear chamfer

gap  y  L 2  Lc  
chamfer
Lc (15)

Where Δ and 𝐿𝐿 are chamfer height and length respectively, the chamfer location is determined by:

Lc


Equations 13 and 14 are for the modification of the right hand side of the follower, similar equation can also be easily
derived for the other side. In contrast to the second order curve there is discontinuity in the slop at the start of linear
chamfer. Therefore, the total gap in the case of chamfered follower is

gap(x, y)  gapo  gapchamfer

(16)

The surface deformation in the film thickness equation is determined by [16]

2 p‫و‬  
 ,    dxdy (17)
πE  x   2  y  2
Where
 , are positions of the point where the calculation is required
2 1  2 1  2
c 
f
E E1 E2
 : Poisson's ratio
E: modulus of elasticity.

The Reynolds equation is solved numerically based on finite difference method (central difference). The required
number of nodes in the x and y direction has been examined through a series of mesh independent tests. The required
number have been found to be 362 ∗ 272 in the x and y direction respectively. The convergence to the required load
has been obtained through comparing the result of integrating the pressure distribution with the actual required load. If
the result of integration differs, the constant 𝐿𝐿 in equation (8) is changed. This route is continued until final
convergence is obtained.

Results:

The results of the EHL solution for the contact problem between the cam and follower presented in this section are
performed at two positions of the cam operating cycle. The first position where the angle 𝐿 = 57.4o corresponds to the
maximum contact load. The second position, 𝐿 = 0, represents the position of maximum sliding velocity as explained
previously. These two positions are expected to have influences on the system performance from the EHL point of
view. In this analysis, the geometry of the follower in the axial direction is modified using either linear chamfer or a
second order curve while in both cases the cam depth remains without modification (prismatic). In addition, different
chamfer heights and locations have been investigated.

Figure6 shows the EHL results at the first position (𝐿 = 57.4). A comparison between the results of linear and second
order curve for the chamfer is shown in this figure. Figures 1-a and b illustrate the contours for the film thickness for
both forms of chamfer. It can be seen that a relatively thicker film of lubricant separates the two surfaces when the type

24
of chamfer is a second order curve. The corresponding pressure distributions are also affected by the chamfer type as
shown in Figure 1-c and 1-d. The pressure spikes are more aggressive in the case of linear chamfer (Figure 1-c).

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 6 EHL results at 𝐿 = 57.4𝐿, left: linear chamfer, right: second order curve chamfer;
upper: film thickness (Levels in µm), lower: 3D pressure distribution (levels in GPa);

Similar trends are found in the corresponding EHL results at the second selected position for the analysis (𝐿 = 0)) here
the EHL results improved for sa second order curve formof modification. The film thickness as well as the pressure
distribution are significantly related to the type of modification as shown in Figure7.

25
 Figure 7 EHL results at 𝐿 = 0𝐿, left: linear chamfer, right: second order curve chamfer;
upper: film thickness (Levels in µm), lower: 3D pressure distribution (levels in GPa);

A further comparison between the EHL results at the two selected positions that illustrated in the previous figures is
shown in Table 1. In this table the maximum pressure and the minimum film thickness values are shown for the two
forms of chamfer. At the position when 𝐿 = 0, the maximum pressure in the case of linear chamfer is 1.415 GPa which
is reduced to 0.492 GPa when the chamfer has the form of the second order curve The level of the corresponding
minimum film thickness at this position is also elevated from ℎ 𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0 to ℎ 𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0.093 𝐿𝐿 due to the introducing of
the second order chamfer. The significant reduction in the value of maximum pressure is related to the level of film
thickness between the cam and follower. This level is changed from a breakdown of the film thickness to a thin layer of
lubricant which helps to generate a pressure over a relatively wider area in comparison with the localized contact. In the
second position of the cam operating cycle, similar behavior is also obtained.

Table 1 Comparison between the EHL results at the two selected positions of the cam operating cycle

Position
Chamfer Form
𝐿=0 𝐿 = 57.4𝐿
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 [GPa] 1.4157 0.55
Linear chamfer
ℎ 𝐿𝐿𝐿 [µm] 0.0 1.3039

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 [GPa] 0.4923 0.3749

Second order chamfer
ℎ 𝐿𝐿𝐿 [µm] 0.093 1.5927
The effect of linear chamfer height, ∆, on the EHL results is shown in Figure8. A wide range of this height (10 𝐿𝐿 ≤
∆≤ 1000 𝐿𝐿) is used for the results shown in this figure. It can be seen that the film thickness is considerably affected

26
by the height of chamfer. In general,ℎ 𝐿𝐿𝐿 Is the inversely proportion to the chamfer height when ∆≤ 100 𝐿𝐿. However,
as the chamfer height increases above this limit, the minimum film thickness becomes less related. The results shown
in this figure reveal significant outcome which is the chamfer height needs to be selected carefully to maintain higher
level of lubricant thickness between the surfaces. The chamfer height has no considerable consequences on the
maximum pressure values.

p max / GPa
h min/ μm

Δ / μm
Figure 8 Effect of the height of linear chamfer on min. film thickness (solid) and max. pressur (dashed)

The modification of follower depth can be performed at different locations as explained previously. Figure 9 shows the
effect of this location (𝐿) on the maximum pressure at the position 𝐿 = 0 for the case of linear form of chamfer. The
minimum film thickness is not shown in this figure as metal to metal contact (zero min. film) results in all the cases
under consideration for the results shown in this figure. In general, a closer modification to the edge of the follower
causes a significant rise in the pressure values. The location of modification has less effect when 𝐿 ≥ 0.3.
p / Gpa

Figure 9 Effect of chamfer location,𝐿, on max. pressure

27
 Conclusions

The contact problem between the cam and modified follower has been investigated based on point contact model. Two
forms of follower modification are considered as linear and second order curve. The height and the chamfer locations
are considered in the analyses. The EHL results reveal that the form, height and location of chamfer have considerable
effects on the performance of the cam and follower system from the lubrication point of view. These effects are mainly
related to the discontinuity in the slope at the start of chamfer when the linear modification is considered. In the case of
linear chamfer, a breakdown in the film thickness has occurred accompanied with sharp pressure spikes. Introducing a
second order curve as an alternative form of modification, which has zero slope at the start of the modification, reduces
the pressure values enormously and allows the flow of a layer of lubricant between the surfaces.

References
[1] Harold A. Rothbart (2004) “Cam DesignHandbook” McGRAW-HILL

[2] Dyson, A., Naylor H. (1960). “Application of the Flash Temperature Concept to Cam Tappet Wear Problem”, I.
Mech. E., Proc. Auto Div. No. 8, pp. 225-280.

[3] Muller R (1966). “The Effect of Lubrication on Cam and Tappet Performance”, Motor Tech Z, Vol. 27, Pt2, pp. 58-
61, MIRA Translation, No 27/66.

[4] Dyson, A. (1980). “Kinematics and Wear Patterns of Cam and Follower Automotive Valve Gear”, Tribology
International, June 1980 pp. 121-132.

[5] Bair, S., Griffioen, J. A., Winer, W.O. (1985). “The Tribological Behavior of an Automotive Cam and Flat Lifter
System”, Trans. A. S. M. E. J. Trib., vol. 108 No. 3, pp. 478-486.

[6] Ball, A. D. (1988). “A Tribological Study of the Design and Performance of Automotive Cams”,Ph. D Thesis,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds.

[7] Taylor C. M. (1993). “Valve Train - Cam and Follower: Background and Lubrication Analysis”, Tribology Series,
vol. 26, 1993, pp. 159-181.

[8] Ciulli E., Fazzolari F., Piccigallo B. (2014). Experimental study on circular eccentriccam–follower pairs”, Proc
IMechE Part J:J Engineering Tribology, 2014, Vol. 228(10), pp. 1088–1098.

[9] Wu W., Wang J., Venner C. H., (2016). “Thermal ElastohydrodynamicLubrication of an OptimizedCam–Tappet
Pair in SmoothContact”, A.S.M.E. Journal of Tribology, vol 138, pp. 021501-(1-14).

[10] Harrison P., (1985). “A Study of Lubrication of Automotive Cams”, Ph. D Thesis, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Leeds.

[11] Ramsey Gohar, Homer Rahnejat, (2012). Fundamentals of Tribology, 2nd edition, imperial college press.

[12] Roelands, C., (1966). Correlational aspects of the viscosity-temperature-pressure relationships of lubricating oils.
PhD thesis, Technical University Delft, The Netherlands.

[13] Johnson, K.L. and Tevarwerk, J.L. (1977). Shear Behaviour of EHL Oil Films. Proc. R. Soc. London, A.356, pp.
215–236

[14] P. M. Lugt & G. E. Morales-Espejel (2011) A Review of Elasto-Hydrodynamic Lubrication Theory, Tribology
Transactions, 54:3, 470-496.

[15] Dowson, D. and Higginson, G.R., (1966). Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication. Pergamon, Oxford.

[16] Johnson K.L., (1985). Contact Mechanics.Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

28
 Stressed State of Functionally Graded Elastic Solids Involved in Heavily
Loaded Lubricated Contacts

Ilya I. Kudish1, Andrey S. Vasiliev2, Sergey S. Volkov2, Sergey M. Aizikovich3

1. Professor of Mathematics, ASME Fellow, Department of Mathematics, Kettering

University, Flint, MI, USA

2. Research Fellows, National Research Lobachevsky State University of

Nizhni Novgorod, Nizhni Novgorod, Russia

3. Head of Laboratory, Don State Technical University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia

In [1, 2] it was shown that functionally graded coatings may significantly alter lubrication film
thickness, contact pressure and friction stress distributions. It was shown that for coatings softer
than the substrate the lubrication film thickness and frictional force is higher while for coatings
harder than the substrate the lubrication film thickness and frictional force is lower compared to the
case of no coating. One of the questions left not addressed is how the elastic properties of coatings
and substrates affect subsurface stress distribution. It was shown that in heavily loaded contacts the
presence of lubricant changes contact pressure and subsurface stresses only in small inlet and exit
zones and adjacent to them small areas [1,2]. The principal stresses and displacements vary within a
coating depending on whether the coating elastic parameters are constant or vary with depth.
Depending on the functional dependence of the Young's modulus it is possible to reduce or increase
the concentration of the principal stresses near the coating surface and the interface of the coating
and the substrate. Therefore, using the appropriate/optimal selection of elastic properties of the
coating and substrate it is possible to affect a contact tribological properties and to increase its
fatigue life without delamination [3].
To simplify the analysis only subsurface stresses for dry contacts will be considered. The
subsurface stress behavior in heavily loaded lubricated contacts is qualitatively and quantitatively
close to the one for the corresponding dry contact. To do this analysis for a dry contact the
expressions for subsurface stresses were derived in terms of certain integrals of pressure and
frictional stress distributions. The latter were determined using a semi-analytical and asymptotic
methods [1, 2]. The distributions of subsurface stresses were determined numerically and analyzed

29
for various functional dependences of the coating and substrate elastic parameters as well as other
problem input parameters. Certain peculiar subsurface stress behavior in the zones near the contact
boundary has been observed.

1. Problem Formulation for an Axisymmetric Dry Contact

Let us consider an indentation of a rigid spherical punch of radius R into a functionally
graded coating of an elastic half-space. The coordinate system (ρ,φ,z) is introduced in such a way
that the origin is located at the point of the initial contact of the punch with the half-space while the
z-axis is directed up through the spherical punch center. The (,) plane coincides with the plane
z  0. The punch is subjected to a vertical force P through its center which causes the punch
vertical displacement δ0.
The shape of the spherical punch is approximated by an axisymmetric paraboloid. The
displacement of the punch is described by the relationship
2
w  0  , 0   a . (1)
2R
Let the functionally graded coating thickness be H and its elastic parameters depend on the
material depth z as follows

{E (z) , (z)},  H  z  0;
(с) (с)
{E,}   (s) (s) , (2)
{E , }  const,    z  H
  
where E (z) and ν (z) are arbitrary continuously differentiable or piecewise constant positive
(c) (c)

functions. Here and further index (c) corresponds to the parameters associated with the coating while
(s)
index corresponds to the parameters associated with the substrate. At the interface we have the
following conditions of continuity:
{ z , z , w,u} { z , z , w,u} .
z H 0 z H 0

We will consider the half-space surface outside of the contact region free of stresses. Also, we will
assume that there is no friction between the punch and the half-space surface and the normal stress
outside the contact region is zero. Then the boundary conditions have the form
z  0 : z 0  0, z a  0. (3)
The solution of this problem is the normal stress  z at the half-space boundary z=0, i.e.

 z z0   p0 (),   a,
where p0 () is the contact pressure while a is the contact radius.
The linear constitutive equations are as follows

30
 u u w
  2(z)  (z)θ,   2(z)  (z)θ,   2(z)  (z)θ,




z
z
 u w  u u w (4)
z  (z)  , θ    z.
z 
 

    
E E
where   and   are the Lame elastic parameters.
1 1 21 



2 

2. Derivation of the Integral Equation

To reduce the formulated problem to an integral equation we will use the Hankel transform
  
w(, z)   W (, z) J 0 ()d, u(, z)    U (, z) J1 ()d, p0 ()   P0 () J 0 ()d. (5)
0 0 0
Let us introduce dimensionless parameters and variables associated with the Hertzian
contact of our rigid punch of radius R with an elastic half-space made of the material with the
effective elastic modulus E′(0) of the coating surface material as follows
1 p0 0
{c , c , ac ,  c }  {, , a, H}, p0c  , c  (6)
aHc pHc Hc
 3P 
  3PR 1/ 3 , p 
a ,  aHc2 (7)
Hc  4E (0)  Hc 2 

2a


Hc
R
  Hc

where E  E (1 2 ) is the effective elastic modulus of the coated half-space, aHc, pHc and δHc are
the radius, maximum Hertzian pressure and punch displacement in such a contact.
Therefore, we obtain dual integral equation of the problem
  c    c   2

 P0c ()L  J 0  
d  2   ,   a ,

c c c c
 a 
a
0
  
8ac
c c c c
c  c 
  (8)

 c  


 P0c () J 0   d  0, c  ac ,

 
0  a c 
 where L()  W ( H ,0), P ()  p (a ) J ()d , W * ,U * (, z)   E(0) W ,U (, z)  .
* 1
0c  0c c 0  
  2 P0 ()
0

Function L(γ) is determined numerically by solving the initial-value problem for a system of
ordinary differential equations with variable coefficients [5]. In case of piecewise constant elastic
parameters of the coating the calculation of function L( ) is reduced to solution of a system of
linear algebraic equations.
To determine the radius of the contact region it is necessary to use an additional condition
following from the continuity of the contact stress at the contact boundary
p0с (a0с )  0. (9)

31
3. Solution of the Integral Equation

32
 To solve the problem formulated above we will employ the bilateral asymptotic method [4]
which will produce the following approximate solution for the case of a contact of two elastic solids
  a c 2c  sin   cos   sin 
P ()   c
  E  a 
 

0c
  
0 c
 2a c
3
2 ac
 (10)
  sin   a A tanh(A  a1 ) cos  
 N
c c i c c  N  
i 0 i i

, E  ( A 2 B
2

 
i
C ),


i1  i1
Ai  2  A i 2c a 2c
2


where   E (s) (c)
E (0) and constants Ci are determined from the solution of the following system
of linear algebraic equations
N  B  A tanh(A 1a )  tanh(A 1a )  1 a 1 (B a   ) 
 c   k c

c c
C i k i i c c
 c
2 
icc
   . (11)
 A (B  A )
2 2
 


2 2
i1 aBA B 3 3a a B
 i k i cki  k c  c c k 
Here we used following approximation for the kernel transform L(γ):
L()  L ()  N (  A ) (  B ),
2 2 2 2
(12)
N  i i
i1
The calculation of the coefficients Ai, Bi is described in [6] where N is a positive integer
characterizing the degree of the approximation. The methodology of the calculations can be found
in [6,7]. By inverting function P0c(γ) using the Hankel transform we obtain the contact pressure
   a2  2 2 E  A a   
N  
p0c (c )    a 2  2  c c c 0
 ac  CA c
 Z  i c c , ac  , (13)
c c 2 2 i1 i c
ac  c2
 i ac  c
2 2


1  1 sinh( At)dt
 
cosh( A)  t 2  2
Z A,   (14)

The displacement δc is determined by the formula

ac2 N
С  A a 
 22  i tanh i c  .
2
   22 E  (15)
 
 c 
c c0
3 3ac c A2
i1 i
Formulas (11)-(15) describe the solution of the problem with fixed contact boundary. This
problem we will call Problem  . The solution of this problem is unbounded at the contact
boundary c  ac . The solution of the problem with free boundary (Problem 0) can be obtained

from (13) and (15) by employing the equation for the radius a0c following from (9):
N
Ci   c  Ai a0c   1
a0c  3c   tanh  1  0 (16)
2

i1   c   a0c
Ai  Ai a0c
Using (16) in formulas (13) and (15) we obtain the contact pressure for Problem 0 in the form
 N
 Ai a0c  
c

a0c2  c2  a
0c  Ci Z 
p0c (c )     ,  , (17)
a
33
 i1  c 
0c

c  a 0c2  22c E0  2c a0c  CAi

N
(18)
i1 i

34
  B tanh(A 1a )  A  B a  
N

C  k B 2i cA 20c i   k a 0cB2 c , k  1,2,...., N.

i (19)
i1  k i  0c k

The obtained formulas are asymptotically precise for λc→0 and λc→∞ [4]. For intermediate
values of λc the precision of the obtained results obviously depends on the precision of
approximation of functions (12). In the numerical results presented in this paper the approximation
error   sup LN (u) L(u) 1 100% is below 0.2%.
u0

4. Stressed State of the Coated Half-Space

Let us introduce following dimensionless definitions:
{ ,  z ,  , z } {w,u} z
{c c c  }  , {wc ,u c }  ,z  .
c
(20)
 , z ,  , z
Hc
0
pHc H
The dimensionless variables introduced in (7) and (20) are related to the coating material
properties. However, for practical purposes it is much more convenient to analyze the problem
solutions based on the dimensionless variables introduced in the way related to the properties of the
substrate material. That can be easily done based on the following formulas
2 2 1
{s , s , p }  {c , c , p } 3 , {u s , ws }  {uc , wc } 3 ,{a , a ,  , }  {a , a ,  , }3 (21)
i z 0s i z 0c s 0s s s c 0c c c

Using the above formulas2 we can obtain:

4a 4a 2
   s
   s
   
0s 0s
u , z0 I1 , z0 , w , z0 I3 , z0 , (22)
 
s s s s

 I1 a0s  s  a0s 
s


   2a0s  2 0s   0s I 6  2a0s  0s  0s I 4  , z  2a0s  0s   (23)

I 2  I5 
  s  s  s 
s
 I1  a0s  s  a0s 
 

  2a0s  2a0s  0s   0s  I 6   I 4  ,  z  2a0s   0s I 6  2 0s   0s  I 4 ,

 


 (24)

  s   
 s  s

where    s
  
s  
U 0   s  * 
s 
*
 

I 1  s , z 0    U 0   d, I  , z  


a
, z0 P () J1 
a 
2 s 0  z  a , z0 P () J1  a d,
0  0s   0s  0 0  0s   0s 
   s  *   
s

W0   s  *   
s
 

I 3  s , z 0    W0  , z0 P () J 0   d, I 4  s , z 0   



 , z0 P () J0  d, (25)

a a  z a a 
0  0s   0s  0 0  0s   0s 
   s  *   
s
   s  *
  
s
 

I 5  s , z 0    W0   d, I  , z   U 


a
, z0 P () J1 
a 
6 s 0  0 a , z0 P () J 0 a d
 0  0s   0s  0  0s   0s 
and
  s  * *   s  * P0c () {, }(z0 H )



0 0
{U , W
35
 } , z0   {U ,W } , z 0 H , P ()  ,{, }0s (z 0 )  (26)
 a 0s   0s
a H  a0c E  (s)
where functions U0 and W0 are the solutions of a certain initial-value problem for a system of
ordinary differential equations [6,7].

36
 5. Numerical results and discussion

Let us consider a specific case of the stressed state of the coating/substrate system with
E(c)=2E0, E(s)=E0, ν(c)=ν(s)=0.3. In this case the “softness” parameter β characterizing the “softness”
of the substrate compared to the coating is 0.5. Let us assume that λs=0.0488 which corresponds to a
sufficiently thin coating. The graphs of displacements and subsurface stresses are presented in Fig.
1-3 as functions of ρs and z0. Fig. 4 and 5 represent the graphs of the principal stresses which are
determined by the formulas
1
I ,III          4 , II   (27)
2 
 z
rz

This kind of graphs reveal the behavior of the subsurface stresses in a coated half-space and,
specifically, these graphs show the stress concentration zones most subjected to failure. The coating
thickness and the dependence of the coating material elastic parameters on the depth below the
surface significantly affect the subsurface stress behavior in the zones of stress concentration [3]. It
is clear from the figures that all stresses are compressive everywhere. Also, the figures show that
the material displacements as well as all stresses possess zones of relatively high gradients located
in the vicinity of the contact boundary. The same is true about the principal stresses. It is interesting
to notice that the distributions of the tangential displacement us (see Fig. 1) as well as the principal

stress  Is (see Fig. 4) possess zones of significant displacement and stress concentrations located in

the coating and substrate close to the point (s , z0 )  (1,s ) which, in turn, is close to the contact
boundary point (1, 0) . The zones adjacent to these points are most vulnerable to fatigue damage.
Therefore, by varying the values of the coating/substrate system elastic parameters as well
as the loading parameters it is possible to redistribute the subsurface stresses and to reduce the risk
of the coated material failure in the subsurface stress concentration zones.

37
 Fig. 1. Displacement distributions

Fig. 2. Distributions of normal stresses σzs and σρs

Fig. 3. Distributions of normal and tangential stresses σφs and τρzs

38
 Fig. 4. Distributions of principal stresses σIs and σIIs

Fig. 5. Distribution of the principal stresses σIIIs

Acknowledgement
This research was supported by the Russian Science Foundation (RSF) through grant no. 15-19-10056.

Bibliography
1. Kudish, I.I., Volkov, S.S., Vasiliev, A.S., and Aizikovich, S.M., 2016. Some Criteria for Coating Effectiveness in
Heavily Loaded Line EHL Contacts. Part 1. Dry Contacts, ASME J. Trib., Vol. 138, 021504-1-021504-10.
2. Kudish, I.I., Volkov, S.S., Vasiliev, A.S., and Aizikovich, S.M., 2016. Some Criteria for Coating Effectiveness in
Heavily Loaded Line EHL Contacts. Part 2. Lubricated Contacts, ASME J. Trib., Vol. 138, 021505-1-021505-11.
3. Volkov, S.S., Vasiliev, A.S., Aizikovich, S.M., Seleznev, N.M., and Leontieva, A.V., 2016. Stress-Strain State of
an Elastic Soft Functionally-Graded Coating Subjected to Indentation by a Spherical Punch. PNRPU Mechanics
Bulletin. No. 4., pp. 20-34, DOI: 10.15593/perm.mech/2016.4.02.
4. Aizikovich, S.M. (1990), “An asymptotic solution of a class of coupled equations. Journal of Applied Mathematics
and Mechanics”, 54(5), 719–724.

39
5. Vasiliev, A.S., Volkov, S.S., Belov, A.A., Litvinchuk, S.Yu., Aizikovich, S.M., 2017b. Indentation of a hard
transversely isotropic functionally graded coating by a conical indenter. Int. J. Eng. Sci. 112, 63–75.
6. Aizikovich, S.M., Vasiliev, A.S., 2013. A bilateral asymptotic method of solving the integral equation of the
contact problem for the torsion of an elastic half-space inhomogeneous in depth. J. Appl. Math. Mech., 77, 91-97.
7. Kudish I.I., Volkov S.S., Vasiliev A.S. and Aizikovich S.M. (2017b), “Lubricated Point Heavily Loaded Contacts
of Functionally Graded Materials. Part 1. Dry Contacts”, Math. Mech. Solids, doi: 10.1177/1081286517704689.

40
 Dispersion of Graphene in Various Bio-Based Lubricant and Its Effect on
Tribological Properties

NWM Zulkifli, MH Harith, HH Masjuki, TM Ibrahim, AZ Syahir, MNAM Yusoff, ZM

Zulfattah, and NA Zainal
Centre for Energy Science, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya,
50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
[email protected]

Fossil fuel reserves are depleting at an alarming rate and the constant usage of these
conventional oil is usually associated with health and environmental issues. Therefore, there is a need
to search for alternatives to these conventional oils that is more user and environmental friendly. Bio-
based lubricant particularly modified vegetable oil such as trimethyolpropane (TMP) ester,
neopentylglycol (NPG) ester and pentaerythritol (PE) ester are suitable candidate to replace
conventional base oil. However, their tribological properties still need to improve on. Graphene is a 2-
dimensional carbon allotrope that can be used to improve the tribological properties of bio-based oil.
There are many study that uses graphene as lubricant additive but there is limited knowledge on the
usage of graphene in bio-based oil. This study aims to investigate the dispersion of graphene on
various bio-based oil with different chemical structure and its effect on its tribological performance.
Graphene have been dispersed in 3 bio-based oil which are TMP ester, NPG ester and PE ester
at two different concentration (0.01wt% and 0.05wt%). The dispersion is done by using magnetic
stirrer for 2 hours at 700rpm. The physicochemical properties of each sample are measured according
to ASTM D445 using Starbinger Viscometer. The tribological test is carried out according to ASTM
D4172 for all sample. Sedimentation have been observed at 1 week, 2 week and 1 months after the
dispersion. The best and the worst sample in term of dispersion have undergo tribological test to study
the effect of dispersion.
The difference between all bio-based sample is the amount of oleate chain present in the
chemical structure. Stable dispersion has been observed after 24 hours for every sample. Minimal
change in the physicochemical properties after the addition of graphene in the bio-based lubricant. In
term of friction reducing properties, only PE ester improved after addition of graphene while NPG
ester performance deteriorate. However, graphene is able to decrease the wear for most of the sample.
The graphene dispersion for both concentration can be observed by this sequence PE>TMP>NPG
which also indicates the amount of oleate chain can affect the graphene dispersion.

Keyword: bio-based lubricant, graphene, additive, dispersion, friction and wear.

41
 Tribological Behavior of Soybean Oil with Nano Carbon as Additive

George Catalin Cristea1, Lorena Deleanu1, Cosmin Dima1 and Constantin Georgescu1
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, “Dunarea de Jos” University, Galati, Romania
[email protected]

The paper presents experimental data on tribological behavior of soybean oil additivated with
nano carbon, an additive included in the group of anti-wear additives and friction modifiers [2], [3],
reducing friction by one or both of two mechanisms: an adsorbed film and friction with the third body.
The lubricants based on soybean oil [1] are formulated by sonicating the vegetal oil with the 1:1
mix of additive and dispersant agent, guaiacol, supplied by Fluka Chemica with the chemical formula
C6H4 (OH) OCH3. Tests were done on a four ball machine, assisted by a computer in order to monitor
the friction, load on the machine axle and time. The test parameters were load 100 N, 200 N and 300
N (± 5%), sliding speed of 0.38 m/s, 0.53 m/s and 0.69 m/s, test time 60 minutes (± 1%). The
concentration of additive in the formulated lubricants is 0.25%, 0.50% and 1% (wt), respectively. The
nano amorphous carbon [supplied by PlasmaChem] has the average particle size ~ 13 nm.
Results point out that additivated lubricants exhibit a trend for improving the tribological
behavior only for high load (200...300 N) and speed as compared to the neat soybean oil.

Keywords: soybean oil, nano carbon, four ball test, wear rate, friction coefficient

REFERENCES
[1] S.Z. Erhan, Industrial Uses of Vegetable Oils, Peoria, Illinois, AOCS Press, 2005.
[2] Y.Y. Wu, W.C. Tsui and T.C. Liu, “Experimental analysis of tribological properties of lubricating oils with
nanoparticle additives”, Wear, vol. 262, pp. 819-825, 2007.
[3] Z. Tang and S. Li, “A review of recent developments of friction modifiers for liquid lubricants (2007–
present)”, Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science, vol. 18, pp. 119–139, 2014.

42
 Tribological Performance of PEEK with Green Lubricant Enhanced by
Nano Hexagonal Boron Nitride Powder

Binnur Sagbas
1 Mechanical Engineering Department, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected],

Polyether-ether-ketone (PEEK) is one of the high temperature engineering polymer that has high
strength, high fracture toughness, high wear and corrosion resistance and noise reduction properties.
Because of its superior properties PEEK is widely used as rings, gears and roller bearing cages.
However it presents high friction coefficient under dry sliding condition.
For protecting environment and providing sustainable tribology and manufacturing
applications, the current interest focused on the development and use of green lubricants. These
lubricants can be in the form of solid, liquid and gaseous. Vegetable oils have higher lubricity, lower
volatility, higher viscosity index and shear stability. For increasing the performance of the lubricant
different types of solid lubricant powders such as molybdenum sulfide (MoS2), tungsten sulfide (WS2),
boric acid (H3BO3) and hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) have been used as additives.
In this study tiribological performance of PEEK against the DIN2080 tool steel is investigated
with green lubricant. The tests were carried out with reciprocal tribotester. Coconut oil was used as
lubricant and hexagonal boron nitride nano powder was used as additive. PEEK worn surfaces were
inspected by digital optical microscope. The results showed that vegetable oil is promising lubricant
for sustainable manufacturing.

Keywords: Green tribology, green lubricant, PEEK, hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), green
manufacturing

REFERENCES

[1] Wang, S. Yan, Bin Lin, X. Zhang, X. Zhou, " Aqueous lubrication and surface microstructures of
engineering polymer materials (PEEK and PI) when sliding against Si3N4 ", Friction 5(4) pp.414–428
2017.
[2] G. Karmakar, P. Ghosh and B. K. Sharma, "Chemically Modifying Vegetable Oils to Prepare Green
Lubricants ", Lubricants, 5, 44, pp.1-17 2017.
[3] Shih-Chen Shi, " Tribological Performance of Green Lubricant Enhanced by Sulfidation IF-MoS2 ",
Materials vol. 9, 856 pp.1-12 2016.
[4] M. Nosonovsky, B. Bhushan, Green Tribology, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, 368,
4677–4694 2010.
[5] M. R. Lovell, M. A. Kabir, P. L. Menezes and C. F. Higgs, "Influence of boric acid additive size on
green lubricant performance", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, 368, 4851–4868
2010.

43
 Numerical Investigation Of Adiabatic Thermo-Tribological Performance
Of Piston Skirt–Liner Lubrication At High Engine Speeds

Yasir Hamid1, Ali Usman2, I.S.S. Ghumman1, S. Kamran Afaq1

1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, HITEC University, Taxila Cantt, 47070, Pakistan

2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Wah Cantt,

47040, Pakistan

Abstract: Lubricant oil film axial and lateral dynamics significantly influence the fuel
consumption, engine noise, and frictional losses. Oil film temperature rises due to adiabatic
shearing of low viscosity lubricant oils, thus, significantly affecting the tribological
performance-parameters of the interface. A mixed lubrication model for piston skirt
lubrication is developed while considering adiabatic heating. 2D Reynolds equation is
coupled with energy equation and dynamics of the piston in axial and lateral direction. This
coupled model is numerically solved to analyse the effect of piston skirt design parameters on
piston dynamics and lubrication performance. Results show that adiabatic heating of the oil
film substantially affects the piston secondary motion and lubrication performance.

Keywords: Adiabatic heating, mixed lubrication, piston skirt-liner, oil film temperature.

1. Introduction

Unproductive lubricant oil film thickness due to adiabatic heating and combustion gas
temperature is major source of piston wear and frictional losses during the operating engine
cycle at high engine speed [1]. During the operating cycle high combustion gas temperature
produces significant amount of heat, which is convected to the cylinder liner, where the heat
elimination system removes some of the heat. Residual heat flows downward from mono
piston crown to piston ring packs and then to the lubricating oil film. Due to these heats,
temperature of the lubricant oil film remains elevated which significantly affect the non-linear
piston lateral motion, minimum oil film thickness, oil film pressure and oil film viscosity [2] .
Decrease in oil film viscosity at elevated oil film temperature due to adiabatic heating

44
 affectedly increases the oil leakage and increases the ability of dissipating heat but
significantly decreases the oil film pressure and thermo-elastic deformation [3]. Adiabatic
heating and the asperity interaction is major source of 3% friction losses in cylinder liner and
piston skirt and 4% friction losses in piston ring packs [4]. In mixed lubrication regime, the
dominating part of friction generation is due to the shearing of the fluid and the corresponding
adiabatic heating. So it can be generally assumed by reducing viscosity of lubricant would
modify the efficiency of engine at the expense of reducing load carrying capacity of oil film
[5].
In this study a thermo-hydrodynamic (THD) lubrication model for incompressible
Newtonian lubricant with constant specific heat, thermal conductivity is solved numerical
using Finite difference formulation for mixed lubrication regime. A set of linear algebraic
equation solved iterative using successive over relaxation (SOR) scheme. In piston dynamic
model second order non-linear stiff piston eccentricities ODEs are solved using Modified
Newton Raphson method. Furthermore piston skirt design parameters effect have been
analysed on piston dynamic and lubrication performance.

2. Mathematical Modelling

A. Piston Dynamics Governing Equations

The piston reciprocating motion along the cylinder axis as a function of crank angle θ is
considered using slider-crank mechanism analysis as shown in figure (1a). The planes normal
to the gudgen pin are taken as the thrust side (TS) and anti-thrust side (ATS). Nonlinear piston
motion, defined by et and eb produces due to the unbalance forces and moments [6]. All the
forces and moments acting on the piston in a vertical and normal plane are shown in figure
(1d). By applying equilibrium of forces and moments using figure (1d), the system governing
equation is given as [6-7].

  Dswp   Dsp   Dswp   Dsp  


   I  S

 P 1   P 1
cp  L 

Pm L  P   tan  N 
 m  L   cp L    et   sf frk sf 
  skt   skt   skt   skt     (1)

J
  M
  
M M 

 Dsp   Dsp  J  e   Isf Sfrk Nsf 

 Pis
 Pcp (Dswp  Dsp)1  Pcp (Dswp  Dsp)  Pis   b   
L  L  L  L 
 skt  skt   skt  skt 
Solving equation (7) will provide the nonlinear piston eccentricities, and their rate of change.

45
 B. Oil Film Hydrodynamic Pressure Distribution

Using comprehensive simplifying assumptions described by Dowson and Pinkus for a

Newtonian and laminar flow regime the Reynold’s equation between two interacting smooth
surfaces with time dependent squeeze effect is given as [9]:

Fig. 1. Power Cylinder System (a) Piston-Connecting Rod Mechanism (b) Bearing Surface (c)
Geometric Interpretation (d) Force Acting over Piston

 u  u h 
  h3 Ph    h Ph
 3   h 
a b (2)
    
        2 y  t 
  
  

x 12 x  y 12 x     
     


This 2D Reynold’s equation describes the oil film pressure distribution between the piston
skirt and cylinder and corresponding hydrodynamic reaction forces acting on the piston. The
lubricant oil film thickness between two interacting smooth surfaces can be approximated as
[11].

h(, y)  Cps  et 
y
ebet cos h , y  d , y,t (3)
Lskt skt

Where the piston skirt profile and the elastic and thermal deformation of the piston skirt for
the current analysis are neglected.

C. Contact Pressure

If ratio of local mean film thickness to surface waviness is h < 4.0, then the effect of
σ

solid-solid contact in a mixed lubrication regime, a contact pressure can be calculated using
relation described for cast iron liner and alloy piston made up of aluminium [11-12].

46
 Hydrodynamic oil film pressure distribution is numerically simulated using zero pressure
boundary conditions [13].

D. Oil Film Temperature Distribution (Adiabatic Heating)

In this current research work it is assumed that the heat generated due to adiabatic heating
within the oil film lubricant is completely taken away by the fluid and variation of
temperature in the direction of oil film thickness is neglected. The generalized form of energy
equation is given as [14].

 T  Dp 
 f  
 D c T    (4)
  . K f T  
Dt   T Dt
A more realistic Rolelands equation is used to which is complicated then Barus equation but
more realistic [12]:

  expln  9.67   1.1

    (5)

 T 1 
o  o  T 138  
 o   
   
138


3. Numerical Procedure

Second order stiff ODE’s of piston dynamic model are solved using Modified Newton
Raphson Method as a replacement for integrating it. A set of linear algebraic equations are
solved using successive over relaxation (SOR) scheme with β is equal to 1.5. Aforementioned
governing equations are solved to meet the equilibrium condition with the convergence
criterion of 10-5 order. After the convergence criteria has been full filled tribological
performance parameters are evaluated. Simulated gas pressure forces in figure. 3 shows that
maximum pressure force is obtained at 380 degree CA.

4. Numerical Simulation Results and Discussion

The numerical simulation is conducted for rigid liner and piston. The presented results are
obtained for four stroke gasoline spark ignition engine with aluminium ringless mono piston
and cast iron cylinder liner, running at 6000 rpm.

Figure (4) shows the minimum oil film thickness (MOFT) and peak oil film pressure of
lubricant between mono piston skirt and the cylinder liner at 6000rpm. From the figure (4) it
can be observed that maximum peak oil film pressure, 70MPa is obtained at 380oCA.
Presented results shows that with the increase of nonlinear piston eccentricities and decrease

47
of lubricant oil film thickness, hydrodynamic oil film pressure increases and it has a strong
relationship with the oil film thickness.

Fig. 3. Cylinder Gas Pressure Force at Fig. 4. Peak Oil Pressure and Minimum
Different Engine Speeds Oil Film Thickness

Figure (5) represents the nonlinear hydrodynamic oil film pressure, temperature, contact and
shear stress distribution over the whole piston skirt region at a crank angle of 380oCA.
Accessible results shows that minimum oil film thickness is observed at position A. As the
minimum oil film thickness is not as much of the threshold limit of 4σ, the contact pressure
due to asperities is given in figure (5c), maximum value of contact pressure and shear stress is
observed to be 4500Pa and 6678Pa at a crank angle of 380oCA with maximum eccentricities
and minimum film thickness. Maximum value of hydrodynamic oil film pressure and oil film
temperature over whole piston skirt region in mixed lubrication regime is obtained to be
70MPa and 370K.

Fig. 5. Non-Linear Distribution at 380 oCA (a) Pressure Distribution (b) Temperature
Distribution (c) Contact Pressure Distribution (d) Shear Stress Distribution

48
Conclusion
In the current analysis an adiabatic heating THD lubrication model is coupled with the piston
dynamic model and nonlinear piston lateral displacement, viscosity, peak oil film pressure
and temperature is computed for a mixed lubrication regime. Results shows that lubricant oil
film temperature rise significantly influences the lubricant oil film viscosity, which
correspondingly decreases the load carrying capacity of the lubricant oil film. Reduction in
load carrying capacity significantly enhances the nonlinear piston lateral displacement and
chance of physical contact between piston skirt and cylinder liner. When the minimum oil
film thickness is less than the threshold limit 4σ, then the asperity contact pressure is
computed, which enhances the normal side force acting on the friction force between the
piston skirt and cylinder liner.

Acknowledgement
The authors are in debt to Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan for supporting
this study by providing financial support.
References

[1] S. Wang, C. Cusano, and T. F. Conry, "Thermal Analysis of Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication of Line
Contacts Using the Ree-Eyring Fluid Model," Journal of Tribology, vol. 113, p. 232, 1991.
[2] Y. Peiran and W. Shizhu, "A Generalized Reynolds Equation for Non-Newtonian Thermal
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication," Journal of Tribology, vol. 112, pp. 631-636, 1990.
[3] J. Wang, N. Wang, P. Yang, M. Kaneta, and A. A. Lubrecht, "A theoretical simulation of thermal
elastohydrodynamic lubrication for a Newtonian fluid in impact motion," Tribology International, vol.
67, pp. 116-123, 2013/11/01/ 2013.
[4] S. A. Qasim, M. Afzaal Malik, M. Ali Khan, and R. A. Mufti, "Low viscosity shear heating in piston
skirts EHL in the low initial engine start up speeds," Tribology International, vol. 44, pp. 1134-1143,
2011/09/01/ 2011.
[5] D. K. W. Leong, P. J. Shayler, I. G. Pegg, and M. Murphy, "Characterizing the effect of viscosity on
friction in the piston assembly of internal combustion engines," Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, Part J: Journal of Engineering Tribology, vol. 221, pp. 469-478, 2007/04/01
2007.
[6] D. F. Li, S. M. Rohde, and H. A. Ezzat, "An Automotive Piston Lubrication Model," A S L E
Transactions, vol. 26, pp. 151-160, 2008.
[7] D. Zhu, H. S. Cheng, T. Arai, and K. Hamai, "A Numerical Analysis for Piston Skirts in Mixed
Lubrication—Part I: Basic Modeling," Journal of Tribology, vol. 114, pp. 553-562, 1992.
[8] T. J. Kim, "Numerical analysis of the piston secondary dynamics in reciprocating compressors," KSME
International Journal, vol. 17, pp. 350-356, March 01 2003.
[9] J. Jiin-Yuh and C. Chong-Ching, "Adiabatic analysis of finite width journal bearings with non-
newtonian lubricants," Wear, vol. 122, pp. 63-75, 1988/02/15/ 1988.
[10] X. Meng and Y. Xie, "A new numerical analysis for piston skirt–liner system lubrication considering
the effects of connecting rod inertia," Tribology International, vol. 47, pp. 235-243, 2012/03/01/ 2012.
[11] X. Meng and Y. Xie, "Numerical Study of Piston Skirt-Liner Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication and
Contact by the Multigrid Method," pp. 929-936, 2010.
[12] B. Zhao, X.-D. Dai, Z.-N. Zhang, and Y.-B. Xie, "A new numerical method for piston dynamics and
lubrication analysis," Tribology International, vol. 94, pp. 395-408, 2016/02/01/ 2016.
[13] X. Zhang and C. Gui, An Intelligent System for Tribological Design in Engines: Elsevier, 2004.

49
 THERMAL STRESS ANALYSIS AND MATHEMATICAL APPLICATIONS IN
ENGINE PISTON WITH CERAMIC COATING
1
İsmail AK, 2Bahattin İŞCAN

1
Batman University, Mechanical Engineering Department, Batman, Turkey, 72060,
2
Department of Mechanics, Vocational School of Higher Education, Batman University,
Batman 72060, Turkey, e-mail: [email protected].

Abstract

The volume of the engine parts, type of mounting and the size of the radiator are determined in the

light of thermal losses in engine. When considering the cylinder inside the engine block, instantaneous

thermal conditions are important to be controlled in terms of heat loss and thermal efficiency. In

today's industry, different surface coating are used in various areas. Another field of widely used

surface coating we experience frequently are the applications of the parts of the engine surface

coatings. Applications of coating on engine parts are generally applied on combustion chamber parts.

Because they have an important role on preserving working systems under the circumstances of

wearing, friction, high pressure and thermal stress, the components applied on surface coating are

preferred. It is also of importance for engine efficiency for they are more resistant to such effects. In

this study, the surface of a pistol in an internal combustion (diesel) engine was coated with the binding

materials of NiCoCrAlY with 150µ. This coating was then coated with 500u and ZrO2 to investigate

the effect coatings on the performance of the engine and the pistol longevity. It has been found that

this technique reduces heat transmission and bringing the piston deformation to a minimum level

which extends piston longevity.

Keywords: Ceramic-Covered Engine, Internal Siege Engine, Thermal Analysis

50
Engine operation and thermal stress in a ceramic coated LHR diesel engine

Bahattin İŞCAN* Hüseyin AYDIN

2
Batman University, Mechanical Engineering Department, Batman, Turkey, 72060, e-
mail:[email protected]
1
Department of Mechanics, Vocational School of Higher Education, Batman University,
Batman 72060, Turkey, e-mail: [email protected].

Abstract

Performance, thermal stress and surface cracks in ceramic coated diesel engines was

experimentally investigated. Petroleum diesel fuel was used in both coated and uncoated

diesel engines. The surfaces of the engine piston and both intake and exhaust valves was

coated with ZrO layer in order to make the combustion chamber insulated. Thus heat transfer

through the combustion chamber was aimed to be reduced with the purpose of increasing the

thermal efficiency and performance of the engine. Performance parameters and exhaust

emissions characteristics of the engine were found and compared with uncoated engine test

values of normal diesel fuel. It is believed that the main purpose of this study have been

achieved as the engine performance parameters such as power and torque of the engine were

increased with simultaneous decreases in the brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc). Besides,

many of exhaust emission parameters such as CO, HC, and smoke opacity were decreased by

making a coating layer in some of the surface of the engine parts inside the combustion

51
chamber. However, the surface of the piston was seen to have minor cracks only on the

coating layer surroundings of the edges of combustion chamber.

Keywords: LHR engine, Ceramic coating, Diesel engine

52
 EFFECT OF ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS ON TRİBOLOGY OF MICRO ARC OXIDATION
(MAO) COATINGS FORMED ON ALUMINUM

Mustafa Safa YILMAZ1*, Orhan SAHIN2

1)
Fatih Sultan Mehmet Vakif University, Aluminum Test and Training Center, Istanbul, Turkey
2)
Gebze Technical University, Department of Material Science and Engineering, Kocaeli, Turkey
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Aluminum and its alloys are fundamental to several industries. Micro Arc
Oxidation (MAO), is a technique which was developed to improve the qualities of Aluminum
and its alloys. MAO produces thick and hard alumina coatings which have a combination of
wear resistant, thermal resistant and corrosion resistant properties. The aim of this study
was to examine the effect of anodic-cathodic pulse couple durations and voltages on the
morphology of the coatings. To the find the pulse duration effect: duty cycle, anode voltage,
coating time, electrolyte temperature and electrolyte composition were kept constant.
Surface roughness measurements (Ra), coating thickness measurements and the X-Ray
Diffraction (XRD) techniques were carried out on the samples. It was found that an
increase in pulse energy increased the thickness of the coating, up to a maximum energy
level.
Keywords: Micro Arc Oxidation, aluminium, tribology, coating.

1. Introduction
In recent years aluminum and its alloys have been utilized in several industries due to their chemical and physical
properties. However, aluminum has drawbacks such as low wear resistance and hardness; these deficits have limited its
usage overall [1]. It’s known that there is a huge economical effect on the government to fix the friction and wear
damages on metals used in public. To control these costs; coating technologies and the selection of substrate materials
should be considered. Since coating technologies generally have more advantages, a technique called MAO was
deemed as the most appropriate for this study.

MAO is an electrochemical process that uses electrolytes and electrolysis to produce a hard, thick and corrosion-
resistant coating on aluminum and its alloys [2]. This technique offers better results with lightweight metals such as
magnesium, titanium, and aluminum; which are important metals for the automotive, electronics and aerospace
industries[1, 3]. MAO uses high anodic and cathodic voltages, which trigger micro discharges at the metal-electrolyte
interface. This induces high temperatures and pressures on the surface of the samples. In addition, rapid cooling by the
surrounding electrolyte affects coating morphology and phase composition [1, 4]. MAO forms hard and thick oxide
coatings that have excellent wear resistance, corrosion resistance and thermal resistance [1, 5, 6].

In this study, aluminum alloy substrates were coated using the MAO process using an alkaline silicate electrolyte.
Bipolar AC pulse generators were used. 4 different pulse couple durations and three different cathodic voltages were
chosen for the investigation. The aim was to find out the effect of pulse couple duration and the cathodic voltage on the
properties of the induced coat: such as roughness, thickness and phase distribution.

2. Materials and Methods

The MAO system has two high-frequency converters (HFC), which can work separately at negative (-12.5 kW) and
positive (12.5 kW) values of polarity. The coating thickness measurement was performed using a Fisher-Dualscope
MP40E-S which is based off the eddy-current principle. The surface roughness measurement was performed using a
Mitutoyo SJ-400 profilometer. XRD phase analyses were performed using a Brukers D8 (40 kW, 40 mA) with Cu Kα
radiation. The diffraction angle was varied between 30°- 90°, with a step increment of 0.02° and an accumulation time
of 1 second.

The substrate materials had a surface area of 4 cm2. All specimens were mechanically ground with 200-1200 mesh
emery papers and cleaned ultrasonically for 5 minutes in acetone. The elemental analysis of the aluminium substrates is
given in Table 1.

53
 Table 1 Results of spectral analysis of substrate.
Al Si Mg Cu Mn Fe Zn Sn Pb+V+Cr+B+Cd+Na+Ti+Ca+Bi
97.1 0.97 0.88 0.06 0.5 0.35 0.04 0.05 0.05

Some of the parameters were kept constant to see the affect of the voltage and pulse duration on the MAO
coatings. The constant parameters of the MAO process and their values are given in Table 2. The duty cycle calculations
were done with the equation in the given literature (8).

Table 2 Process parameters.

Parameters Value
Anode voltage 500 volts
Duty cycle 8%
Coating time 20 minutes
Electrolyte temperature 25±5°C
Electrolyte composition KOH (2 g/l), Na2SiO3.5H2O (9.5 g/l)

The electrical process parameters of MAO and the samples codes are given in Table 3. The total processing
energy (6 C) were kept constant and the electrical parameter optimizations were done.

Table 3 Process parameters.

ton (anode) ton (cathode) Sample code
400 300 SA-1
Va=500 Volt 800 800 SA-2
Vk=200 Volt 1300 1000 SA-3
2500 2000 SA-4
400 300 SB-1
Va=500 Volt 800 800 SB-2
Vk=300 Volt 1300 1000 SB-3
2500 2000 SB-4
400 300 SC-1
Va=500 Volt 800 800 SC-2
Vk=400 Volt 1300 1000 SC-3
2500 2000 SC-4

Due to the chemical reactions occuring in the electrolytes, they decomposed after 2 hours of running the
process. The electrolytes were reprepared after every 1-hour of coating. Before the coating process XRD analyses were
done on the substrate and so the result is given in Figure 1.

Figure 1 XRD results of the substrate material.

3. Results and Discussion

The coating thickness measurements are given by Figure 2. It was found that there were two affects of
54
changing the pulse duration; i) there was no change in the coating thickness by increasing in the pulse duration with 200
Vk of voltage, ii) the thickest coatings were detected with the medium-length pulse duration with 300 V k and 400 Vk.
The main effect of the voltage is that the thickness increased with the increasing applied cathodic voltage.

Figure 2 Coating thicknesses depend on cathodic voltage and pulse durations.

Coating roughness analysis results are given in Figure 3. In the literature, it was noted that the coating thickness,
surface roughness and the coating time were relevant to one another [7-9]. The results showed that the surface roughness
had the same overall regime as the coating thickness; roughness increased with increasing cathodic voltage and produced
the roughest surface with a medium-length pulse duration.

Although the SB3 and SC3 samples had the thickest coatings, their roughness’s weren’t the highest. This result was
due to single pulse energy differences; pulse energy provides more heat in the process and encourages stronger discharges
on the surface. This heat is necessary for the hard coating phase but, at the same time, it’s also detrimental for the coating.
The control of the energy of the parameter was the most important in MAO, as each discharge made the coating crumble
at SB4 and SC4 parameters.

Figure 3 The surface roughness depends on cathodic voltage and pulse durations.

XRD analyses were carried out to investigate the phase distribution in the coatings and the results are given in
Figure 4.a (200 Vk), Figure 4.b (300 Vk) and Figure 4.c (400 Vk). The Al and Mg2Si peaks, which belong to the
substrate, were observed for almost all the samples. The intensity of the Mg 2Si peak was related to the coating thickness
and porosity since the x-rays could penetrate through the layers of coating. The intensity of Al and Mg 2Si peaks
decreased with increasing coating thickness.

Due to the nature of the process, the outer layer had a porous structure, which mostly consisted of the γ-Al2O3 phase,
whilst the inner layer was a dense structure and it mostly consisted of the α-Al2O3 phase[9, 10]. XRD results showed that
all the coatings had γ-Al2O3 phases and the intensity decreased with the increasing coating thickness. Results also showed
that the intensity of the α-Al2O3 phase increased with the decreases in γ-Al2O3 phases. This relationship was due to the
phase transformations of both phases. The aim of the MAO process was to make an α-Al2O3 phase in the coating and this

55
was possible, but only with thicker coatings and specific applied electrical parameters.

a)

b)

c)

56
 Figure 4 XRD diagrams of the samples; a)200 V k. b)300 Vk and c)400 Vk

Due to the coating thicknesses, the SB and SC series should have had the α-Al2O3 phase but the intensity in SC-4 and
SB-4 samples was low. This result was because of the high-energy input and the pulse duration. High energies encouraged
strong micro discharges and this destroyed the coating. Due to this phenomenon, the coating thickness was reduced.

4. Conclusion
The effects of pulse duration (4 different pulse couple durations) and the applied cathodic voltage were
experimentally investigated. With the constant anodic voltage (500 Volt) the cathodic voltage was increased
incrementally (200 Volts, 300 Volts, 400 Volts).
The coating thickness (22 - 89 μm), surface roughness (1.6 - 4.9 Ra) and the phase compositions (γ-Al2O3, α-Al2O3)
were dependent on the pulse duration and the applied cathodic voltage.
Each amount of pulse energy increased with the pulse duration and applied cathodic voltage. The increase in the pulse
energy made a thicker coating. On the other hand, after a maximum energy level that the coating withstood, increasing the
energy beyond this point destroyed the layers of coating.

5. Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their thanks to the technician Adem Sen for his kind assistance during XRD
experimental studies and Mark Pellowe for his proofreading. The work was carried out with financial support from the
Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) / Project Name: 2211-C Scholarship of National
Priority Subjects Doctoral Thesis Programme.

6. References
1. Yerokhin, A.L., et al., Plasma electrolysis for surface engineering. Surface & Coatings Technology, 1999.
122(2-3): p. 73-93.
2. Sundararajan, G. and L.R. Krishna, Mechanisms underlying the formation of thick alumina coatings through
the MAO coating technology. Surface & Coatings Technology, 2003. 167(2-3): p. 269-277.
3. Jiang, Y.F., et al., Sliding wear behaviour of plasma electrolytic oxidation coating on pure aluminium. Wear,
2011. 271(9-10): p. 1667-1670.
4. Dunleavy, C.S., et al., Characterisation of discharge events during plasma electrolytic oxidation. Surface &
Coatings Technology, 2009. 203(22): p. 3410-3419.
5. Snizhko, L.O., et al., Excessive oxygen evolution during plasma electrolytic oxidation of aluminium. Thin Solid
Films, 2007. 516(2-4): p. 460-464.
6. Yerokhin, A.L., et al., Oxide ceramic coatings on aluminium alloys produced by a pulsed bipolar plasma
electrolytic oxidation process. Surface & Coatings Technology, 2005. 199(2-3): p. 150-157.
7. Shen, D.J., et al., Effects of ultrasound on the evolution of plasma electrolytic oxidation process on 6061Al
alloy. Ultrasonics, 2014. 54(4): p. 1065-1070.
8. Javidi, M. and H. Fadaee, Plasma electrolytic oxidation of 2024-T3 aluminum alloy and investigation on
microstructure and wear behavior. Applied Surface Science, 2013. 286: p. 212-219.
9. Yilmaz, M.S. and O. Sahin, Effects of Pulse Duration on Structure and Surface Characteristics of Micro-Arc
Oxidation Coatings Formed on Aluminum Alloy. Acta Physica Polonica A, 2016. 129(4): p. 673-676.
10. Hussein, R.O., X. Nie, and D.O. Northwood, An investigation of ceramic coating growth mechanisms in
plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) processing. Electrochimica Acta, 2013. 112: p. 111-119.

57
 Comparing the Corrosion Protection Performance of Graphene
Nanosheets and Graphene Quantum Dots as Nanofiller in Epoxy
Coatings

Sepideh Pourhashem1, Alimorad Rashidi2 and Mohammad Reza Vaezi3

1 Nanotechnology Research Center, Research Institute of Petroleum Industry, Tehran, Iran
[email protected]
2 Nanotechnology Research Center, Research Institute of Petroleum Industry, Tehran, Iran
[email protected]
3 Department of Nanotechnology and Advance Materials, Materials and Energy Research
Center, Karaj, Iran
[email protected]

Abstract: In this research, the effect of graphene nanosheets and graphene dots as
carbon based nanofillers on corrosion resistance of epoxy coatings is considered. Graphene
nanosheets are synthesized via chemical vapour deposition method and graphene quantum
dots are synthesized by a simple and gram scale procedure from carbon black. The prepared
nanofillers are characterized by X-ray diffraction technique, Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Further, solvent based epoxy coatings
containing 0.1 wt.% graphene nanosheets and graphene quantum dots are prepared and the
corrosion resistance of nanocomposite coatings is considered by electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy. The results indicate that both epoxy/graphene nanosheets and epoxy/graphene
quantum dots nanocomposite coatings have significantly higher corrosion resistance than pure
epoxy coating. Meanwhile, graphene quantum dots can more effectively enhance the
corrosion protection performance of epoxy coatings compared to graphene sheets which can
be attributed to their dispersion quality in polymer matrice.

Keywords: Graphene quantum dots1, Graphene sheets2, Epoxy coatings3, Corrosion

Protection4.

Introduction

Organic coatings are widely used for corrosion protection of metallic structures in various
industries [1, 2]. These coatings provide barrier effect against diffusion of corrosive agents to
the metal substrate [3]. However, organic coatings are not capable to provide long-term
corrosion protection in corrosive environments due to lack of hydrolytic stability at the

58
substrate/coating interface [4]. Therefore, enhancing the corrosion resistance of polymer
coatings is an important issue.
In this regard, different carbon based materials including graphene and graphene oxide
have been employed to boost the corrosion resistance of polymer coatings because of their
extraordinary intrinsic properties. These materials have been demonstrated to be promising
nanofiller for developing corrosion resistant organic nanocomposite coatings [5-7]. Graphene
quantum dots, which consist of single atomic layer of nano-sized graphite, possess most
advantages of graphene and graphene oxide [8]. Accordingly, in this research, the potential
application of graphene nanosheets and graphene quantum dots as anti-corrosion nanofiller in
epoxy coatings is investigated.

Materials and method

Graphene nanosheets are synthesized by chemical vapour deposition procedure in a quartz

tube furnace with methane and hydrogen gas panel on Cu foils at 1050 °C. After growth of
graphene on Cu foil, Cu particles are removed by purification treatments.

Moreover, graphene quantum dots are prepared by a “top-down” method. Commercial

carbon black is refluxed in HNO3 for 24 h at 135 °C. Then, the HNO3 (Merck) is evaporated
at 180 °C under N2 atmosphere. The black sediments are dispersed in deionized water, and
then centrifuged to remove the big carbon black particles. The obtained supernatant contains
graphene dots.

The structure of graphene nanosheets is considered by X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique

by Bruker D8 Advance (CuKα, 40 kV, 40 mA). The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
(FTIR) spectrum of graphene quantum dots is recorded using Perkin Elmer Spectrum-GX
spectrometer. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM, JEOL 1200EXII) is used to observe
the morphology of graphene nanosheets and graphene quantum dots.

Further, epoxy coatings containing 0.1 wt.% graphene nanosheets and graphene quantum
dots are prepared. Epoxy Epon Shell 1001 resin (epoxy equivalent mass = 480 –550) and
polyamide hardener Versamid 115 (Amine value = 230-246 mg KOH/gram resin) are used to
prepare epoxy coating. For this purpose, carbon based nanofillers are dispersed in an acetone
with concentration of 0.01 g/mL by the help of ultrasonic waves. The prepared solution is
added to polyamide curing agent and treated with ultrasonic waves to prepare a homogeneous
dispersion of nanofillers in curing agent. Then, the mixture is added to the stoichiometric

59
amount of epoxy resin, utilizing the high speed shear mixer. The prepared composition is
spray coated on mild steel substrates and cured at 90 °C for 1 h. The thickness of coatings was
in the range of 150 ± 10 µm.

The corrosion protection performance of coatings is studied by electrochemical impedance

spectroscopy (EIS) by an Autolab (Potentiostat/Galvanostat, PGSTAT 30). A three electrode
cell consisting from coated samples (as working electrode), platinum rod (as counter
electrode), and saturated calomel electrode (SCE, as reference electrode) is used for
electrochemical measurements. The EIS tests are carried out at steady open circuit potential
(OCP) in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution in frequency range of 10-2 to 105 Hz utilizing AC amplitude
of 10 mV. The obtained electrochemical data are analyzed with the help of Nova 1.8 software.

Results and Discussion

Fig. 1 shows the XRD pattern of graphene nanosheets. The (001) plane, which is the
characteristic peak of graphene, appears at 2θ = 29.08°. According to Bragg’s law, the
synthesized graphene has few layers with interlayer distance of about 0.31 nm.

Fig. 1. XRD pattern of graphene nanosheets.

Fig. 2 shows the FTIR spectra of graphene quantum dots. The characteristic bands of C=C,
C=O, and CH2 appear at 1619, 1718, and 2922 cm-1, respectively. The peaks at 1218 and
1413 cm-1 are related to C-O stretching bands and the broad peak at 3423 cm-1 is due to OH
and N-H groups on graphene dots.

60
 Fig.2. FTIR spectrum of graphene quantum dots.

Fig. 3 shows the TEM image of graphene sheets and graphene quantum dots. Fig. 3 (a)
reveals that graphene sheets are exfoliated and the average size of nanosheets is less than 50
nm. Fig. 3 (b) indicates that the particle size of graphene quantum dots is less than 10 nm.

Fig.3. TEM images of (a) graphene nanosheets and (b) graphene quantum dots.

Fig. 4 shows the Bode and Nyquist plots derived from EIS for pure epoxy and
nanocomposite coatings after 2 weeks of immersion in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution. Accordingly,
the |Z|0.01Hz value for pure epoxy, epoxy/0.1 wt.% graphene nanosheets, and epoxy/0.1 wt.%
graphene quantum dots is 0.02 × 106, 3.58 × 106, and 17.90 × 106 Ω.cm2, respectively.
Although pure epoxy coating completely fails after 2 weeks of immersion, nanocomposite

61
coatings can provide efficient corrosion protection due to their significantly higher |Z|0.01Hz
values. Meanwhile, the |Z|0.01Hz value of epoxy coating containing 0.1 wt.% graphene
quantum dots is more than the sample containing 0.1 wt.% graphene nanosheets which can be
assigned to well dispersion of graphene quantum dots in polymer matrice compared to
graphene nanosheets due to presence of functional groups on graphene quantum dots.

Fig.4. (a) Bode and (b) Nyquist plots of pure epoxy, epoxy/0.1 wt.% graphene, and
epoxy/0.1 wt.% graphene dots after 2 weeks of immersion in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution.

Further, the EIS results are fitted by electrical equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 5. In the

62
proposed electrical equivalent circuit, Rs is solution resistance, Rcoat and Qcoat are related to
coating resistance and coating constant phase element, RCT and Qdl are denoted to charge
transfer resistance and double-layer constant phase element, respectively. To model the
electrochemical behavior of the system, a constant phase element associated with an exponent
(n) is used instead of capacitor to represent the experimental deviation from the semi-circle
capacitance behavior due to heterogeneity of the coating surface.

Fig.5. The proposed electrical equivalent circuit for fitting EIS data.

Rcoat and RCT are two important parameters for evaluating the corrosion resistance of
coatings on metallic substrates; Rcoat indicates the resistance of coating against diffusion of
corrosive electrolyte and RCT indicates the resistance to electron transfer across a metal
surface [2]. The derived Rcoat values for pure epoxy, epoxy/0.1 wt.% graphene, and epoxy/0.1
wt.% graphene dots are 7.2 × 103, 3.8 × 106, and 10.2 × 106 Ω.cm2, respectively. Besides, the
derived RCT values for pure epoxy, epoxy/0.1 wt.% graphene, and epoxy/0.1 wt.% graphene
dots are 14.2 × 103, 5.5 × 106, and 16.5 × 106 Ω.cm2, respectively. The results indicate that the
corrosion protection performance of epoxy coatings improves by adding graphene based
nanofillers. Epoxy coatings loaded with graphene quantum dots show significantly higher
corrosion resistance compared to epoxy coatings loaded with graphene sheets. This behavior
of nanocomposite coatings can be attributed to non-uniform dispersion of graphene in epoxy
due to its high specific surface area. Furthermore, the presence of functional groups on
graphene dots enhances the chemical bonding between graphene dots and polymer matrice,
leading to coatings with high cross-link density and better dispersion quality of nanofiller in
epoxy coating.

Conclusions

In this work, graphene nanosheets and graphene quantum dots are used as a carbon based
nanofiller in solvent based epoxy coatings in order to enhance the corrosion resistance of
epoxy coatings. The prepared coatings are loaded with 0.1 wt.% of nanofiller in order to be
sure about their homogeneous dispersion in polymer. Although both nanofillers significantly
improve the anti-corrosion behavior of epoxy coatings, the epoxy/graphene dots show higher

63
corrosion resistance than epoxy/graphene composites. The results show that graphene
quantum dots are appropriate nanomaterial for improving the barrier performance of polymer
coatings.

REFERENCES

[1] S.B. Lyon, R. Bingham, D.J. Mills, “Advances in corrosion protection by organic coatings: what we
know and what we would like to know”, Progress in Organic Coatings 102 (2017) 2-7.
[2] S. Pourhashem, M.R. Vaezi, A.M. Rashidi, M.R. Bagherzadeh, “Exploring corrosion protection
properties of solvent based epoxy-graphene oxide nanocomposite coatings on mild steel”, Corrosion
Science 115 (2017) 78-92.
[3] Y. Liu, X, Zhou, S.B. Lyon, R. Emad, T. Hashimoto, A. Gholinia, G.E. Thompson, D. Graham, S.R.
Gibbon, D. Francis, “An organic coating pigmented with strontium aluminium polyphosphate for
corrosion protection of zinc alloy coated steel”, Progress in Organic Coatings 102 (2017) 29-36.
[4] P. He, J. Wang, F. Lu, Q. Ma, Z. Wang, “Synergistic effect of polyaniline grafted basalt plates for
enhanced corrosion protective performance of epoxy coatings”, Progress in Organic Coatings 110 (2017)
1-9.
[5] C.H. Chang, T.C. Huang, C.W. Peng, T.C. Yeh, H.I. Lu, W.I. Huang, C.J. Weng, Ta.I. Yang, J.M.
Yeh, “Novel anticorrosion coatings prepared from polyaniline/graphene composites”, Carbon 50 (2012)
5044-5051.
[6] S. Pourhashem, A.M. Rashidi, M.R. Vaezi, M.R. Bagherzadeh, “Excellent corrosion protection
performance of epoxy composite coatings filled with amino-silane functionalized graphene oxide”,
Surface and Coatings Technology 317 (2017) 1-9.
[7] S.Z. Haeria, M. Asgharia, B. Ramezanzadeh, “Enhancement of the mechanical properties of an epoxy
composite through inclusion of graphene oxide nanosheets functionalized with silica nanoparticles
through one and two steps sol-gel routes”, Progress in Organic Coatings 111 (2017) 1–12.
[8] X. Zhang, H. Ji, X. Zhang, Z. Wang, D. Xiao, “Capillary column coated with graphene quantum dots
for gas chromatographic separation of alkanes and aromatic isomers”, Analytical Methods 7 (2015) 3229-
3237.

64
 Review of Tribological Behavior of Graphene Coatings on Piston Rings in
Engines

eynep Burcu Acunaş Karagöz1, Hakan Kaleli2, Levent Yüksek3, Emre Çıtak4
Z

1 YILDIZ Technical University, Mechanical Faculty, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Energy Division, Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]
2 YILDIZ Technical University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Automotive Division,
Istanbul 34349, TURKEY
[email protected]
3 YILDIZ Technical University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Automotive Division,
Istanbul 34349, TURKEY
[email protected]
4 GrafenBioTech Nano Teknoloji Mühendislik San. ve Tic. Ltd. Şti, Selçuklu/Konya, TURKEY
[email protected]

Graphene, which is the base structure of other carbon materials, has drawn much attention of
scholars and researchers due to its extraordinary electrical, mechanical and thermal properties (1). This
review focuses on the friction and wear characteristics transferring synthesized method of Graphene
and Graphene coating deposited by the Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) process on Honda GX270
engine (nodular cast iron) piston rings with support of GrafenBiotech Ltd and experimentally
investigated under boundary lubricated conditions.
Firstly, it is synthesized graphene with Cu CVD well known method. Then, it is transferred as
monolayer graphene flakes coating piston ring surface.
Secondarily, graphene is directly grown on metal surface of cast iron rings. As the coating
process was not succesful on Honda GX270 engine 1st and 2nd rings by chemical vapor deposition at
atmospheric pressure using argon/hydrogen flux and methane gas (5), after long essays the graphene
coating was sucessfully deposited on uncoated (where the coating is removed by acid method) and
chromium coated piston rings, as multilayer and monolayer respectively, by direct synthesized CVD
method under vacuum conditions using hydrogen flux synthesizing with hexane vapour in new design
CVD reactor.
In both coating method, successful Raman results were shown by the analyses carried out with
Green Laser at 532 nm wave length in Raman Microscopy. Raman peaks such as 1581 and 1582 cm-1
bands and 2D peaks at 2700 cm-1 band were determined. This prosperous coating belongs to
GrafenBioTech Nanotechnology engineering Ltd. in Konya-TURKEY. Protocol is signed between us
for the intellectual property rights. Metallurgical analysis of the samples was carried out using an
Optical, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)-EDX and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). While
additive layers were formed on the rubbed surface of both piston rings and cylinder liner in tribometer

65
tests, they were only detected at the Top Dead Center (TDC) of cylinder liner in engine tests. Any
additive protective layers were detected on the piston ring during engine tests.

Keywords: Graphene coating, CVD method, Surface charactherization.

REFERENCES

[1] H. Tan, D. Wang, and Y. Guo, “Thermal Growth of Graphene: A Review”, Coatings 2018, 8,
40, pp.1-16.
[2] Nine M.J., Cole M.A., Tran D.N.H., and Losic D., “Graphene: a multipurpose material for
protective coatings”, , J. Mater. Chem. A, 2015, 3, 12580–12602.
[3] Vengete Krishnan S., Kannan C., Chandramouli S., “Nanotechnology Graphene”,
International Journal of Industrial Electronics and Electrical Engineering, 4, 11, 2016, 14-19.
[4] Kyhl L., Nielsen S.F., Cabo A.G., Cassidy A., Miwa J.A. and Hornekær L., “Graphene as an
anti-corrosion coating layer”, The Royal Society of Chemistry, Faraday Discuss, 2015, 180,
495–509.
[5] 114M833 TÜBİTAK-MHESR final project report- Tubitak Ankara TURKEY, March 2017,
166 pages.

66
 Numerical and experimental study of the wear
behavior of nano TiN coating on steel substrate
Saleh Akbarzadeh1, Ali Nikuiemanesh1
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran
[email protected]

Wear is a destructive mechanism which can deteriorate performance of many industrial systems and
limit the life of structures. Due to the high surface to volume ratio and effect of parameters such as
grain size, grain boundary, dislocation density and porosity on mechanical properties of
nanostructured materials, the study of wear in nano materials is more important than other
conventional materials.
Titanium Nitride (TiN) coatings are thin protective surface coatings used to minimize wear and reduce
friction in a wide range of applications. TiN is being recognized as a high temperature structural
material because of its excellent oxidation resistance, high thermal conductivity, resistant surface, even
coloring of the entire surface, UV-resistant and corrosion character, low density and high melting
point. These properties have made TiN a suitable material for coating different industrial components
to improve their wearing, corrosion and oxidation resistance. In this work, TiN was deposited on
SIHARD 2080 steel substrates by using physical vapor deposition (PVD) technique.
Nanoindentation test was then carried out to obtain the mechanical properties of the coating. Next, the
wear tests were performed with a pin on disk machine without lubrication under different load and
speed conditions. The temperature of the surface has also been measured. The results show that the
coated samples have a very lower wear rate in comparison to the raw samples and also the samples
with a thicker coating acts better for the wear conditions. The temperature rise of the two contacting
bodies in relative sliding motion is related to the wear rate. Experimental wear tests pertain to a pin-
on-disk configuration for two sets of contacting materials: AISI 52,100 pin on SIHARD 2080 Steel
and TiN coated SIHARD 2080 Steel with 0.5 and 5 micrometer height. It is shown that the
temperature of the interface can effectively characterize the steady-state wear. FE model was used to
simulate the pin on disk experiments to obtain temperature of the surface, which seems to be in good
agreement with the experimental data.
Keywords: Wear, Nanostructured TiN coating, Wear simulation, Surface temperature

REFERENCES

[1] H Tavoosi, S Ziaei-Rad, F Karimzadeh, S Akbarzadeh, "Experimental and finite element simulation of wear
in nanostructured NiAl coating," Journal of Tribology, 2015.

67
 Metrological Characterisation of Metallic Implant Surfaces Coated by
Electron Beam Deposition of Bioglass

Binnur Sagbas1 Hakan Kaleli1and Sevil Yücel2

1 Mechanical Engineering Department, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected], [email protected]
2 Bioengineering Department, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]

Metallic implants such as Ti6Al4V and CoCrMo alloys have widely been used for bone
regeneration. Because of the bio inertness of these materials bioactive surface coating become
promising way for combination of mechanical strength of metal materials and bioactivity of 45S5
Bioglass coating material. Beside increasing bioactivity, surface coating is also used for enhancing
tribological properties of implant materials especially used for load bearing joints.
Electron Beam Deposition (EBD) is a physical vapor deposition (PVD) technique and an
effective method for fabricating good adherent and high quality surface coatings.
In this study Ti6Al4V and CoCrMo substrates have been coated by 45S5 Bioglass, by EBD
technique. 2D and 3D surface characterization of the coatings carried out by digital microscope and
atomic force microscope (AFM). Both the profile and areal parameters were defined and the results
were compared with uncoated reference samples. The results showed that surface roughness of the
coated samples were increased which serves enhancing bioactivity of the material by increasing
surface area. Successful coatings were achieved by this method. So it can be concluded that bioglass
coating by EBD method is a promising technique for development biocompatible implant coatings.

Keywords: Electron beam deposition, biocompatible coating, orthopaedic implant, surface

characterisation.

REFERENCES

[1] E.M.Oks, A.V.Tyunkov, Yu.G.Yushkov, D.B.Zolotukhin, "Ceramic coating deposition by electron

beam evaporation", Surface and Coatings Technology, Vol. 325, pp. 1-6, 25 September 2017.
[2] D. Bellucci, M. Bianchi, G. Graziani, A. Gambardella, M. Berni, A. Russo, V. Cannillo, "Pulsed
Electron Deposition of nanostructured bioactive glass coatings for biomedical applications", Ceramics
International, Vol. 43, Issue 17, pp. 15862-15867 1 December 2017.
[3] K.L. Choy, M. Schnabelrauch, R. Wyrwa, Bioactive Coatings. In: Zivic F., Affatato S., Trajanovic
M., Schnabelrauch M., Grujovic N., Choy K. (eds) Biomaterials in Clinical Practice. Springer, Cham ,
2018.

68
 Experimental Study of Y-jet Nozzle in Oil Burner Development

Mun Hee Lee1 and Jung Goo Hong1*

1 School of Mechanical Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of

Korea
[email protected]

Environmental and energy-efficient factors are most important issues for combustor used
throughout the industry. The oil burner is a combustion device for power generation boiler.
The combustion performance in the furnace greatly depends on the spray characteristics of the
fuel injector. The liquid fuel of the power generation boiler mainly uses heavy fuel oil,
residual oil and crude oil. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a combustion device capable of
satisfying the regulation of combustion emissions (NOx, CO, etc.) required by a power
generation company and minimizing the consumption of steam used as a spraying medium,
thereby preventing a decrease in boiler efficiency. In this study, we investigated the spray
characteristics of internal, intermixed(Y-jet type) atomizers using steam and air as spraying
media. In experiment, single hole nozzle was designed and lab-scale nozzle which is
simulating actual size nozzle was used. Five internal, intermixed type nozzles were designed.
First, three internal, intermixed type nozzles were designed, and feedback was performed
through the first spray test. The second experiment was conducted by designing two
additional nozzles considering the resultant variables. Therefore, it was measured that the
spray characteristics, spray angle, SMD and injection velocity. The spray image and spray
pattern were determined by the design layout-out of the nozzle hole. The spray characteristics
were found by the changes of the liquid injection pressure and the air flow rate. The
characteristics of the internal and intermixed nozzles were determined by the total cross-
sectional area of the nozzle exit regardless of the nozzle type. In addition, the change of the
spray angle has little effect with liquid and air injection pressure, and the spray angle is
influenced by designing the nozzle exit orifice. Finally, representative nozzles were selected
to measure the injection velocity.

Keywords: Twin-fluid Nozzle, Y-jet type nozzle, SMD, Spray angle

REFERENCES

Please use the IEEE style citation and reference format as follows (maximum 5 key references):

[1] C.W. Lee, Y.J. Lee, J. w. Park, and K. Terasima, “Effect of nozzle hole configuration on spray
characteristics for diesel engine,” 10th Annual Conf. on Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems, Seoul,
Korea, 2005, pp. 267-272.
[2] T. Messina and S. Acharya, “Characteristics of an acoustically modulated spray issued from circular
and elliptical orifice nozzles,” Atomization and Spray, Vol. 16, 2006, pp. 331-348.
[3] K. Ranmanurthi, and K. Nandakumar, “Characteristics of flow though small shape-edged cylindrical
orifices,” Flow measurement and Instrumentation, Vol. 10, 1999, pp. 133-143.
[4] A. H. Lefebvre, Atomization and Spray, Hemisphere Publishing corporation, 1989, pp. 201-307.

69
 NANOTRIBOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER SURFACE
MELTED STELLITE 12+Mo DEPOSITS
Shaikh Asad Ali Dilawary1), Amir Motallebzadeh2), Muhammad Afzal3), Erdem Atar4), Huseyin Cimenoglu1)*
1)
Istanbul Technical University, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Istanbul, Turkey
2)
Koc University Surface Science and Technology Centre (KUYTAM), Istanbul, Turkey
3)
University of Engineering and Technology, Department of Metallurgy and Material Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
4)
Gebze Technical University, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Gebze, Kocaeli, Turkey
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: In this investigation the sliding wear of plasma transfer arc (PTA) deposited and
laser surface melted (LSM) commercial Stellite 12 hardfacings under high contact pressure
was studied. Sphero-conical diamond indenter was used as a sliding counterface with
different normal loads. The wear behavior of PTA deposited Stellite12 was very different
from the LSM'ed one due to difference in near surface microstructure. Although both
hardfacings showed severe wear under these conditions the wear resistance of LSM'ed
hardfacings was better than the PTA hardfacings by a factor of two. Wear in both
hardfacings was dominated by plastic deformation along with cracking and removal of
carbide phases.
Keywords: Nanotribology, Laser Surface Melting, Plasma Transferred Arc, Molybdenum,
Stellite 12

1. Introduction

For wear-resistant applications, Co-base alloys have been enjoying widespread use over 100 years primarily due to
their high-strength, ability to retain their hardness at elevated temperatures, and corrosion resistance [1]. CoCrWC alloy
developed and patented in early 1900s by Elwood Haynes and since then many variants of the original alloys have been
in common use. These variations are usually done by altering amount of C which ranges from very low i.e. 0.1% to
quite high 3.5% in these alloys which are then responsible for the amount of carbides formed in the fcc Co-base solid
solution matrix [2]. Another significant variation done in these alloys is amount of W and or Mo, these elements are
known to effect the amount of complex carbides and intermetallics in the fcc Co-base solid solution matrix [3].
Commercial Stellite alloys, typical CoCrWC type, primarily used in applications requiring high resistance to wear
and or corrosion. Another important application of Stellite alloys is in the forming of weld overlays thus producing a
superior surface over an inferior base metal in terms of mechanical properties such as strength hardness and wear
resistance [4]. Motallebzadeh et al [5] and Shin et al [6] have achieved further improvements in the properties i.e.
hardness and wear resistance of the weld overlays realized by depositing Stellite alloy powders mixed with elements
like Mo.
Besides chemical modification of alloys to realize further improvements in the properties some post deposition
treatments have also been proven to give encouraging results [7,8]. These treatments usually aim at microstructural
refinement achieved through heat input on the surface either by laser surface melting (LSM) [9–11] or by heat treatment
[12]. LSM has shown promising results when it comes to advances in the properties of Co based Stellite alloys
especially for wear related applications [13,14]. In these studies, the role of carbide size and distribution in the final
structure along with matrix solid solution hardening has been reported play a crucial role in improved wear performance.
The amount and types of carbides are also known to effect the wear mechanisms involved [5,15].
It’s been well established that wear mechanism is very much scale dependent as properties of materials seem to get
effected across micro to nano scale [16–18]. Nanotribology studies can lead to better understanding of underlying wear
mechanisms specially in the alloys where carbides and solid solution matrices seem to behave differently under the
influence of difference in the applied loading conditions [19–21]. At nano scale and at different loading conditions,
behavior of matrix and carbides seems to differ by resisting removal and chip formation thus dictating the dominant
wear mechanism[20,21]. Besides solid solution, strengthening of the metal matrix plays a crucial role in the conditions
where the dominant mechanism is that of plastic deformation. Also presence of carbides can resist to cracking and
removal of materials and enhance sliding wear resistance of alloys in certain loading conditions [20,22] .
Sliding wear for surfaces are usually classified as adhesive, abrasive, delamination, oxidational and melt wear types
etc. Contact pressures along with other factors like sliding speed and materials of the sliding bodies play a crucial role
in determining which type of wear would dominate [23]. It is well known that given other conditions are suitable mild
70
wear dominates at low contact pressure characterised by mild oxidation of the sliding surfaces and as the contact
pressure increases the type of wear enters the severe regime [24]. In addition, at very high contact pressures as are used
in the current study, the wear mechanism is dominated by the plastic deformation of the surfaces.
Authors of this article have previously shown that Stellite alloys exhibit much improved sliding wear performance if
Mo powder is added during hardfacing [5] and if the post deposition treatments like LSM is applied [14]. The addition
of Mo was shown to enhance the amount of complex carbides in the fcc Co-based matrix and hence better wear
performance[5,6]. Besides it was shown that LSM of Stellite 12 hardfacing deposits leads to formation of a typical
carbide rich layer near the surface which then changes the wear behavior in a way that it becomes strongly dependent
upon the applied load showing a transition to enhanced resistance when applied load reaches beyond the carbide’s
theoretical strength[14]. The worn surface analyses also revealed a mixed mechanism of carbide cracking/removal and
oxidation/fatigue wear. In those study it was proposed that the sliding wear behavior could drastically change if very
high contact pressures are applied. Thus, assessment of wear properties via nanotribology (leading to very high contact
pressures) is expected to shed more light on the operative wear mechanisms and how it changes with the applied
loading conditions. The prospect of investigating the sliding wear at very high contact pressure and a correlation with
the microstructure is a chief motivating factor behind this study.

2. Experimental

For this study, commercially available Stellite 12 and 10 wt% molybdenum (Sulzer, Amdry 313X) powders were
mixed and deposited on AISI 4140 steel substrate, by the PTA hardfacing technique. The size of the Stellite 12 and Mo
powder was in the range of 53–150 and 38– 75 µm, respectively. The PTA hardfacing deposition was realized with
parameters of current 92 A, voltage 32 V and travel speed 85 mm/min in a single layer with a thickness of 5 mm. After
PTA deposition, the surfaces of the hardfacings were ground to flat appearance and the remaining hardfacing layer
thickness was 2.5 mm.
The surface hardfacings were subjected to LSM using a 700 W transverse flow CO2 continuous laser. The laser
beam of spot size of 3.0 mm diameter was focused on the hardfacing by a lens of 120 mm focal length. CNC table was
used for the hardfacing sample movement under the laser beam. Nitrogen shielding gas was used during the LSM
process to prevent the formation of any oxides on the melted surface. Laser tracks in a single pass were used for the
LSM process with a laser scan speed of 500 mm/min. The speed was found appropriate for defect free melting after
initial trials.
X-ray diffractometer (XRD) with Cu-Kα radiation (GBC, Australia) and scanning electron microscope (SFEG SEM,
Phi- lips, Holland) equipped with energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer were used for the phase analysis and
microstructure of the hardfacings. The cross-sections of the hardfacings were subjected to SEM examinations. Standard
metallographic procedures were followed for the preparation of all specimens. HV 0.5 scale hardness values were
measured by a conventional microhardness tester (Shimadzu, HMV2, Japan), with an indentation load of 500 g. At least
10 measurements were made on the surfaces of samples with mutual distance of indents being at least more than five
times the indent diagonal. The reported values are an average of all the measurements on the each specimens.
Multi-pass nanotribology tests were performed at 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 mN for the total wear cycles of 200 on
each sample using 5 µm end radius spherico-conical diamond indenter in a commercial nanomechanical test system
(Agilent G200). Wear test velocity and wear pass length were 10 µm/sec and 50 µm, respectively. 3 repeat tests were
performed on each sample. Wear tracks were evaluated by SEM (Zeiss,Ultra Plus) and atomic force microscopy (AFM,
Brucker, Dimension Icon) in tapping mode.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Microstructure and Hardness
Figure 1 presents the XRD spectra of PTA and LSM'ed. In accordance with previous findings, the XRD spectra
reveal that the microstructures of both PTA and LSM'ed hardfacings consists of M7C3 and M23C6 types of Cr-rich
carbides, M6C type of complex carbides along with α-Co phase. Co3Mo type intermetallic phase also appeared on the
XRD pattern of the hardfacings. One major difference between the two spectra is that more number of peaks related to
M23C6 type carbides are found on the spectrum of LSM'ed hardfacing as compared to that of As PTA hardfacing.
Figure 2 presents the cross section SEM micrographs of the LSM’ed hardfacings. In conjunction with XRD results
main constituents found for both hardfacings are a matrix which is identified as α-Co while the carbides are
distinguished with respect to their morphology whereby Cr rich ones possess block type outlook while the M6C type
complex carbides are identified as fishbone type. However, the overall appearance of the LSM'ed hardfacing is entirely
different from its AS PTA counterpart so that the carbides are mostly segregated towards the surface and underneath this
carbide, rich layer is a zone, which is devoid of presence of carbides and can be identified as carbide free zone. On the
other hand, the microstructure of the As PTA hardfacing does not show any difference in terms of carbide segregation
close to or away from the surface. Detailed mechanism of development of carbide rich and deficient zones depends on
rapid solidification conditions encountered during LSM process and have been discussed elsewhere [14,22].

71
 Figure 1 XRD spectra of (a) As PTA and (b) LSM'ed Stellite 12 hardfacings. 1. α-Co, 2. M7C3, 3. M23C6, 4. M6C, 5.
Co3Mo, x. unidentified

Figure 2 Cross-section SEM micrographs of (a) As PTA and (b LSM'ed Stellite 12 hardfacings.

Figure 3 is presented to illustrate the morphology of carbides in the carbide rich zone. The morphology of carbides
in the near surface region is distinct as they appear in elongated shapes such that their longer dimension is perpendicular
to the surface. The growth of carbides is parallel to the direction of heat dissipation during solidification of laser-melted
pool. The detailed mechanism has been described in previous studies [25].

Figure 3 Cross-section SEM micrograph of near surface (carbide rich zone) of LSM'ed hardfacing

Figure 4 presents the EDS elemental line scan along the cross section of the LSM'ed hardfacings. It can be seen that
the near surface region, which was identified as carbide rich zone in Figure 2, is concentrated with Cr while the Co base
is comparatively lower in concentration. Away from the surface as the line scan enters the carbide free zone then the
concentration of Co dominates concentration of Cr. In accordance with SEM micrograph presented in Figure 2b and
earlier findings it is established that the carbide rich zone is in fact Cr-carbide rich zone and thus this microstructure can
be regarded as hyper-eutectic while the carbide deficient zone can be treated as hypo eutectic structure [15,25,26].
72
Surface hardness values for As PTA and LSM'ed hardfacings were determined as 612 ± 17 HV0.5 and 787 ± 81 HV0.5,
respectively. The larger average hardness value with wider spread for LSM'ed hardfacing can be attributed to the
carbide rich zone near the surface.

Figure 4 EDS Line Scan on the cross section of LSM'ed hardfacing

3.2. Wear Behavior

Figure 5 presents the 2D profiles of the wear tracks developed on the surfaces of the examined
hardfacings across all testing loads. As a general appearance, the wear tracks are surrounded by
pile-ups the extent of pile-ups is increasing with increase of trusting loads for all the hardfacings.
While for each testing loads the corresponding depth and width of the wear tracks produced on the
surfaces of as PTA hardfacings are higher than the LSM'ed ones. This implies that the wear
resistance of the LSM'ed is better than As PTA hardfacings at all testing loads. The extent of pile-
ups can also be seen in the Figure 6, which presents the 3D AFM profiles of the respective wear
tracks for the hardfacings. The extent of pile-ups around each wear track is very apparent and the
pile-ups are bigger with larger testing loads. The pile-ups found around the wear track of LSM'ed
hardfacings are significantly less than the As PTA one, in accordance with the extent of grooving
for each of them. Another interesting observation regarding the pile ups formed around the wear
track of LSM'ed hardfacings is their smoother appearance as opposed to those of found around the
wear track of As PTA hardfacings whereby they appear in more discontinuous nature.
Figure 7 presents the effect of testing load on the wear loss of the examined hardfacings, where
the ‘volumetric wear loss per unit sliding distance’ (mm3/m) is plotted against the wear testing load
(N). The volumetric wear loss per unit sliding distance’ (mm3/m) was calculated by measuring the
wear track area from 10 different locations of the wear track and then taking an average of those
measurements. Later integration of the cross-sectional wear track area resulted in volumetric loss
from the wear track and this value was divided by total sliding distance to get the value for
volumetric wear loss per unit sliding distance’ (mm3/m) for each wear track. Since the rise in
‘volumetric wear loss per unit sliding distance’ fits well in a linear trend line, therefore the slope of
these trend lines denotes the so-called wear coefficient (k, mm3/Nm). This can be seen that the k
value (presented in the Figure 7) for PTA hardfacings is twice than that of LSM'ed one. If the k
value of the PTA hardfacing is taken as a reference, the addition of LSM process provided 100%
improvement in wear resistance. The testing loads used in the studies correspond to the contact
pressures ranging from approximately 7.0 GPa to 12.5 GPa. These contact pressures are very high
as compared to previous studies for these alloys in that case maximum contact pressure of 1.2
GPa was utilized [25,27]. It should be noted that the wear coefficient determined under these very
high contact pressure condition is very high i.e. ~10-3 as compared to ~10-6 determined for previous
sliding wear tests under lower contact pressures. The difference is three orders of magnitude higher
than that for lower contact pressures for the examined hardfacings.
73
Figure 5 2D AFM profiles of the wear track formed on the hardfacings

74
Figure 6 3D AFM profiles of the wear track formed on the hardfacings

75
 Figure 7 Wear coefficients of examined hardfacings

Figure 8 presents the SEM micrographs of the wear track generated on the surfaces of the hardfacings at the loads
lowest testing load of 50 mN, medium load of 150 mN and the highest testing loads of 250 mN. At the lowest testing
load of 50 mN which corresponds to a contact stress of ~7 GPa the wear track is clearly outlined by on the surface of As
PTA hardfacing some pile up regions are also distinguishable as marked by dashed ellipses and there is also some
evidence of detachments as marked by arrows in Figure8a. On the LSM'ed one the wear track at testing load of 50 mN
is not distinguishable (Figure 8b) due to very limited amount of wear loss. For the medium testing loads, the severity of
wear can be clearly seen on the surface of as PTA hardfacings and significant amount of pile-ups can be seen on the
borders of the wear track as marked by dashed ellipsoid, additionally the pile ups appear to contain broken up or
detached particles/carbides marked by arrows in Figure 8c. On the other hand, the wear track on the LSM'ed
hardfacings at 150 mN is clearly shallow and with smaller pile-ups, which appear in very smooth outlook on the borders
of the wear track as seen in the ellipsoids marked on Figure 8d. The worn surfaces at the highest testing load of 250 mN
show severe damage with large heaps of pile-ups marked by ellipsoids and broken/detached particles as marked by
arrows in Figure 8e. Corresponding wear track on the LSM'ed hardfacing also shows a lot of damage with clear heaps
of pile-ups marked by ellipsoids and some broken/detached particles marked with arrows in Figure 8f.
While Figure 9 is high magnification SEM micrograph of the wear track garneted at the highest testing loads of 250
mN presented to explore the some interesting features seen in the wear track. On the wear track of As PTA hardfacing
the wear track is seen to contain steps or stair casing structure marked by dashed ellipsoid while the on wear track of the
LSM'ed version some broken/detached cuboidal particles (marked by arrows) are found presumably due to cracking of
the carbides in the near surface layer.
It is clear from the results that the sliding wear against a sphero-conical diamond indenter has resulted in severe
wear for both types of hardfacings that is three orders of magnitude higher than the previously reported ones against
alumina counterface of 6mm diameter and at contact pressures one order of magnitude less than those used in this study.
The wear mechanisms reported previously for these alloys was a mixture of carbide cracking and removal along with
oxidation and fatigue [25]. However, in current study the SEM observations of the wear track clearly indicate
dominance of wear by plastic deformation of the matrix phase. It is suggested that matrix extrusion followed by carbide
cracking and removal is the dominant wear mechanism similar to the sliding wear characteristics of cermets reported by
Qiaoqin Yang et al [28]. Sliding of sphero-chonical diamond counter face can be imagined as action of a single abrading
media which traverses on the surface forming a groove by extruding the softer matrix around the harder carbides and in
the process carbide lose their support [29]. Thereby the carbides on the surface become more vulnerable to the sliding
action of the counterface and in the next cycles of sliding, they eventually get cracked or in case of smaller carbides are
entirely ploughed out along with the extruding matrix [30]. Larger matrix fraction near the surface in the As PTA
hardfacings means that more Co matrix is extruded and is deposited around the wear track in the form of pile-ups
explaining larger volume of pile-ups found around the wear track in As PTA hardfacings. At the highest testing load of
250 mN the extrusion is taking place in each stroke, depositing a large layer of Co matrix around the wear track thus
accumulation of these consecutively extruded layers over each other gives the appearance of stair casing [31].
For the LSM'ed hardfacing, the near surface region is carbide rich zone and the fraction of Co matrix is considerably
low in this zone furthermore the size of Co matrix is very much refined. Thus, the extrusion of Co matrix is limited due
to lack of its availability and very fine grain sizes. That’s the reason for very small pile up deposits around the Wear
track. As the testing load rises to 150 mN and beyond the Co matrix is extruded and pile ups become apparent although
in much smoother appearance which suggest that the carbides are not present in these pile up which may affect the
smooth consistency of the pile-ups as seen for the As PTA hardfacings. Since the carbides are elongated with their
longer dimension perpendicular to the surface so even with the extrusion of surrounding Co matrix they have ample
support to sustain the counterface sliding action. Although at higher contact stresses i.e. beyond 150 mN they would
tend to crack and removed. The presence of cuboidal particles in wear track at the highest testing loads of 250 mN
suggests the cracking of larger carbides into smaller pieces. The difficulty in extruding the Co matrix and cracking of
elongated carbides renders the LSM'ed hardfacing more wear resistant by a factor of 2, across all testing loads. It should
be noted that under these testing conditions the oxidative and fatigue wear are not detected.
76
Figure 8 Low magnification SEM micrographs of hardfacings at testing loads of (a,b) at 50mN, (c,d) 150mN and (e,f)
250mN

Figure 9 High magnification SEM micrographs of hardfacings at testing loads 250mN

74
4. Conclusion

Sliding wear behavior of PTA deposited and LSM'ed Stellite 12 hardfacings was examined against diamond sphero-
conical indenter at normal loads corresponding to contact pressures of 7.0 to 12.5 GPa. Very high contact pressures
resulted in wear behavior dominated by plastic deformation and cracking/removal of carbides. LSM'ed specimen
showed two times better wear resistance than the PTA version. Overall, the wear coefficients at these very high contact
stresses were three order of magnitude (10-3) higher than previously reported values (10 -6) under low contact stresses.

5. Acknowledgments

Research grant provided by Istanbul Technical University [Grant number MDK-2017-40819] is gratefully
acknowledged. Shaikh Asad Ali Dilawary expresses deep thanks for his PhD study grant provided by Higher Education
Commission of Pakistan at Istanbul Technical University. Assistance in SEM studies, by Mr. Ahmet Nazim of Gebze
Technical University, Turkey, deserves special thanks. Authors are also grateful to Senmak Co., Turkey, for the
provision of PTA facility.

6. References
1. K. C. Antony, “Wear-Resistant Cobalt-Base Alloys,” JOM J. Miner. Met. Mater. Soc., vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 52–60,
1983.
2. R. Ahmed, H. L. de Villiers Lovelock, S. Davies, and N. H. Faisal, “Influence of Re-HIPing on the structure–
property relationships of cobalt-based alloys,” Tribol. Int., vol. 57, pp. 8–21, 2013.
3. R. Liu, J. H. Yao, Q. L. Zhang, M. X. Yao, and R. Collier, “Relations of Chemical Composition to Solidification
Behavior and Associated Microstructure of Stellite Alloys,” Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal., vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 146–157,
2015.
4. M. F. Buchely, J. C. Gutierrez, L. M. León, and A. Toro, “The effect of microstructure on abrasive wear of
hardfacing alloys,” Wear, vol. 259, no. 1, pp. 52–61, 2005.
5. A. Motallebzadeh, E. Atar, and H. Cimenoglu, “Sliding wear characteristics of molybdenum containing Stellite 12
coating at elevated temperatures,” Tribol. Int., vol. 91, no. September, pp. 40–47, 2015.
6. J. C. Shin, J. M. Doh, J. K. Yoon, D. Y. Lee, and J. S. Kim, “Effect of molybdenum on the microstructure and wear
resistance of cobalt-base Stellite hardfacing alloys,” Surf. Coatings Technol., vol. 166, no. 2–3, pp. 117–126, 2003.
7. L. Janka, J. Norpoth, S. Eicher, M. Rodríguez Ripoll, and P. Vuoristo, “Improving the toughness of thermally
sprayed Cr3C2-NiCr hardmetal coatings by laser post-treatment,” Mater. Des., vol. 98, pp. 135–142, 2016.
8. S. K. Mishra, “Laser Cladding and Alloying for Aerospace Applications,” Aerosp. Mater. Handb., 2012.
9. Y. Cui and Y. Cui, “Influence of laser surface melting on tribological behaviour of AZ31B In fl uence of laser surface
melting on tribological behaviour of AZ31B,” vol. 844, no. November, 2016.
10. R. Shoja-Razavi, “Laser Surface Treatment of Stellite 6 Coating Deposited by HVOF on 316L Alloy,” J. Mater. Eng.
Perform., vol. 25, no. 7, pp. 2583–2595, 2016.
11. P. W. Leech, “Laser surface melting of a complex high alloy steel,” Mater. Des., vol. 54, pp. 539–543, Feb. 2014.
12. S. N. Aqida and S. Ahmad, “Laser Surface Modification of Steel,” DUBLIN CITY UNIVERSITY, 2011.
13. Š. Houdková, Z. Pala, E. Smazalová, M. Vostřák, Z. Česánek, and Houdková Š Pala Z Smazalová E Vostřák M
Česánek Z, “Microstructure and sliding wear properties of HVOF sprayed, laser remelted and laser clad Stellite 6
coatings,” Surf. Coatings Technol., 2016.
14. S. A. A. Dilawary et al., “Influence of laser surface melting on the characteristics of Stellite 12 plasma transferred
arc hardfacing deposit,” Surf. Coatings Technol., vol. 317, pp. 110–116, May 2017.
15. R. Liu and M. X. Yao, “High-performance wear/ corrosion-resistant superalloys fundamentals of superalloys,” in
Aerospace Materials Handbook, CRC Press, 2012, pp. 151–236.
16. B. Bhushan, “Handbook of Micro / Nano Tribology,” Mech. Mater. Sci. Ser., p. 859 p., 1999.
17. Y. Zhang, X. Wang, H. Li, and B. Wang, “Adhesive behavior of micro/nano-textured surfaces,” Appl. Surf. Sci., vol.
329, pp. 174–183, 2015.
18. B. Bhushan, “Nanoscale tribophysics and tribomechanics,” Wear, vol. 225–229, P. pp. 465–492, 1999.
19. J. Michler, R. Rabe, J. Bucaille, B. Moser, P. Schwaller, and J. Breguet, “Investigation of wear mechanisms through
in situ observation during microscratching inside the scanning electron microscope,” vol. 259, pp. 18–26, 2005.
20. M. A. Ashraf, R. Ahmed, N. H. Faisal, and M. F. A. Goosen, “Single Asperity Scratch Behaviour of Cast Stellite 6
Alloy,” 2014.
21. R. Ahmed, H. L. L. De Villiers Lovelock, N. H. H. Faisal, and S. Davies, “Structure-property relationships in a
CoCrMo alloy at micro and nano-scales,” Tribol. Int., vol. 80, pp. 98–114, Dec. 2014.
22. S. A. A. Dilawary, A. Motallebzadeh, M. Afzal, E. Atar, and H. Cimenoglu, “Laser surface melting of 10 wt% Mo
alloyed hardfacing Stellite 12 plasma transferred arc deposits: Structural evolution and high temperature wear
performance,” Opt. Laser Technol., vol. 101, pp. 404–412, 2018.
23. H. So, H. M. Chen, and L. W. Chen, “Extrusion wear and transition of wear mechanisms of steel,” Wear, vol. 265, no.
7–8, pp. 1142–1148, 2008.
24. H. So, “Characteristics of wear results tested by pin-on-disc at moderate to high speeds,” Tribol. Int., vol. 29, no. 5,
pp. 415–423, 1996.

75
25. S. A. A. Dilawary, A. Motallebzadeh, A. H. Paksoy, M. Afzal, E. Atar, and H. Cimenoglu, “Influence of laser surface
melting on the characteristics of Stellite 12 plasma transferred arc hardfacing deposit,” Surf. Coatings Technol., vol.
317, pp. 110–116, May 2017.
26. L. Liu, X. L. Ma, Q. Sen Huang, J. F. Li, X. H. Cheng, and Y. H. Zhou, “Solidification process and microstructure
evolution of bulk undercooled Co-Sn alloys,” Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China (English Ed., vol. 23, no. 1, pp.
289–293, 2013.
27. S. A. A. Dilawary, A. Motallebzadeh, R. Akhter, E. Atar, and H. Cimenoglu, “Enhanced wear resistance of Stellite
12 by Mo addition and LSM,” Surf. Eng., vol. 0, no. 0, pp. 1–8, 2017.
28. Q. Yang, T. Senda, and A. Ohmori, “Effect of carbide grain size on microstructure and sliding wear behavior of
HVOF-sprayed WC-12% Co coatings,” Wear, vol. 254, no. 1–2, pp. 23–34, 2003.
29. W. L. Silence, “Effect of Structure on Wear Resistance of Co- , Fe- , and Ni- Base Alloys,” no. July, pp. 428–435,
1978.
30. K. H. Z. Gahr, “Wear by hard particles,” Tribol. Int., vol. 31, no. 10, pp. 587–596, 1998.
31. R. Liu, X. J. Wu, S. Kapoor, M. X. Yao, and R. Collier, “Effects of temperature on the hardness and wear resistance
of high-tungsten stellite alloys,” Metall. Mater. Trans. A Phys. Metall. Mater. Sci., vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 587–599, 2014.

76
 Tribological behaviour of Nanostructured β-Ti alloys as a function of Mo
at.% content
Fellah Mamoun 1, 2,*, Hezil Naouel3, Mohammed Abdul Samad4, Touhami Mhamed Zine2,
Leila Dekhil2, Alex Montagne5, Alain Iost5.

1 Mechanical Engineering Department, ABBES Laghrour- Khenchela University, Algeria.

[email protected]
2) Tribology, materials surface and interfaces group, laboratory of foundry, Annaba University.
3) Chemistry Department, ABBES Laghrour - Khenchela University P.O 1252, 40004, Algeria.
4) Mechanical Engineering Department, KFUPM. Box 1180, Dhahran - 31261, KSA
5Laboratory of Mechanics Surfaces and processing materials, ENSAM, Lille Cedex, France,

Abstract - β-Ti alloys containing biomaterials have been investigated extensively. However, in
the case of Ti–Mo alloys, the correlation between compositions on tribological proprieties is not fully
described in the literature.
The present research was focused on the study of combinatorial investigation of the effect of Mo
at.% content on structural, mechanical and tribological proprieties of Hot Isostatically Pressed β- type Ti-
XMo (X= 1 to 20 at.%). The structural evolution, mechanical proprieties and tribological behavior of the
nanostructured titanium alloys were reported using X Ray diffraction, XPS, MEB and Type ball on Disk
tribometer. The tests were carried out in accordance with the ASTMG 99, ISO 7148-1:2012, and ASTM
G 133–95 standards.
Experimental results indicated that structural evolution and morphology changes of the milled
alloys were sensitive to their molybdenum contents. The morphological characterization indicated that the
particle and crystallite size continuously decreases with increasing Mo at.% content. The friction
coefficient and wear rate were lower in the samples with 15 Mo at.% content
Keywords: Ti-15Mo, Binary Titanium Alloys, Tribological behavior, Nanotribology; HIP.

REFERENCES

[1] M. Fellah, M. Labaïz, O. Assala, L. Dekhil, “Friction and Wear Behavior of Ti-6Al-7Nb Biomaterial
Alloy”. Journal of Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology, 4 (4) (2013) 374M.
[2] Fellah, A. Linda, M. Abdul Samed, A. Montagne, “Effect of replacing vanadium by nobium and iron on the
tribological behavior of HIPed titanium alloys. Acta Metallurgica Scinica (English letter), 30 (11)
(2017).1089-1099 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40195-017-0652-x
[3] M. Fellah, M. Labaïz, O. Assala, L Dekhil, A. Iost “Tribological behavior of biomaterial for total hip
prosthesis”. Matériaux & Techniques, 102 (6-7) (2014) 601-612.
[4] M. Fellah, M. Labaïz, O. Assala, L. Dekhil, I. Alain, “Tribological behavior of Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-6Al-7Nb
Alloys for Total Hip Prosthesis”. Advances in Tribology, 7 (2014) 13 pages.
[5] M. Fellah, M. Labaïz, O. Assala, L. Dekhil, A. Iost, “Tribological behavior of stainless steel AISI 316L for
biomedical applications”. Tribology-Materials, Surfaces & Interfaces, 7 (3) (2013) 135-149.
Fellah M, Labaïz M, Assala O (2013) Tribological Behavior of Friction Couple: Metal/Ceramic (Used for Head of
Total Hip Replacement)”. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,. Advances in Bioceramics and Porous Ceramics VI, 34 (6) 45-57

77
 Comparsion of Nanoporous graphene/silica with Activated carbon/silica
nanohybrids Pickering emulsions for Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery
(C-EOR)

Mahsan AfzaliTabar1 Mehrnoosh AfzaliTabar2 and Mahshad Alaei3

1 Nanotechnology Research Center, Research Institute of Petroleum Industry, Tehran, Iran
[email protected]
2 Internationale Universität Wien
[email protected]
3 Nanotechnology Research Center, Research Institute of Petroleum Industry, Tehran, Iran
[email protected]

Fossil resources are limited in the world while the global demand for fossil fuels is increasing
[1]. About two thirds of the oil is entrapped in reservoirs pores and is not recoverable in natural ways
[2]. Therefore research in chemical enhance oil recovery (C-EOR) is necessary. One of the best EOR
process is chemical flooding such as nanoparticles injection [3]. Emulsions containing nanoparticles
are called Pickering emulsions [4].
In this research, nanoporous graphene/silica and activated carbon/silica nanohybrids pickering
emulsions synthesis via simple and economical sol-gel method with different weight percent.
The as prepared nanomaterials were characterized with X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Thermal Gravimetric
Analysis (TGA). The mentioned Pickering emulsions stability was controlled for one month. Emulsion
phase morphology was investigated with optical microscopic image. Stability of the selected
nanohybrids was investigated by alteration of salinity, pH and temperature. Contact angle and
interfacial tension measurement results indicate that the 70% nanoporous Graphene/silica nanohybrid
is more effective for improvement of the stone reservoir wettability alteration from oil-wet to water-
wet than other nanohybrids.

Keywords: C-EOR, Nanohybrids, Pickering emulsions, Nanoporous graphene, Activated

carbon

REFERENCES

[1] Mandal A. Chemical flood enhanced oil recovery: a review. Int J Oil Gas Coal Technol 2015;9:241
64.
[2] Larson RG, Davis HT, Scriven LE. Displacement of residual nonwetting fluid from porous media.
Chem Eng Sci 1980;36:75–85.
[8] Elraies KA, Tan IM, Awang M, Fathaddin MT. A new approach to low-cost, high performance
chemical flooding system. In: SPE 133004 presented at the SPE Production and Operation
Conference and Exhibition, 8–10 June, Tunis, Tunisia; 2010
[3] T. Zhang, D. Davidson, S.L. Bryant, C. Huh, Nanoparticle-stabilized emulsions for applications in
enhanced oil recovery, Soc. Pet. Eng 129885 (2010) 1–18.
[4] Pickering SU. Emulsions. J Chem Soc Trans 1907;91:2001–21.

78
 Influence ferrous based reinforcements on tribological parameters
of aluminum cylinder for piston compressor in brake system of bus

Saša Milojević1 and Radivoje Pešić2

1 University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Engineering, Kragujevac, Serbia
[email protected]
2 University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Engineering, Kragujevac, Serbia
[email protected]

Reducing the weight of the built-in parts and reducing the friction on vehicles contributes to
reducing fuel consumption. The use of aluminum and its alloys has advantages because of reducing
the weight, but there is a problem due to lower strength and poor tribological characteristics of this
metal, which is not desirable when aluminum is used for production of piston machines and parts.
For the optimization purposes and improvements of the piston compressor tribological
properties in the bus braking system (with activation by compressed air), the inner surface of the
aluminum cylinder further strengthened with tribological reinforcements. Their task is to reducing
friction and wear between the piston (piston rings) and cylinder and to increase strength of the cylinder
inner surface.
Tribological optimization of the aluminum machine construction has realised by measuring
coefficient of friction and wear. According to laboratory researches, it is confirmed that tribological
properties of the cylinder with tribological reinforcements are better compared to the base
construction. Base aluminum cylinder inner surface has roughness due to machining by honing, for
proper seating of piston rings.
Keywords: Air compressor, aluminium cylinder, tribology.

REFERENCES

[1] S. Milojevic and R. Pesic, “Theoretical and experimental analysis of a CNG cylinder rack connection to
a bus roof”, Int.J Automot. Technol., vol. 13 pp. 497-503, March 2012. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12239-
012-0047-y.
[2] R. Pesic and S. Milojevic, “Efficiency and Ecological Characteristics of a VCR Diesel Engine”, Int.J
Automot. Technol., vol. 14 pp. 675-681, September 2013. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12239-013-0073-4.
[3] R. Pešić, S. Milojević, and S. Veinović, “Benefits and Challenges of Variable Compression Ratio at
Diesel Engines”, Thermal Sciences, vol. 14 pp. 1063-1073, 2010. DOI: 10.2298/TSCI10041063P.
[4] S. Milojević, D. Džunić, D. Taranović, R. Pešić, and S. Mitrović, “Tribological Reinforcements for
Cylinder Liner of Aluminum - Example Compressors for Brake Systems of Trucks and Buses”, Proc. of
15th International Conference on Tribology SERBIATRIB’17, Kragujevac, Serbia, 2017, pp. 251-257.
[5] B. Ž. Stojanović and S. T. Milojević, “Characterization, Manufacturing and Application of Metal
Matrix Composites / Advances in Materials Science Research”, vol. 30, Editor: Maryann C. Wyth ers.
Nova Science Publishers, New York, USA, 2017.
[6] S. Mitrović, M. Babić, B. Stojanović, N. Miloradović, M. Pantić, and D. Džunić, “Tribological Potential
of Hybrid Composites Based on Zinc and Aluminium Alloys Reinforced with SiC and Graphite
Particles”, Tribology in Industry, vol. 34, pp. 177-185, 2012.

79
EFFECT OF REINFORCEMENT RATIOS ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND WEAR BEHAVIOR OF
B4C + SiC REINFORCED AA 7075 COMPOSITES

Volkan BAYDAROĞLU1), Muharrem PUL2)*

1)
Department of Defense Technology, KırıkkaleÜniversitesi, Kırıkkale, Turkey
2)
Department of Electric and Energy, KırıkkaleÜniversitesi, Kırıkkale, Turkey
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Today's materials science are working on improve the mechanical properties of
materials used in many branches of industry such as transportation, defense, aviation.
Within these studies, researches on high composite materials with wear resistance
constitute an important place. In this study, SiC (silicon carbide) and B4C (boron carbide)
reinforced Al 7075 based composites were produced by powder metallurgy at 40%, 20%
and 10% reinforcement rates. Density and hardness measurements and transverse rupture
tests were performed to determine some mechanical properties of the composites produced.
Then abrasive wear tests were carried out with the pin on disk method to analyze the wear
behaviors. The obtained results were interpreted with SEM images taken from the fracture
surfaces and abrasion surfaces. As the amount of reinforcement increased in the composite
structure , the density decreased but the hardness values increased. Minumum wear value
was obtained at 20% B4C reinforced composite sample.40% B4C reinforced composite
sample was the most worn samples despite the high hardness.

Keywords: Composite, Boron carbide, Silicon carbide, Aluminum, Wear

1. Introduction
Most certain features of composite materials compared to such classical materials as metal are lightness and robustness.
As a result of previous studies, increasing tensile and impact resistance of those materials and improvement of such
features as fatigue, chemical and electrical resistance has become possible, and composite materials have begun to be
used in aviation, vessels, automotive, machinery, construction and space technology. In military, especially in
production of armor materials, usage of metal and ceramic-matrix composites is increasing. Those features of composite
materials can be improved more using reinforcement elements, and thus, such features as high-tensile strength, melting
temperature, thermal stability, easy producibility can be increased. In production of aluminum-matrix composites,
ceramic-based different reinforcement elements such as B 4C, SiC, Al2O3, C, SiO2, MgO, TiB2 and TiC are used. Among
composite material types, metal-matrix composites have an important place. In such types of composites, light metals
such as aluminum and magnesium are preferred generally as matrix material.

Metal-matrix composites are formed using awide range of conventional and developed forming techniques including
hot and cold ones,which are Mixed Casting, Compressed Casting, Powder Metallurgy (PM), Compressed Liquid Metal
Infiltration Technique, Deep Drawing, Foliation, and Hot Extrusion. Recently, material production with PM has been
one of fastest-developing production methods. Production method with TM is a type of method in which mixed metal
powders are pressed in a mold with theform and size of the material to be produced at room or high temperature, and
sintered at certain temperature [1]. Studies carried out in applications especially in automotive industry with Al-B4C
composites are new and have begun to increase. The main issue in the production of these composites is the low wetting
between matrix metal and reinforcement particles. Infiltration, one of production methods, has difficulties resulting
from application conditions. Casting method is one with the lowest wetting result. Besides, theoretical interface kinetics
control is conducted well using the Powder Metallurgy method (PM). Therefore, studies carried out using PM have
focused on increasing interface wettability levels;however, noeconomic methods providing improved physical and
mechanical featureshave been standardized yet [2]. Also, the cost of B4C powders is higher compared to such
reinforcement elements as SiC or Al2O3; and this results in relatively limited research on B 4C added materials. SiC is a
reinforcement material used widely in automotive and transportation industry. It is preferred specially to increase wear
resistance of brake discs. Some related studies in literature are as follows:

Hasırcı and Gül examined wear behaviors of Al-matrix B4C particle-reinforced composites in dry slip conditions
produced using the Powder Metallurgy method. Characterization of composites has been conducted through
microstructure examinations, hardness measurement and abrasive wear tests. Abrasive wear tests have been conducted
using 180 and 400 Mesh Al2O3 emery under 10 N and 20 N load and at 0,2 m s-1 shear ratio. Hardness increased after
B4C particle reinforcement. 20% B4C particle-reinforced composite was at the highest hardness, 10% B 4C
80
particle-reinforced composite had the highest wear resistance [3]. In their studies, Gomez, Busquets-Mataix, Amigo and
Salvador examined the mechanical features of B 4C and SiC reinforced AA6061 alloy. Research showed that density
value decreased in relation to the increasing reinforcement ratio; mixture can be prepared homogenously for both
reinforcement materials at 10% reinforcement ratio;there are not any interface reactions in produced samples. As a
result, it was seen that hardness and strength features increased, and the increasing reinforcement ratio decreased the
wear loss. Also, when the B4C reinforced composite was compared with the SiC-reinforced one, it was determined that
the features of strength, ductility and wear resistance values of the B 4C reinforced composite were higher [4]. In studies
on wear behaviors of metal-matrix composites, different matrix materials and reinforcement elements were used, and
many researches were carried out related to the effect of reinforcement element distribution in composite on
microstructure; and the mechanical features as porosity, hardness, wear behavior and fracture strength, and effect of
mixing time and speed [5-9].

In this study, SiC and B4C reinforced Al 7075 based metal composites were produced using powder metallurgy method
at reinforcement ratios of 40%, 20% and 10%. Pressing pressure was applied at 700 MPa in production of composites;
and sintering times 120min at 550C constant heat was applied. Values obtained through density, hardness, cross-break
and abrasive wear tests on produced composite samples were evaluated together with microstructure images.

2. Material and Method

In this experiment, AA7075 at -74 m particle size, B4C at - 44 m particle size and B4C at - 63 m particle size, SiC
powders were used. Some technical features related to test materials used are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Technical features of test materials

AA7075
Fe% Si% Cu% Mn% Mg% Zn% Ti% Cr%
0.50 0.40 1.21-2.0 0.30 2.1-2.9 5.1-6.1 0.20 0.18-0.28
Melting point, C Hardness, knoop Density, g/cm3 Particle shape
635 191 2.81 Spherical
SiC
Si% A2O3% Fe2O3% SiO2% P2O5% SO3% C%
61-66 0.7-1.2 0.6-1.1 0.02 0.07 0.3 22-26
Melting point, C Hardness, knoop Density, g/cm3 Particle shape
2730 2480 3.21 Sharp cornered
B4C
B% C%
78,28 21,72
Melting point, C Hardness, knoop Density, g/cm3 Particle shape
2760 2750 2.52 Sharp cornered

Using Al 7075, SiC and B4C powders, in weight ratios defined in Table 2, in 9 different reinforcement and ratios, powder
mixtures were prepared. For mixture preparation, propeller agitator was used. For every sample, mixture was conducted
at 600 rpm speed in 1 h, and in composite structure, homogenous distribution was conducted. Weight-volume ratio of
composite mixtures was calculated according to Equation 1.

𝐿𝐿 /𝐿𝐿 (1)
𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿𝐿
+
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿

Where; Vf= Particle volume rate, MP = Particle weight g, PP = Particle density g/cm3, Mm = Matrix weight, g, MP = Matrix
density, g/cm3.

Table 2 Composite sample mixture rates

Specimen No Reinforcement ratio
1 % 40 SiC + % 60 Al7075
2 % 20 SiC + % 80 Al7075
3 % 10 SiC + % 90 Al7075
4 % 40 B4C + % 60 Al7075
5 % 20 B4C + % 80 Al7075
6 % 10 B4C + % 90 Al7075
7 % 20 SiC+ % 20 B4C + % 60 Al7075
8 % 10 SiC+ % 10 B4C + % 80 Al7075
9 % 5 SiC+ % 5 B4C + % 90 Al7075

Composite mixtures were pressed under 700 MPa in hydraulic press and samples in 35 mm diameter, 15 mm thickness.
81
The composite specimens produced are shown in the Figure 1.

Figure 1 Composite specimens

Then, heat treatment was applied on composite samples at 550C in argon atmosphere, during 120 minute.After sintering,
sample weight in air, and then, the weight in water was measured with precision scale and using equation (2) according
to Archimedes Principle, and their theoretical densities were calculated as percent ...(%).

𝐿𝐿
Dg= × 𝐿𝐿2𝐿 (2)
𝐿𝐿−𝐿
𝐿

Where: Dg = Visible density of sample g/cm3, DH2O = Water density g/cm3, Wa = Weight in air of dry sample, g, Wb =
sample suspended weight in water is g.

To examine composite sample micro structures, sample surface preparation was conducted. For this reason, 400, 800,
1200, 2400 mesh sanding, 3 m sleeking and acid etching was conducted.

Then, images of composite samples were taken using Nikon ECLIPSE MA200 brand optical microscope at 50× and 400×
in two different magnificationsat scanning electron microscope. To see the mechanical behaviors of composites produced,
hardness measurement was conducted using Brinell Method at first stage. Hardness measurements were conducted in
accordance with TS EN ISO 4498 [10] and TS EN ISO 6506-1 [11] standards using Qness Q250M model hardness
measurement equipment. For hardness measurements, 2.5 mm ball tip, 62.5 kg load and 14 s test time were used. In
hardness measurements, average value was calculated making measurements from 5 different points for every sample.

To calculate mechanical behaviors of composites produced, the test samples were prepared in 6.35×12.7×31.7 mm for
every reinforcement volume ratio to make cross-break (bending three points) experiments in accordance with ASTM-B
312 [12] and ASTM-B 528-05 [13] for every reinforcement volume ratio at second stage.Fracture test was applied on
composite samples in standard cross-break tester shown in Figure 2 schematically. Crushing was done at 0.05 kN/s
loading speed using ELE brand hydraulic press. According to the loading values obtained from pressing (P), cross-break
strengths of samples were calculated using standard equation in Equation 3.

3×𝐿×𝐿
TRS = (3)
2×𝐿2 ×𝐿

Where; TRS = Cross-break strength, MPa; N = load measured at the time test piece was broken, N; L= Distance
between supporting elements mm; t = Height of test piece, mm; w = Test piece width, mm.

After cross-break tests, images of composite samples were taken at Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) at
magnification 200× and 1000×. Rupture resistance values and images of broken surfaces were evaluated together.
Recent stage tests were conducted to see wear behaviors of composite samples. Wear tests were conducted using Pin On
Disc Method and 50 N load. In wear experiments, Al 2O3 emery with 63 m abrasive grain size was used. Tests was
applied on each composite sample at 0.5 ms-1 sliding speed and in 60 s. A image taken in wear tests is shown in Figure 2.

82
 Figure 2 Pin on disc abrasive test system

3. Findings and discussion

3.1. Evaluation of microstructures
In order to evaluate the microstructures of the composites, 50× and 400× magnification optical microscope images of SiC
and B4C reinforced composites with different reinforcement ratios are given in Figure 3 and Figure 4.

(a) 40% SiC-50× (b) 40% SiC-400×

(c) 20% SiC-50× (d) 20% SiC-400×

(e) 10% SiC - 50× (f) 10% SiC-90 -400×

Figure 3 50× and 400× magnified microstructure images of SiC reinforced composites

83
When the images in Figure 3 are examined, it can be said that the homogeneity in the particle distribution increases with
increase of the SiC reinforcement ratio. However, with the increase of the reinforcement ratio, it seems that some amount
of reinforcement aggregation occurs [Figure 3 (a)]. Likewise, the amount of pore in the composite structure has also
increased with increase of the reinforcement ratio. Similar results have been made in some studies in the literature [14,15].
The SiC particles in the composite structure seem to have different sizes and generally sharp corners, and Al 7075
particles have different sizes and generally spherical shapes.

Looking at the 400× enlarged images in Figures 3 (b), (d) and (f), it can be said that the pressing pressure of 700 MPa. But
the sintering temperature of 550C is not entirely sufficient at high reinforcement ratios [Figures 3 (b), (d)]. As the
reinforcement ratio increased, the bonding between the Al 7075 powders improved in the negative direction and the
amount of pores between the Al 7075 powders gradually increased. In fact, it cannot be said that the Al 7075 material
completely wet the SiC. It is therefore advisable to increase the sintering temperature by 20-30 C in the future studies. In
addition, the increase in sintering temperature strengthened the bond of Al 7075 powders and increased the formation of
the neck between the particles.

On the other hand, it can be said that the adhesion between SiC particles and Al 7075 particles decreases and the pore in
the matrix and reinforcement interface increases. It can be said that the production of such composites has a high 40%
reinforcement ratio, which has a negative impact on composites.

(a) 40% B4C-50× (b) 40% B4C-400×

(c) 20% B4C-50× (d) 20% B4C-400×

(e) 10% B4C-50× (f) 10% B4C-400×

Figure 4 50× and 400× magnified microstructure images of B 4C reinforced composites

When the images in Figure 4 are examined, it can be said that the homogeneity in the particle distribution increases
slightly due to the increase of the B 4C reinforcement ratio, but this increase is not as good as in the SiC reinforced
composites. It appears that the B4C particles are irregularly shaped and there are too many dimensional differences
between the particles. Compared to SiC reinforced composites, more structures with pores have been formed.

84
It can be stated that the desired phase and wetting are not sufficiently formed between Al 7075 and B4C. As a result, in the
surface preparation process before taking the microscope images, it is thought that some amount of B4C particles away
from the structure and contributed to the formation of pores in the structure. Also, it can be said that B 4C particles in the
composite structure tend to aggregate, which in turn increases the formation of pores. Similar results have been reported
by Lillo [16].

3.2. Evaluation of density measurements

The graphs of the composite samples produced according to the theoretical density values obtained using the Archimedes
principle are given in Figure.5.

Figure 5 Density values of the composite samples

Looking at the graphs in Figure 5 collectively, it appears that the intensity values decrease with increasing amount of
reinforcement in all composite specimens. In other words, it can be said that the pores in the composite structure increase
with the increase of the reinforcing element. SiC reinforced samples had higher density values than B4C reinforced
samples. The highest density value was obtained in a 10% SiC reinforced sample with 94.18%, while the lowest density
was obtained in a 40% B4C reinforced composite sample with 78.16%. These density results indicate that the bond
between the B4C phase and the Al 7075 phase is poor and the pore particle in the B4C reinforced samples is higher than the
SiC reinforced samples. 200× magnified SEM microstructure images of the highest and lowest density composite
specimens to examine the composite structure are shown in Figure 6.

10% SiC 40% B4C

Figure 6 SEM images of 10% SiC and 40% B 4C reinforced Al 7075 composites

When Figure 6 is examined, the excessive porous structure of the reinforced composite of 40% B4C is seen (b). This high
pore volume caused the density to be low. It can be stated that there is not enough bond between the reinforcement
element particles and the main structural element Al 7075 powders. It can be stated that there is not enough bond between
the reinforcement element particles and the main structural element Al 7075 powders. It can be said that in the sanding
process during the surface preparation process before the SEM images were drawn, the B 4C particles moved away from
the composite structure. On the other hand, the SEM image in the composite sample with 10% SiC reinforcement is very
different from the composite with 40% B 4C reinforcement. The amount of pores between SiC particles and Al 7075
powders appears to be quite small. Since the SiC reinforcement ratio is low, intergranular bond formation is much more
than 40% B4C reinforced composite.

85
3.3. Evaluation of hardness results
The graphs drawn according to the hardness values obtained by measuring the composite samples according to the
sintering time and the reinforcement ratios are shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7 Hardness values of composite samples

Looking at the graph in Figure 7, the first paddle factor is decrease in hardness values as increase of the reinforcement
ratios.The highest hardness values were obtained from composite specimens with 40% reinforced samples of the highest
reinforcement ratio. This is in line with similar studies in the literature. Similar results were shown in Özkan’s study and in
some other studies by Kılıç [14,15]. The highest hardness value in all composite specimens was measured as 76.44 HBW
at 40% B4C reinforced samples. The lowest hardness value was recorded as 46.36 HBW in the composite sample of 10%
SiC reinforced. Because B4C particles are in avery hard phase, higher hardness values are obtained in B4C reinforced
composites than in SiC reinforced composites. In the same way, SiC + B4C mixed reinforced samples showed similar
results. In such composite structures, it can be said that the increase of the amount of reinforcing element increases the
pore and pore ratio while the hardness values increase. The 1000× magnified microstructure SEM images of the
composite samples with the highest and lowest hardness values are given in Figure 8.

10% SiC 40% B4C

Figure 8 SEM images of Al 7075 composites reinforced with 10% SiC and 40% B4C

Referring to the SEM images in Figure 8, reinforcing element particles are observed intensively in the composite structure
reinforced with 40% B4C (b). The highest hardness value was obtained for this composite specimen because the B 4C
reinforcing element is as high as 40% and has a very rigid structure. On the other hand, the sample with the lowest
reinforcement ratio, 10% SiC (a) reinforced composite showed the lowest hardness value. The biggest problem with such
particle reinforced composites is that the reinforcing particles do not disperse in the desired homogeneity. Particularly, it is
frequently encountered with accumulation of collapses at certain points and aggregation problems. In such cases, healthy
measurement results cannot be obtained, and unexpected measurement values can occur. However, the hardness
measurements obtained in this study are in agreement with the reportedresults in the literature. According to these results,
it can be said that the reinforcement element distributions in the composites produced are sufficiently homogeneous.

3.4. Evaluation of Cross-Break Results

Graphs are shown in Figure 9 according to the values of composite samples obtained from cross-break tests conducted
in accordance with ASTM-B 528-05.

86
 Figure 9 Cross-Break Load Values of Composite Samples

When graphs in Figure 9 are examined, in relation to increase in reinforcement element in composite structure (SiC,
B4C), rupture strength values decreased generally. The lowest rupture values were observed as 202 N in 40% SiC
reinforced composite sample. The highest value was observed as 1378 N in 10% B 4C reinforced composite sample. In
relation to reinforcement ratios increasing in pores around SiC and B 4C particles, rupture strength decreased, and
affected mechanical features negatively. Also, angular and sharp structured SiC and B 4C particles eased rupture in
composite structure applying notch effect on composite structure. Therefore, the results from rupture values and images
of microstructures are supportive to each other. To review composite structure, rupture surface, SEM images of rupture
surfaces of composite samples with the highest and lowest rupture values at 1000× magnification, are given in Figure
10.

10% B4C 40% SiC

Figure 10 SEM images of 40% SiC and 10% B4C-reinforced Al 7075 composites

When ruptured surface images are examined in Figure 10, it is seen that ruptures occur generally as brittle fracture.
Rupture occurs mostly on Al 7075 matrix and SiC and B4C reinforcement element interface, and this results from
wetting problem, increasing pores between matrix and reinforcement interface and notch effect of reinforcement
elements in composite structure. Especially, 40% of the highest reinforcement ratio increased brittleness in composite
structure at a very high level. Notch effect of sharp-edged geometrical shape of SiC particles in composite structure was
more effective than B4C particles. When images in Figure 9 are examined,it is seen clearly that 10% B 4C (b) reinforced
composite structure is firmer and denser than 40% SiC (a) reinforced composite structure. It was referred before that
increase in sintering time relatively strengthened bond between Al 7075 matrix element in composite structure and
reinforcement elements. SEM imagesin Figure 9 support this thesis. Besides these comments, the most important
parameter affecting rupture test results is referred to as the reinforcement elements in composite structure.

3.5. Evaluation of wear results

The graphs plotted relating to the wear values of the composite samples according to the reinforcement type and the
reinforcement ratios from the wear tests with the pin on disc method are shown in Figure 11.

87
 Figure 11 Wear amounts of composite specimens

When graph in Figure 11 is examined, the amount of wear is observed before decrease and then increased. This situation
was the same for the three kinds of samples. However, the highest wear amount was recorded especially for the composite
sample with 40% B4C reinforcement. The amount of abrasion also increased with the increase of the reinforcement ratio
in SiC reinforced composite specimens. This is inversely proportional to hardness. Referring to the graphs of Figure 7, the
hardness values increase with increasing hard reinforcement phase in the composite structure. However, increased
hardness reduced wear resistance. A similar result is expressed in the work of Hasırcı and Gül [3].

In B4C reinforced composite specimens, the situation looks different. The highest amount of wear was found in 40%
reinforced composites, followed by 10% reinforced composites. The lowest amount of wear was obtained with 20% B4C
reinforced composites. This can be explained in two ways. First, as the reinforcement ratio increased from 10% to 20%,
the stiffness of the composite structure increased and the wear resistance increased accordingly. This situation is included
in some studies in the literature Meydanoglu, Mindivan, Kayalı, Cimenoglu [17]. Second, even though the
reinforcement ratio is 40% higher than the hardness value, it is more abrasive than the 20% reinforced composite. This is
not a very common result in the literature. However, as indicated in the microstructure studies of the 40% B4C reinforced
composite, the bond between the reinforcement and the matrix phase is too weak because of the increase in porosity and
void and the inability of the matrix material Al 7075 to wet the B4C particles. Also, it can be said that the ratio of 40% B4C
cannot hold enough in the structure and its amount is quite high. Therefore, during wear tests, B4C particles were easily
detached from the composite structure. Thus, in the Al 7075 matrix material, which is in a very soft phase compared to the
reinforcement element, wear losses have become more frequent. In Figure 12, the SEM images of the most and least
abrasive composite samples were given at 200× magnification for the microstructures taken before the wear test.

40% B4C 20% B4C

Figure 12 SEM images of Al 7075 composites reinforced with 40% B 4C and 20% B4C

When the SEM images of Figure12 are examined, it is observed that the 40% B 4C (a) reinforced sample is more porous
than the 20% B4C (b) reinforced sample. This extremely porous structure has helped to overcome wear losses. During
abrasion tests, the abrasive A12O3 particles on the abrasive sandpaper entered the pores of the surface of the composite
specimen, increasing the surface adhesion and increasing the amount of material removed from the surface. In SiC + B4C
reinforced composite specimens, a situation similar to that of B4C reinforced composites was observed. It can be said that
the B4C phase is more effective than the SiC phase in the mixed reinforced composite samples. There are not so many
differences between wear values. Particularly in the case of 20% SiC + 20% B4C reinforced composite specimen, less
wear loss occurred compared to 40% SiC and 40% B4C reinforced specimens and the composite structure exhibited more
stable wear behavior. After these evaluations, the composite specimen with 20% B 4C added, showing the highest wear
resistance and the lowest wear amount, appears to be the most optimal result when considering wear and settling together.
In addition to these comments on graphs and numerical values obtained, some of the optical microscope images taken at
400× magnification from the wear surfaces of composite samples are given in Figures 13, 14 and 15.
88
 40% SiC 20% SiC

10% SiC
Figure 13 Abrasion images of SiC reinforced composites at 400× magnification

When the images in Figure 13 are examined, it is seen that there is an increase in pore amount in the composite
structure as reinforcement ratio. Increase in strengthened the bond between Al 7075 powder particles, and weakened the
bond between Al 7075 structure and ceramic-featured SiC particles. Increase in reinforcement ratio made Al 7075
particles be closer and denser, and weakened bonds, created pores between SiC particles and Al 7075 structure. That
weakening and pores caused a large amount of SiC particles to break off composite structure during wear tests. At the
time SiC particles in hard phase broke off and were removed, there occurred deep scratches on composite structure.
Both amount of SiC particles and material loss as a result of scratches on Al 7075 structure increased wear level.
Therefore,the highest wear loss occurred in 40% SiC+Al 7075 composite sample. In Figure 13, it can be said that
optical microscope images and wear test results support each other.

40% B4C 20% B4C

10% B4C
Figure14 Wear images of B4C reinforced composites at 400× magnification
89
When optical microscope images examined in Figure 14, similar wear behaviors are seen in SiC-reinforced composites.
It can be said that increase in reinforcement ratio caused large amount of B 4Creinforcement element particles in
composite structure to break off surface. Especially when sample surface 40% reinforcement ratio is examined, pores
with such deep and large surface can be seen. B 4C particles at such hard phase easily broke off Al 7075 matrix density,
however,softened a little. Because there were high amounts of losses in B 4C in structure, and the remaining soft Al 7075
phase showed more abrasive behavior. It was said before that it is not so suitable for 40% B 4C reinforcement ratio to
come together as matrix and reinforcement. Because large amount of B 4C particles in composite structure were not wet
enough during sintering, strong bond did not occur in structure. Therefore, they broke off composite structure easily and
were removed during wear tests. According to this result, it can be said that B 4C particles that are wetted by Al 7075
matrix is less than SiC particles. A similar result is available in İpek’s study [18].

20 % SiC+20% B4C 10% SiC+10% B4C

5% SiC+5% B4C
Figure 15 Wear images of SiC+ B4C reinforced composites at 400× magnification

Wear behavior of SiC and B4C reinforcement element in sample where they are used in equal amounts and the sample
where B4C reinforcement is used alone showed similar features. Increase in reinforcement ratio resulted in wear level.
Unlike the previous composite specimens, some fine reinforcement particles are replaced by coarse grained
reinforcement particles that are detached from the structure.In addition, it can be said that the soft phase Al 7075 matrix
material is coated. Due to this wear behavior, in 20% SiC+20% B 4C, 10% SiC+10% B4C, 5% SiC+5% B4Creinforced
composite samples, wear level values are thought to be close to each other.

When optical microscope images in Figure 13, 14 and 15 and wear and hardness values are evaluated together, hardness
values increasein relation to the amount of SiC and B 4CAl 7075 added in matrix, and it can be said that such
mechanical features as wearing are affected negatively. A similar result is given in the study of Cambronero, Sanchez,
Ruiz-Roman, Ruiz-Prieto [19].

4. Conclusions
Results in the experimental study are given as follows;

- In composite samples created using powder metallurgy method, a homogenous reinforcement distribution was
obtained.In relation to the increase in reinforcement ratio, homogenous form also increased.In contrary, density
levels decreased.
- Pressing pressures of 700 MPa are sufficient, and pressures of 750 and 800 MPa can also be tried in future
studies.
- Hardness values also increased with increasing amount of reinforcement in composite structure. The highest
amount of wear was obtained from a sample reinforced with 40% B4C.
- Increasing the SiC and B4C reinforcement ratios reduced the fracture strength of the composites.
- Increase in the reinforcement ratios have adversely affected the wear behavior of the composites. For this work,
the sintering temperature of 550oC is sufficient, but the sintering time can be reduced by increasing the
temperature.

90
 - When the reinforcement type and ratio are evaluated together, the lowest wear value is obtained from a
reinforced composite sample of 20% B4C.
- For such composites, the ratios of 40% SiC and B 4C remain high in the composite structure. The desired bond
between the matrix and the reinforcing phases is not formed sufficiently. SiC particles showed better wetting
features than B4C particles and had a stronger bond with Al7075 matrix material.

5. Acknowledgment
This study was supported by Kırıkkale University, BAP Unit with the project number 2017/005.

6. References
1. Orhan A, Gür A. K, Çalıgülü U.,“ Production of Al Matrisli B4C Reinforced Composites Pressing Method ",
Electronic Journal of Machine Technologies, 4, 8-13, 2007.
2. Nazik C., “The Production of Aluminium Matrix-B4C Particle Reinforced Composites by Powder Metallurgy
Method and Investigation of Their Mechanical Properties”,Master of Science, The Graduate School Of Natural
And Applied Science of Selçuk University, Konya, 2013.
3. Hasırcı H.,Gül F.,“ Investigation of Abrasive Wear Behaviours in B4C /Al Composites Depending On
Reinforcement Volume Fraction”,SDU International Technologic Science, 2, 1,15-21, 2010.
4. Gomez L., Busquets-Mataix D., Amigo V., Salvador M.D., “Analysis of boron carbide aluminium matrix
composites”, Journal of Composite Materials, 43, 987-995, 2009.
5. Sahin Y., “Preparation and some properties of SiC particle reinforced aluminum alloy composites”, Materials and
Design, 24, 671-679, 2003.
6. Alpas A.T., Zhang J., “Effect of microstructure (particulate size and volume fraction) and counterface material on
the sliding wear resistance of particulate-reinforced aluminum matrix composites”, Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions A, 25A, 969-983, 1994.
7. Sawla S., Das S., (2004). “Combined effect of reinforcement and heat treatment on the two body abrasive wear of
aluminum alloy and aluminum particle composites”, Wear, 257, 555-561.
8. Kennedy A. R., Brampton B., “The reactive wetting and incorporation of B4C particles into molten aluminum”,
ScriptaMaterialia, 44, 1077-1082, 2001.
9. Buytoz S., Eren H., “Effect of ParticleReinforcements onAbrasiveWearPerformance of Aluminum Metal
MatrixComposites”, ScienceandEng.J of Fırat Univ., 19, 2, 209-216, 2007.
10. TS EN ISO 4498, “Sintered metal materials, excluding hardmetals - Determination of apparent hardness and
microhardness”, TSE, Ankara, 2011.
11. TS EN ISO 6506-1, “Metallicmaterials - Brinellhardness test - Part 1: Test method” ,TSE, Ankara, 2014.
12. ASTM B312, “Transverse Rupture Strength Test Fixture of Metal Powder”, ASTM International West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States, 2008.
13. ASTM-B 528-05, “Standard Test MethodforTransverseRuptureStrength of Metal PowderSpecimens”ASTM
International West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States, 2008.
14. Özkan S., “Production by Mechanical Alloying Method of Aluminum Matrix SiC Particle Reinforced
Composites and Investigation of Dry Wear Behavior”, Master's Thesis, Gazi Üni. Institute of science, Ankara,
2007.
15. Kılıç E.F., Investigation of Production and Wear Behavior of Aluminum Alloy SiC Particle Reinforced
Composites by Powder Metallurgy Method, Master's Thesis, Gazi Uni.Institute of science, Ankara, 2007.
16. Lillo T. M., “Enhancing Ductility of Al6061 + 10 wt.% B4C Through Equal-channel Angular Extrusion
Processing”, Materials Science and Engineering A, 410-411, 443-446, 2005.
17. Meydanoğlu O.,Mindivan H., Kayalı E., Çimenoğlu, H., “Investigation of WearBehavior of Hot Pressed B 4C
ReinforcedAluminumMatrix Composites”,11th International MaterialSymposium, 19-21 April, Denizli, 2006.
18. İpek R., “Adhesive wear behaviour of B4C and SiC reinforced 4147 Al matrix composites (Al/ B 4C–Al/SiC)”,
Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 162–163, 71–75, 2005.
19. Cambronero L.E.G., Sánchez E., Ruiz-Roman J.M., Ruiz-Prieto J.M., “Mechanical characterisation of AA7015
aluminium alloy reinforced with ceramics”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 143–144, 378–383,
2003.

91
 Study of Tribological behavior of BN and DLC nano coatings on Piston
Rings
eynep Burcu Acunaş Karagöz1, Hakan Kaleli2, Mahdi Khadem3,4, Dae-Eun Kim3,4
Z

1 YILDIZ Technical University, Mechanical Faculty, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Energy Division, Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]
2 YILDIZ Technical University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Automotive Division,
Istanbul 34349, TURKEY
[email protected]
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
[email protected]
4 Center for Nano-Wear, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
[email protected]

Surface coating technology for engine components has been used in recent years under
lubrication conditions in order to achieve ultra-low friction and low wear rates. One of the promising
coating materials is diamond-like carbon (DLC) and boron nitride (BN) which mainly provides high
hardness, chemically inert, low friction and high wear resistance. This experimental study focuses on
the friction and wear characteristics of DLC and BN (both 200 nm of thickness). The coatings were
deposited by magnetron sputtering process using RF (for BN) and DC (for DLC) power sources on
Honda GX270 engine (nodular cast iron) piston rings and experimentally investigated under boundary
lubricated conditions during Tribometer tests. A negative bias of 40 V was applied during the
deposition of the DLC coatings. No pre-heating prior to the coating deposition was ionvolved
(substrate temperature: RT).
DLC and BN coatings showed less friction results than BN (600 nm of thickness), Carbon
Nanotubes (CNTs), Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) and synthesized graphene, respectively. BN (200 nm of
thickness) coating presented slightly lower friction behavior than DLC (200 nm of thickness) coating
during friction reciprocating test. Surface analysis of the samples was carried out using Digital
Optical, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)-EDX and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). Additive
layers were formed and elements such as B, C, Zn, P, S and Ca were detected on the rubbed surface of
both real piston rings and cylinder liner as a result of surface analysis.

Keywords: Diamond-like carbon coating, Boron Nitride coating, Surface characterization.

REFERENCES

[1] Nor A. B. M.; Kenji O., Noritsugu U., Hiroyuki K., Takayuki T., Shigeru I., Koji Z. and
Masahito F. “Hardness effect of DLC on tribological properties for sliding bearing under
boundary lubrication condition in additive-free mineral base oil”, Tribology International 65
(2013) 265–269.

92
[2] M. Kalin, I. Velkavrh, J. Vižintin and L. Ožbolt “Review of boundary lubrication mechanisms
of DLC coatings used in mechanical applications”, Meccanica (2008) 43: 623–637.
[3] Xiaoli Kong, Bo Zhou, Jixiao Wang, Wenping Li, “Engineering research of DLC coating in
piston pins and bucket tappets”, Industrial Lubrication and Tribology, 68/5 (2016) 530–535.
[4] N. B. Dahotre, S. Nayak, “Nanocoatings for engine application”, Surface & Coatings
Technology 194 (2005) 58– 67.
[5] S. Rudolph, “Composition and Application of Coatings Based on Boron Nitride”, Interceram,
Vol. 42, No. 5. 1993.
[6] H. Cesur, B. Kaftanoglu, A. Kalkanli and B. Oral, “Deposition of Boron Nitride Coating On
Steel Substrates By RF Magnetron Sputtering”, Proceedings of the 7th International
Conference “The” Coatings in Manufacturing Engineering, 1-3 October 2008, Chalkidiki,
Greece, pp.409-415.
[7] A. S. Kamenetskikh, N V Gavrilov, O. V. Koryakova, and S. O. Cholakh, “BN coatings
deposition by magnetron sputtering of B and BN targets in electron beam generated plasma”,
13th International Conference on Films and Coatings, IOP Conf. Series: Journal of Physics:
Conf. Series 857 (2017) 012017.
[8] S. Nasrazadani and P. Vemuri, “Synthesis of Cubic Boron Nitride Thin Films on Silicon
Substrate Using Electron Beam Evaporation”, AIP Conference Proceedings 788, 501 (2005);
doi: 10.1063/1.2063010.

93
 Effect of Resin Content on Friction and Wear Behaviour of Non-Asbestos
Composite Friction Material Used in Brake Pad

H. Yanar1, H.H. Ayar2, M. Demirtas3, G. Purcek1

1
Mechanical Engineering Department , Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, TURKEY
[email protected], [email protected]
2
Metisafe Company, Kazan-Ankara, TURKEY
[email protected]
3
Mechanical Engineering Department, Bayburt University, Bayburt, TURKEY
[email protected]

Friction and wear characteristic of friction materials s used in vehicles’ brake systems have
great importance for safe braking performance. Friction materials should exhibit adequate and stable
friction coefficient and should have minimum sensitivity to brake operating parameters. Considering
these requirements composite friction materials have become recently one of the most important group
of friction materials. They consist of four types of ingredients: fibres, binder, fillers and friction
modifiers, and these ingredients have different effects on friction performance of composite friction
materials. Among them, binder (phenolic resin) is one of the most important ones since it firmly binds
all additives in the composite and has a significant effect on the friction performance of the composite.
Therefore, it is very important to determine the accurate amount of resin in the composite matrix in
order to prevent any deterioration of friction performance and mechanical properties of composite
friction material during its usage. In this study, resin content of a composite friction material was
optimized for a specific matrix composition in order to achieve the best combination of tribo-
performance and mechanical properties. For this purpose, different amount of resin ranging between
16 wt.% and 20 wt.% were added to the matrix by changing only the filler (barite) content of the
composite. Subsequently, friction and wear behavior of the samples were analyzed using a pin-on-
disc type test rig developed for testing of brake pad materials (Brake Pad Friction Tester, www.uts-
design.com). After the tribological tests, the worn surfaces of the samples were scanned using a 3D
surface profilometer to analyze friction and wear characteristics of the samples in detail. The results
demonstrated that the average friction coefficient of composite and temperature of the disc surface
showed a linear increase with decreasing the resin content. The composite having 20 wt.% resin
showed the minimum wear rate with smooth worn surface that was almost entirely covered with
secondary plateaus, i.e. the amount of fade is quite high. As the amount of resin in the composite
structure decreased, fade formation also decreased, and the composite structure with 16% resin
brought about the minimum fade formation. As the fade formation is unwanted in brake pad
applications, the composite with the lowest amount of resin (16 wt.%) was proposed to be the most
appropriate one considering the performance parameters related to friction and wear.

Keywords: Non-asbestos composites brake pad, binder, friction materials, friction and wear.

94
 Thermal Stress Analysis of a Dry Friction Clutches

Oday I. Abdullah1,2, Josef Schlattmann2, Hussein K. Jobair1, Nasser Eddine Beliardouh3,

Hakan KALELI4
1 Department of Energy Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Iraq
[email protected]
2 System Technologies and Engineering Design Methodology, Hamburg University of
Technology, Hamburg, Germany
[email protected]
3 Department of Metallurgy, Surface Engineering Laboratory (LIS), Badji Mokhtar University
of Annaba, Algeria
[email protected]
4 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Automotive Division, Yıldız Technical University,
Istanbul, Turkey

ABSTRACT

The frictional heat generated in the dry friction clutches during the initial period of engagement
lead to produce high thermal stress in the contacting parts. The distribution of contact pressure affects
significantly the magnitude and distribution of the produced thermal stress. The high local heat
generated was appeared in the contacting surfaces due to the nonuniformity of the distribution of
contact pressure during the heating phase (sliding time) and this will lead to dramatically increasing in
the thermal stresses.
There are many factors are responsible to specify the stability status of the sliding system such
as material properties, dimensions, working conditions, etc. The theoretical model of a friction clutch
which used to find the contact pressure, the frictional heat generated and the thermal stresses through
the heating phase has been developed.
Numerical work was achieved utilizing the developed finite element model (axisymmetric
model) to build the single-disc friction clutch system in the dry condition. This research paper
presented a comprehensive picture about the distributions of the heat generation, contact pressure and
thermal stresses at any instant during the sliding period, and the complex interaction among them.

Keywords: Thermal stresses, Dry friction clutches, Contact mechanics, Finite element method.

INTRODUCTION

The friction clutches and brakes in vehicles are subject oftentimes to the high thermal stresses,
and these stresses were generated as an outcome of the slipping and the high contact pressure which

95
happened between the contacting surfaces. Thermal stresses may lead to appear serious problems such
as thermal cracks and plastic deformations, if the friction clutch works under these conditions, this will
leads to early failure (before the designed lifetime) in the surfaces of friction clutch.
Figure 1 shows the friction clutch through the engaging process; where the major parts of the
friction clutch system (single-disc with two effective faces) comprise clutch disc, pressure plate and
flywheel. This type of clutches consists of clutch disc which faced with a friction material from both
sides. Owing to the existing of relative speed between the clutch’s elements through a heating phase,
the high amount of heat will be generated. The next phase (full engagement period of cooling phase)
will occur when all elements of the friction clutch rotate with the same speed as shown in Figure 2.
Zagrodaki [1,2] analyzed the thermal stresses and the temperature distribution of the wet multi-
disc clutches. It was assumed that the thermal properties of the discs non-homogenous. Finite element
and finite difference models were used to achieve the numerical analysis. It was found when reducing
the radial component of the temperature gradually affects the magnitude and the distribution of
thermal stresses adversely.
Barber et al. [3-7] investigated the thermomechanical problem of different sliding systems such
as friction clutches and brakes using analytical and numerical approaches. The reduced order model
approximation was developed to describe using one or more dominant perturbation (eigenfunctions). It
was proved that the mathematical model of the sliding system with a modest degree of freedom can
give acceptable results of the contact pressure and the temperature. One of the most important
conclusions was the reduced order models have very good approximations in the early period of the
automotive brake or clutch engagement when the sliding speed is above the critical sliding speed of
the system.
Abdullah et al. [8-16] investigated the thermoelastic problem in the dry friction clutches through
multi-engagements under different working conditions. The effect of many design parameters and
factors on the performance of friction clutches were studied such sliding time, thickness, disc radius,
types of grooves, etc. The solution of the contact problems between clutch’s elements has been
extensively investigated to compute the contact pressure at any time during the heating and cooling
phases. The results presented the full history of the coupling between the contact pressure and the
temperature during the heating phase (sliding period).
The developed numerical models to compute and analyze the frictional heat generated and the
thermal stresses of the friction clutch (single-disc) works in dry condition during the heating phase
(sliding period) are presented in this paper. The numerical solutions of the thermoelastic problem in
friction clutches were obtained using finite element technique. The pressure which applied on the back
surface of the pressure plate was supposed constant during the whole time of the engagement and it
was taken into account in the numerical analysis the effect of convection.

96
 pressure plate

flywheel cover pressing

helical spring

friction facing

thrust bearing

move axially to
disengage

crankshaft or spline or
motor shaft keyed drive
driven or
gearbox end
spigot bearing clutch disc

Figure 1. Single-disc friction clutch system during the engagement operation.

To
Torque [Nm]

thermal + contact pressure thermal +

contact pressure +
centrifugal effect

Slipping period ts Full engagement period

Figure 2. Description of load conditions during the engagement cycle of the friction clutches.

FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION

The finite element simulation of the dry friction clutch system is presented in this section.
Owing to the symmetry in the geometry of friction clutch’s elements (flywheel, friction clutch disc
and pressure plate), restriction and load condition, therefore axisymmetric models can be utilized to
build the numerical model of the friction clutch. Figures 3 and 4 illustrate the developed thermal and

97
contact axisymmetric models of the friction clutch system (single-disc with two effective friction
faces), these figures include the complete thermal and structural conditions. Where h is thecoefficent
of heat transfer by convection. Qgen.f, Qgen.c and Qgen.p represent the amount of the heat frictional
generated which enters into flywheel, friction clutch disc and pressure plate, respectively. Through the
heating phase (slipping time), the rate of the frictional heat generated between the contacting surfaces
of the friction clutch system at any instant per unit area (W/m2) is [10],
q(r, t)   p  r , 0  t  ts (1)

where μ, p, ω and r represent the coefficients of friction, the contact pressure, the angular sliding speed
and the disc radius, respectively. Assuming the sliding angular speed function with time as,
t
(t)   (1 ) ,0  t  t (2)
o s
ts
where ωo represents the angular sliding speed at ts = 0.
The friction clutch engagement was simulated by solving coupling problem instantaneously
(transient heat conduction and elastic problems). It can be found the contact pressure distribution p(r,t)
by solving the contact problem based in the specified temperatures of the system T(r,z,t). This is done
by solving Hook’s law with thermal strain relations,
1   
ij      T  (3)
ij mm ij
E E 
the equilibrium equation is,
 ij
0 (4)
x j
All boundary conditions on the exposed surfaces and displacement constraints were taken into
consideration in the mentioned equations. The obtained contact pressure from the elastic analysis can
be used in equation (1) to calculate the frictional heat generated at any instant. The second problem
(the transient heat conduction) needs to solve the following equation,
1 T
2T  (5)
k t
to compute the new distribution of temperature T (r, z,t  t) . The working conditions of this problem
involve the frictional heat flux q(r,t) which found at the contact interface, which can consist of
convective and insulated surfaces.
Figure 5 exhibits the flowchart of the developed procedure which adopted based on the finite
element method to find the coupling between the stress and temperature fields of the friction clutch
system. Two different numerical models were prepared; the elastic contact model (1st model) was used
to compute the contact pressure distribution and the thermal stresses, while the transient heat
conduction model (2nd model) was used to compute the temperature field during the heating phase

98
(sliding time). In order to develop the numerical model, ANSYS APDL (ANSYS Parametric Design
Language) code has been built to obtain the thermal stresses of the friction clutch.
The friction and steel materials were assumed isotropic and homogeneous, Table. 1 lists the
properties of selected materials and the operational parameters of the friction clutch system. It was
assumed that the convective heat transfer coefficient is equal to 40.89 W/m2 K [10] and constant over
all exposed surfaces.

Qgen.f+ Qgen.c

flywheel

z
clutch disc contact z
r surfaces r h h

pressure plate h

applied pressure h Qgen.p+ Qgen.c

Figure 3. Elastic FE model with boundary Figure 4. Thermal FE model with boundary
conditions. conditions.

ωo, pa Friction heat generation

Δt, Nstep qi = μ ωo ri pi

i=0
t=0
Elastic analysis Thermal analysis
“elastic model” “heat conduction model”
Ti

i=i+1 No
t = t + Δt i =Nstep

Yes

End

Figure 5. Flowchart of the developed thermal- structural coupling.

99
 Table 2. Operational parameters and material properties of the friction clutch system.

Parameters Values
Inner radius of friction material and axial cushion, [m] 0.06298
Outer radius of friction material and axial cushion, [m] 0.08721
Thickness of friction material, [m] 0.003
Thickness of axial cushion, [m] 0.0015
Inner radius of pressure plate, [m] 0.05814
Outer radius of pressure plate, [m] 0.09205
Thickness of pressure plate, [m] 0.00969
Inner radius of flywheel, [m] 0.04845
Outer radius of flywheel, [m] 0.0969
Thickness of flywheel, [m] 0.01938
Applied pressure, pa [MPa] 1
Coefficient of friction, μ 0.2
Maximum angular slipping speed, ωo [rad/sec] 75
Number of friction surfaces, n 2
Young’s modulus of friction material, [GPa] 0.30
Young’s modulus of pressure plate, flywheel and axial cushion,
125
[Gpa]
Poisson’s ratio of friction material, [Gpa] 0.25
Poisson’s ratio of pressure plate, flywheel and axial cushion 0.25
Density of friction material, [kg/m3] 2000
Density of pressure plate, flywheel and axial cushion, [kg/m3] 7800
Specific heat of friction material, [J/kg K] 120
Specific heat of pressure plate, flywheel and axial cushion, [J/kg K] 532
Conductivity of friction material, [W/mK ] 1
Conductivity of pressure plate, flywheel and axial cushion, [W/mK] 54
Thermal expansion of friction material and steel, [K-1] 12×10-6
Slipping time, ts [s] 0.4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The numerical solutions of the transient thermoelastic problem of the friction clutch system
(two effective frictional faces) was found to explore the variation in the amount and distribution of the
heat generated, the contact pressure and the thermal stresses during the heating period. Series of
computation have been conducted to obtain the full history of the friction clutch’s behavior during the
selected period. The effect of convection was considered in the developed thermal-structural coupling
analysis.
Figure 6 and 7 show the contours of the normalized heat generated and contact pressure of the
clutch disc surface (pressure plate side) through the heating phase. It can be seen that the heat
generated values decreases with time from maximum values at ts=0 to the minimum values (zero) at

100
the end of the heating phase (slipping time). The reason to obtain these results is that the heat
generated is directly proportional to the sliding speed, where the sliding speed of the friction clutches
started with a maximum value at the begging of the heating phase, and decrease to zero at the end of
the heating phase. The highest values of heat generated at the begin of the sliding period focused on a
small zone which located near the outer radius of clutch disc. When the time passed, the distribution of
the heat generated changed to be semi-uniform after the mid time of the sliding period. The other
figure exhibits that the contact pressure at ts=0 focused on the area which located between mean and
outer radii of the clutch disc. Later on, due to the thermal deformations the trend of the contact
pressure changed and the highest values moved to the area which located between inner and mean
radii of clutch disc. The ratio of the maximum contact pressure at the end of the sliding period to the
maximum one at the begin of heating phase is found to be 1.3.
The distribution of the normalized radial stresses with a radius of the disc and time of the
friction clutch’s surface (pressure plate side) is shown in Figure 8. At the begin of the sliding period
the distribution of the radial stresses was semi-uniform, but after short time (t ≈ 0.2ts) this distribution
changed, and the radial stresses increased and focused on the specific zone which located near the
mean radius of clutch until the end of the sliding period. It was noticed that the radial stresses which
appeared on the clutch surface were compressive stresses at any instant of the sliding period. These
results occurred due to the non-uniformities in the distribution of the temperature, and this affects
negatively the distribution of the radial stresses. One observes that the highest compressive stresses
occurred at r =0.0787m (r =1.25ri). The effect of the compressive stresses decreased when the values
of temperatures decreased too.
Figure 9 illustrates the variation of the normalized circumferential stresses on the clutch disc’s
surface (pressure plate side) with radius of clutch disc during the sliding time. The circumferential
stresses ware distributed uniformly approximately until ts =0.08, later the distribution trend changed
and the highest compressive circumferential stresses effect on the area which located between the
inner and mean radius of clutch disc. The maximum value of the circumferential stresses during the
whole sliding period occurred at the inner radius of clutch disc.

101
 Time [s]

Figure 6. Variation of normalized heat generation on the friction

clutch disc with radius and time (pressure plate side).
Time [s]

Figure 7. Variation of normalized contact pressure on the friction

clutch disc with radius and time (pressure plate side).

102
 Time [s]

Figure 8. Variation of normalized radial stresses on the friction clutch

disc with radius and time (pressure plate side).
Time [s]

Figure 9. Variation of normalized circumferential stresses on the

friction clutch disc with radius and time (pressure plate side).

CONCLUSIONS AND REMARKS

The transient thermoelastic analysis of the friction clutches during the sliding period has been
developed in this research paper. Axisymmetirc finite element models have been developed to find the
solution of the thermal-structure coupling problem which included the frictional heat generated. The
contact pressure, the heat generated and the thermal stresses have been computed for the friction
clutch system at any time during the sliding operation. The developed numerical model specified the
complex interaction that exists among the contact pressure, the frictional heat generated and thermal
stresses.

103
 When the sliding period started a high amount of heat was generated very quickly due to the
interaction of the contact pressure, the sliding speed and the coefficient of friction. This huge amount
of heat generated leads to fast growth in the thermal deformations. Subsequently, these thermal
deformations affect negatively the contact pressure distribution and changed the contact pressure
distribution from a semi-uniform at the begin of the sliding period to non-uniform one after a short
time.
It was found that the values of circumferential stresses were higher than the radial stresses, and
the ratio of the maximum circumferential stress to the maximum radial stress was 3.
This numerical work is considered a promising technique to study the effect of material
properties, surface roughness, sliding speed and boundary conditions on the thermal stresses which
induce in the surfaces of the friction clutches.

REFERENCES

[1] Zagrodzki P., “Numerical analysis of temperature fields and thermal stresses in the friction discs of a
multidisc wet clutch,”, Wear, vol.101(3), pp. 255-271, 1985.
[2] Zagrodzki P., “Analysis of thermomechanical phenomena in multidisc clutches and brakes,”, Wear, vol.
140(2), pp.291-308, 1990.
[3] Y. Taein, and J. Barber, “Finite element analysis of the stability of static thermoelastic contact,”, J.
Therm. Stresses, vol.19(2), pp. 169-184, 1996.
[4] S. Du, P. Zagrodzki, J. Barber, and G. Hulbert, “Finite element analysis of frictionally-excited
thermoelastic instability,”, J. Therm. Stresses, vol.20(2), pp. 185-201, 1997.
[5] A. Al-Shabibi, and J. Barber, “Transient solution of a thermoelastic instability problem using a reduced
order model,”, Int. J. Mech. Sci., vol. 44(3), pp. 451-464, 2002.
[6] E. Al-Bahkali, and J. Barber, “Nonlinear steady state solution for a thermoelastic sliding system using
finite element method,”, J. Therm. Stresses, vol. 29(2), pp. 153-168, 2006.
[7] A. Al-Shabibi, and J. Barber, “Transient solution of the unperturbed thermoelastic contact problem,”, J.
Therm. Stresses, vol. 32(3), pp. 226-243, 2009.
[8] O. Abdullah, and J. Schlattmann , “Thermal Behavior of Friction Clutch Disc Based on Uniform
Pressure and Uniform Wear Assumptions,”, Friction, vol.4(3), pp. 1-10, 2016.
[9] O. Abdullah, and J. Schlattmann, “Temperature Analysis of A Pin-On-Disc Tribology Test Using
Experimental and Numerical Approaches,”, Friction, vol.4(2), pp. 1-9, 2016.
[10] O. Abdullah, M. Akhtar, and J. Schlattmann, “Investigation of Thermo-Elastic Behavior of Multidisk
Clutches,”, J. Tribol.-T. Asme, vol.137(1), pp. 1-9, 2015.
[11] O. Abdullah, J. Schlattmann, and M. Lytkin, “Effect of Surface Roughness on the Thermoelastic
Behavior of Friction Clutches,”, FME Transactions, vol. 43(3), pp. 241-248, 2015.
[12] O. Abdullah, and J. Schlattmann, “An Investigation into the Thermal Behavior of the Grooved Dry
Friction Clutch,”, J. Tribol.-T. Asme, vol.136(3), pp. 1-6, 2014.
[13] O. Abdullah, and J. Schlattmann, “Computation of Surface Temperatures and Energy Dissipation in
Dry Friction Clutches for Varying Torque with Time,”, Int. J. Auto. Tech. Kor., vol.15(5),p. 733-740,
2014.
[14] O. Abdullah, and J. Schlattmann, “A Three-Dimensional Finite Element Approach to Grooved Dry
Clutches Analysis,”, J BALK TRIBOL ASSOC, vol.20(2), pp. 184-198, 2014.
[15] O. Abdullah, J. Schlattmann, and E. Pireci, “Design Optimization of the Rigid Drive Disc of Clutch
Using Finite Element Method,”, SAE Technical Paper, No. 2014-01-0800, 2014.
[16] O. Abdullah, and J. Schlattmann, “An Investigation of Heat Generation Due to Friction Using Finite
Element Method,”, SAE Technical Paper, No. 2014-01-0954, 2014.

104
Analytical Simulation of Frictional Heat Generated in the Friction Clutches
Using MATLAB GUI

Oday I. Abdullah1,2, Josef Schlattmann2, Mahir H. Majeed3, Bashir Salah4

1 Department of Energy Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Iraq
[email protected]
2 System Technologies and Engineering Design Methodology, Hamburg University of
Technology, Hamburg, Germany
[email protected]
3 Al-Furat Al-Awsat Technical University, Karbala, Iraq
[email protected]
4 Department of Mechanical Eng., College of Engineering, King Saud University,
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
[email protected]

ABSTRACT

There are many issues influencing negatively on the design of friction clutches, one of them is
the frictional heat generated which appeared during the initial engagement. The amount and
distribution of the heat generated is depending on many variables such as the contact pressure, the
coefficient of friction, sliding speed, etc.
In this paper, Matlab program was built based on the analytical solutions that used to determine
the distribution and the amount of the total heat generated at the interface between the contacting parts
of the friction clutch. Furthermore, the amount and distribution of the frictional heat generated on the
contact area of each element of friction clutch (flywheel, clutch disc, and pressure plate) during the
sliding stage was calculated.
Finally, the program was introduced using MATLAB GUI (graphical user interfaces) to analyze
the heat generated on the friction clutch surfaces. Different types of materials (thermal properties),
sliding time, torque function and angular sliding speed function can be entered into the software to
find the solution for a specific case of a single-plate friction clutch.

Keywords: Dry friction clutches, Frictional heat generated, Thermal Analysis, Matlab- GUI.

INTRODUCTION

The friction clutch is considered an essential element in the process of power transmission;
therefore all automotive designers want to obtain the optimal performance and increasing the lifecycle
of the friction clutch discs. The heat generated during the sliding period is one of the biggest obstacles

105
which faced the engineers’ designers. Apart of the reason, there are many variables that effect on this
process such as the contact pressure distribution, the coefficient of friction, the materials properties,
and the sliding speed, etc. For that reason, the solution of the thermal problem of the friction clutches
is considered the key to obtain acceptable results with low values of errors.
The thermal behaviour, the energy dissipated and the performance of different kinds of dry
friction clutches under different working conditions were studied by Abdullah et al. [1-16]. Also, they
investigated the effect of surface roughness of the friction clutch discs on the thermo-elastic
phenomenon under a single and multi-engagements. The deep understanding was presented about the
calculations of the energy dissipated and stored in the clutch system during and after the sliding
period. Furthermore, they developed finite element models (two and three dimensions) to determine
the effective parameters and factors on the lifetime of friction clutch surfaces.
The aim of this work is to present the analytical solutions of the thermal problems of the friction
clutch discs to obtain the rate and distribution of the total heat generated between the contact parts
(pressure plate and clutch disc from one side and the clutch disc and the flywheel from the other side)
and the rate and distribution of heat generated which enters to each part of the clutch system.
In the second part of this paper, the obtained analytical solutions were programmed using
MATLAB GUI to build a specific tool that has the ability to analyze the frictional heat generation
within the surfaces of the elements of a friction clutch (flywheel, clutch disc and pressure plate) during
the sliding period.

(a) Engaged (b) Disengaged

flywheel
pressure plate

friction facing
diaphragm spring release bearing

torsion spring

axial cushion

release lever

Figure 1. The engagement and disengagement operations of the friction clutch (single friction disc).

106
 ANALYTICAL MODEL (RATE OF ENERGY DISSIPATION)

Power transmission system shown in Figure 2, consists of two inertias I1 (input moment of
inertia) and I2 (output moment of inertia) rotating at different angular speeds ω1 and ω2 at any time t
throughout the clutch engagement. Where T1 is input torque and T2 is output torque. During slipping
the torque capacity of the clutch varies as a function of time ϕ (t). The equations of motion of the
system are expressed as follows [17]:

dω1
T1  (t)  I1 (1)
dt
dω2
(t)  T2  I2 (2)
dt
Integrating Equations 1 and 2, and using the initial conditions (at t = 0, ω1 = Ω1 and ω2 = Ω2)
yields:
T1 1 t
ω
1
I1
t
I1
(t) dt   1 (3)
0
t
T 1
ω2   2 t  (t) dt  2 (4)
I2 I2 0
The relative angular speed (ωr = ω1 - ω2) is
t

ωr  M t  P(t) dt  ωro (5)

0
T1 T2 1 1 
where M   , P(  ) , and ω     . If there is no external torques (M = 0),
ro 1 2
I1 I 2 I1 I2
equation (5) will be,
t

ωr  ωro  P(t) dt (6)

0

The slipping period ts is determined by setting (ωr = 0) in equation (6). Hence,

ts

ωro  P(t) dt (7)

0

The torque-time function during the slipping assuming a uniform wear condition between the contact
surfaces is [7]
 t   t  
m

 
 (t)  To   2   t  , 0  m  1 (8)
 ts    s  
where m is constant. When the torque is constant with time ϕ (t) is
 (t)  To (9)

107
 where T  T  n  p  r (r 2  r2 ) . The slipping time ts can be found from equation (7), and
o p max . i o i

relative angular speed ωr form equation (6). The slipping time and the relative angular speed for
torque varying with time are:

ts 
m  2 ωro (10)
m  1 PTo
   
2

ω (t)  ω 1 
1  m  2t    t m2   (11)
 
  

r ro


m  1  ts   ts  



The slipping time ts and relative angular speed ωr for constant torque with time are
ω ro 
ts  (12)
PTo
 t 
ωr (t)  ωro 1   (13)
 t
s 

The total thermal heat flux between the contact surfaces of the friction clutch at any instant during the
slipping time per unit area (W/m2) is [12]
 (t) ωr (t)
q(t)  (14)
At
where At is the total area of the friction faces of clutch. The total thermal heat flux q(t) when torque
varying with time is,
  t   t  
3

 2 m  1   m  1 t   2 m  2   

m1
  

 (t) ωr (t) To ωro 1   ts   ts   ts   

q(t)  At  At m  1   t  2m3 
 (15)

m3
t
 m  4 t    t  
  s  s 
The total heat flux between contact surfaces with time during slipping assuming a constant torque with
time is,
To ωro  t 


q(t)  1   (16)
At  ts 
The total heat generated during the slipping period when torque varies with time is,
ts

Qt  Qgen. f  Qgen.c  Qgen. p   (t) ωr dt

 0
(17)

where Qgen.f and Qgen.p are the total heat generated on the flywheel and the pressure plate sides,
respectively. Integrating equation (17) yields:
Toω tro sm3  4 m2  5m  2  
Qt   3  (18)
m  5m2  8m  4 


2


 
The total heat generated during the slipping period when torque is constant with time is,

108
 To ωro ts
Qt  (19)
2
Figure 3 shows the heat generation which enters into the friction clutch disc (qgen. c) and the heat which
transferred by convection from the exposed surfaces (qconv. c).

p p

T T2
T1 I1 I2
ω1 ω2 T

Figure 2. Basic system of power transmission.

qgen. c qgen. c

qconv. c
qconv. c

qgen. c qgen. c

Figure 3. Input and output thermal energies of a friction clutch disc

HEAT GENERATION ANALYSIS USING MATLAB GUI

In order to reduce the consuming time to find the solution of the heat generation problem of the
friction clutch system (single friction disc with two effective faces) during the slipping, MATLAB's
GUI software was built based on the analytical solution which found in section (2). Figure 4 illustrates
the Homepage of MATLAB's GUI software which called “Heat Flux Analyzer”. This software has
ability to compute the amount and distribution of the heat generated on the friction clutch, flywheel
and pressure plate surfaces. In all computations for the friction clutch model, it has been assumed a
homogeneous and isotropic material and all parameters and properties of materials are listed in Table
1.
Figures 5 and 6 present the variations of the total heat generated on the flywheel side based on
the uniform pressure and wear assumptions, respectively. It can be noticed from the figures that heat
generation based on the uniform pressure assumption increases linearly with disc radius, where the
minimum values of the heat flux located at the inner disc radius and the maximum values located at

109
the outer disc radius. While the distribution of heat generated which calculated based on uniform wear
assumption was uniform over the contacting surfaces.
Figures 7 and 8 show the variation of the heat generation which entered into the friction clutch
disc from the pressure plate side based on the uniform pressure and wear assumptions. It can be seen
the same behavior with figures 5 and 6, but the values of the heat generation which enters into the
friction clutch disc is less than 6% of the total heat generated for both assumptions. Generally, less
than 10% of the total heat generation will be absorbed by the frictional facing of clutch disc, and it will
concentrate in the surface area and regions nearby this area. This is one of the most important causes
which lead to the rapid wear in the friction facings. This situation occurs due to the poor thermal
properties of the friction material. Therefore, it is very important to use a friction material with the
good thermal properties to reduce the concentration of thermal load on certain small region.

Table. 1. The model parameters and material properties

Parameters Values
Inner disc radius of friction material and axial cushion, [m] 0.06298
Outer disc radius of friction material and axial cushion, [m] 0.08721
Coefficient of friction, μ 0.3
Number of friction surfaces 2
Torque [Nm] 432
Maximum angular slipping speed, [rad/sec] 200
Conductivity of friction material, [W/mK] 0.6
Conductivity of pressure plate and flywheel, [W/mK] 42
Density of friction material, [kg/m3] 1570
Density of pressure plate and flywheel, [kg/m3] 7800
Specific heat of friction material, [J/kg K] 534
Specific heat of pressure plate and flywheel, [J/kg K] 450

Figure 4. Heat Flux Analyzer Homepage.

110
 Total heat flux on flywheel side (uniform pressure) x 10

0.085

3.5

0.08
Radius [m]

2.5

0.075

1.5
0.07

0.5
0.065

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4

Figure 5. Variation of the total heat generated on the flywheel side

(uniform pressure assumption).

Total heat flux on flywheel side (uniform wear) x 10

0.085 3.5

0.08
2.5
Radius [m]

0.075

1.5

0.07

0.5
0.065

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4

Figure 6. Variation of the total heat generated on the flywheel side

(uniform wear assumption).

111
Heat flux on clutch plate - flywheel side (uniform pressure)

x 10
Heat Flux [W/m2]

1.5

0.5

0.085
0.4
0.08
0.3
0.075
0.2
0.07
0.1
0.065

Figure 7. Variation of the heat generated which entered into the friction
clutch disc (pressure plate side / uniform pressure assumption).

Heat flux on clutch - pressure plate side (uniform wear)

x 10
Heat flux [W/m2]

1.5

0.5

0.08
0.075
0.4
0.07 0.3
0.2
0.065 0.1

Figure 8. Variation of the heat generated which entered into the friction
clutch disc (pressure plate side / uniform wear assumption).

112
 CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, educational software called “Heat Flux Analyzer” which used to compute the
amount and distribution of the heat generation on the parts of friction clutch system (flywheel side and
pressure plate side) was built using Matlab GUI. In this software, any function of rotational sliding
speed and torque of friction clutch can be inserted to obtain rate of the heat generated with disc radius
and time.
The conclusions obtain from the present work can be summarized as follows:
• Enhance the analytical solution to find the distribution and the amount of the frictional heat
generation on the contact surfaces of the dry friction clutches elements at any instant during the sliding
period.
• Build new specific software based on Matlab GUI to analyze the heat generated in a friction clutch
system to reduce the time consuming for the calculations. This software has ability to find the
magnitude and distribution of the heat generated as list, surface figure, the contour figure of each part
of a friction clutch system, in addition to present the variation of the sliding speed during the sliding
period.
• Parametric study can be achieved using heat generated software for the clutch configuration and
material properties.

REFERENCES

[1] O. Abdullah, and J. Schlattmann , “Thermal Behavior of Friction Clutch Disc Based on Uniform
Pressure and Uniform Wear Assumptions,”, Friction, vol.4(3), pp. 1-10, 2016.
[2] O. Abdullah, and J. Schlattmann, “Temperature Analysis of A Pin-On-Disc Tribology Test Using
Experimental and Numerical Approaches,”, Friction, vol.4(2), pp. 1-9, 2016.
[3] O. Abdullah, M. Akhtar, and J. Schlattmann, “Investigation of Thermo-Elastic Behavior of Multidisk
Clutches,”, J. Tribol.-T. Asme, vol.137(1), pp. 1-9, 2015.
[4] O. Abdullah, and J. Schlattmann, “The Effect of Constraint Condition on Contact Pressure Distribution
of Multi-Disc Friction Clutches,”, Tribologia, vol.2015(6), pp. 9-18, 2015.
[5] O. Abdullah, J. Schlattmann, and M. Lytkin, “Effect of Surface Roughness on the Thermoelastic
Behavior of Friction Clutches,”, FME Transactions, vol. 43(3), pp. 241-248, 2015.
[6] O. Abdullah, and J. Schlattmann, “An Investigation into the Thermal Behavior of the Grooved Dry
Friction Clutch,”, J. Tribol.-T. Asme, vol.136(3), pp. 1-6, 2014.
[7] O. Abdullah, and J. Schlattmann, “Computation of Surface Temperatures and Energy Dissipation in
Dry Friction Clutches for Varying Torque with Time,”, Int. J. Auto. Tech. Kor., vol.15(5),p. 733-740,
2014.
[8] O. Abdullah, and J. Schlattmann, “A Three-Dimensional Finite Element Approach to Grooved Dry
Clutches Analysis,”, J BALK TRIBOL ASSOC, vol.20(2), pp. 184-198, 2014.
[9] O. Abdullah, J. Schlattmann, and E. Pireci, “Design Optimization of the Rigid Drive Disc of Clutch
Using Finite Element Method,”, SAE Technical Paper, No. 2014-01-0800, 2014.
[10] O. Abdullah, and J. Schlattmann, “An Investigation of Heat Generation Due to Friction Using Finite
Element Method,”, SAE Technical Paper, No. 2014-01-0954, 2014.
[11] O. Abdullah, and J. Schlattmann, “Finite Element Analysis for Grooved Dry Friction Clutch,”, Adv.
Mech. Eng. Appl., vol.2(1), pp. 121-133, 2012.
[12] O. Abdullah, and J. Schlattmann, “The Correction Factor for Rate of Energy Generated in the Friction
Clutches Under Uniform Pressure Condition,”, Journal of Advances in Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics, vol.5(6), 277-290, 2012.

113
[13] O. Abdullah, J. Schlattmann, and M. Akhtar, “Effect of the Thickness of the Frictional Lining on the
Thermoelastic Behaviour in the Dry Clutches,”, Journal of Tribological Journal Bultrib, vol.IV, pp. 137-
146, 2013.
[14] O. Abdullah, J. Schlattmann, and E. Pireci, “Optimization of Shape and Design Parameters of the Rigid
Clutch Disc Using FEM,”, FME Transactions, vol. 41(4), pp. 317-324, 2013.
[15] M. Akhtar, O. Abdullah, and J. Schlattmann, “Transient Thermoelastic Analysis of Dry Clutch
System,”, Machine Design, vol.5(4), pp. 141-150, 2013.
[16] O. Abdullah, and J. Schlattmann, “The Effect of Disc Radius on Heat Flux and Temperature
Distribution in Friction Clutches,”, Advanced Materials Research, vol.505, pp. 154-164, 2012.
[17] Jania Z. J, “Friction-clutch transmissions,”, Journal of Machine Design, vol.30, pp. 23-26, 1958.

114
 How electrostatic tribocharging does effect friction coefficient?

H. T. Baytekin and K. Sayfidinov

UNAM-National Nanotechnology Research Center,
Bilkent University, 06800, Ankara, Turkey.
[email protected]

In the last few years the interest towards the study of mechanism behind friction has gained
enormous attention since almost one-fourth of the total global energy is consumed by friction and
wear. However, tribological events are complicated considering the fact that various processes
encompassing changes in physical and chemical properties occur at the interfaces concurrently.
Therefore, the foundations of friction remain controversial. 1 Owing to tribological actions e. g.
contact between different phases of the matter, tribocharges are generated at the interfaces; via
electron, ion, and material transfer mechanisms. 2,3 Even though the fundamental mechanism is
still vague, it is believed that static electrification of polymers after tribological actions are utterly
because of electron transfer. Current studies unveiled that physical phenomena are not the only
source of surface electrification but chemical changes such as bond rupture and following surface
oxidation can also take place as a result of mechanical actions on the (insulating) polymer.
Consequently, these two groups of surface events: surface electrification and friction are expected
to demonstrate a mutual relation, and detailed study concerning this relation needs to be done in
contemplation of solving e.g. energy loss and wear problems in tribology.
To do this, it is essential to understand the main processes involved, and reveal the connections
between tribological events (e.g. triboelectrification and friction) and establish a relationship
between all the intrinsic and extrinsic properties of materials from nano to meso scale.
Thus, in this study, we investigated the contribution of triboelectrification to friction by taking
into account some common factors between prevalent (common) polymers and cellulose under
dry friction conditions. Finally, we display that dry sliding or rubbing two dielectric polymers on
each other results in surface charging that has significant effects on tribological properties.

Keywords: tribocharging, static electricity, dry friction coefficient, polymer, cellulose

REFERENCES

[1] H. T. Baytekin et al., The mosaic of surface charge in contact electrification, Science 333, 308–312 (2011).
[2] T. A. L. Burgo, A. Erdemir, Bipolar tribocharging signal during friction force fluctuations at metal-insulator
interfaces, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 53, 12101−12105, (2014)
[3] T. A. L. Burgo, C. A. Silva, L. B. S. Balestrin, F. Galembeck, Friction coefficient dependence on
electrostatic tribocharging, Sci. Rep. 3, 2384, (2013).
HTB thanks to the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) – Project No:
214M358.

115
 Friction and Wear Mechanism of Short-cut Aramid Fiber Reinforced
Elastomers

M. Khafidh1,2*, D.J. Schipper 1, M.A. Masen3, N. Vleugels1,2, J.W.M. Noordermeer1

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500AE, Enschede,
The Netherlands.
2
Dutch Polymer Institute DPI, P.O. Box 902, 5600AX Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London, SW7
2AZ, United Kingdom.
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Friction and wear are important phenomena during sliding contact of the elastomeric materials.
Wear reduction of elastomers can be achieved by minimizing the propagation of cracks in the elastomer
during sliding contact [1]. Adding fibers in the elastomers is a way to reduce the propagation of cracks
and as a result a reduction of wear. In the present study, the wear processes of fiber reinforced elastomers
as a function of sliding distance and their relation to friction were investigated.
The studied material was styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) reinforced by short-cut poly-p-
phenylene-terephtalamide (aramid) fibers. A pin-on-disc tribometer and a Keyence VHX-5000
microscope were used to analyze the friction and wear mechanisms of the compounds tested.
The results show that the wear processes of short-cut aramid fiber reinforced elastomers consists
of 4 stages: (1) initiation of cracks in the elastomer matrix, (2) propagation of cracks in the direction of
sliding, (3) elastomer matrix is pulled-out because the cracks are bent around by the fibers and (4) part
of the fibers which detach from the elastomer matrix align in the direction of sliding. These wear
processes greatly influence the friction behavior of the compounds.

Keywords: friction mechanism, wear mechanism, elastomer, short-cut aramid fiber.

REFERENCES

[1] B. Persson, "Theory of powdery rubber wear," Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter, vol. 21,
no. 48, p. 485001, 2009.

116
 EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL PREDICTION OF FRICTION COEFFICIENT IN LINE
CONTACT IN THE PRESENCE OF LUBRICANT

Alireza SAMADANI1, Saleh AKBARZADEH2

1)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Isfahan university of Technology, Isfahan,84156-83111, Iran
2)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Isfahan university of Technology, Isfahan, 84156-83111, Iran
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract: Friction and wear play an important role on the tribological performance of any
tribo-system. These two parameters are themselves functions of a variety of different
factors. For instance, material types, surface roughness, applied load and speed, and
lubricant properties highly affect the performance of the system.
Based on the geometry of the contacting surfaces, the contact is classified as point contact
or line contact. Contact of the teeth of standard involute spur gear is an example of a line
contact problem whereas contact of ball and ring in a ball bearing is a point contact
problem. In this research, experimental and theoretical investigation on the friction
coefficient in conformal and non-conformal line contact is conducted. The theoretical part
is based on the load-sharing concept and the friction coefficient is obtained assuming
Newtonian behaviour. The experimental part is conducted using a pin-on-disk test rig with
disks made from ST37 and pin made of AISI 52100 bearing steal. Load and speed is varied
in the experiments while the lubricant and surface roughness is constant.

Keywords: Wear, Pin-on-disk, Point contact, Line contact.

1. Introduction
Mechanical elements which experience contact operate under different lubrication regimes. One of the most
important lubrication regimes is the mixed elastohydrodynamic (EHL) that has received special attention in recent
decades. Leading in this lubrication regime the pioneering work in calculating the lubricant film thickness in ball
bearing is Dowson and Higginson [1], Pan and Hamrock [2] and Moes [3].
Using multilevel solvers are extended for prediction of film thickness in elliptic contacts in the presence of a
lubricant. The pressure and film thickness on the center-line of the contact are predicted from point contact analysis [4].
Masjedi and Khonsari has used a Newton-Raphson method to calculate the film thickness and asperity load ratio
(percentage) using mechanical properties of the surface for line contact [5], Then, by performing the simulation of the
point contact model, they can calculate the central thickness of the fluid film and asperity load ratio[6].
A model was developed to predict the friction coefficient in the point and line contacts for the lubricated case. There
was an acceptable agreement between the predicted wear coefficient and the experimentally-obtained values.
Another important factor in the elastohydrodynamic (EHL) is lubricant limiting shear stress. Due to high load and
high shear rate, many lubricants easily reach the limit of their shear stress. The effect of limiting shear stress on the
friction in EHL application has been studied in a number of publications [7-9].
Many studies have been done to determine the friction coefficient in EHL applications. The study of the effect of
surface roughness was first introduced by Johnson et al. [10]. This research is known as load-sharing concept, their
model is able to predict the contribution of load on asperities and lubrication.
In the present study, we focus our attention to present a model for prediction of the friction coefficient in line contact
and point contact.
2. Friction Prediction
On the basis of the Johnson and Greenwood load-sharing equation, the total load applied (FT) is borne by the load on
asperities (FC) and the load carried by the fluid film (FH) [10].

F = FH + FC (1)

By introducing the scaling factors γ1 for the hydrodynamic section and γ2 for the contact of asperities, equation (1)
is obtained as follows.

117
 FT FT
F= + (2)
T
γ 1 γ2

The total frictional force is also the sum of two components:

F=Ff,H+Ff,C (3)

Where, Ff,H is the hydrodynamic friction force defined by the following relationship.

Ff,H= ∯ τHdAH (4)

τH denotes the fluid shear stress and AH is the fluid contact surface. The frictional force of the asperities contact is
defined as follows:

Ff,C= ∑∯ τCidACi (5)

i=1

That τCiexpressing the shear stress of the contact is exclusively related to the asperities, ACi is the contact area of the
roughness, and N is the number of contacting asperities. The friction coefficient of the asperities is fC. Therefore, the
following relation is calculated for the friction force of asperities:

Ff,C=fCFC (6)

For calculating the hydrodynamic friction force the Bair and Weiner relation is used [11].

1
η*=η (1- e-λ)
λ
(7)
η|γ̇|
λ=
τL

Where 𝐿̇ ,is the shear strain rate and 𝐿𝐿 is the limiting shear stress, Bair in 2007 introduced the relation for 𝐿𝐿
which is a function of the hydrodynamics pressure as follows [12].

L
τL =Λ' lim pH =Λ' lim p (1- a⁄100) (8)

In the above relation, Λ′lim, is the limiting shear stress coefficient, which is a property of the lubricant and can be
obtained from its traction curve under a heavy load [12], and p represents the average pressure which this parameter is
calculated from the following relation:

F
p= (9)
2A

In the line contact 𝐿 = 2bB in which b is the half-width of Hertzian contact and B is the contact length.
Fluid friction force in the unit length 𝐿𝐿 is obtained by integrating the shear stress according to the following

FL= ∫ τ dx= ∫ η* γ̇dx (10)

Assuming that the separation between two roughness surfaces is constant and is equal to hc, the force of the fluid
friction is calculated according to the following
118
Ff,H =τL (1- e-η(u⁄hc)⁄τL).A (11)

Where, u is the sliding speed, according to the Roelands equation [13], the viscosity of the lubricant is calculated by
considering the applied pressure as follows.

Z
η (1-(1+pm ⁄cp ) )
η=η0 ( ∞) (12)
η0

η0 is the viscosity of the lubricant at ambient temperature and η∞ is a constant number of 6.35×10−5Pa. s. The Z
parameter is the pressure-viscosity index.

α
Z= (13)
[5.1×10-9(ln η0+9.67)]

Where α is the pressure-viscosity coefficient. Therefore, the total friction coefficient is written as follows:

Ff,H+Ff,C
f= (14)
FT

According to equation9 and 12, in order to calculate the coefficient of friction, it is necessary to calculate the central
thickness of the lubricant and asperity load ratio which is equal to FC ∗ 100. According to Khonsari and Masjedi [5] by
using the Newton-Raphson method, the film thickness and the load carried by asperities can be calculated as a function
of speed, load, and lubricant and material properties.

hc
H= =2.691 W−0.135 U0.705 G0.556 × (1+0.2 ̅σ1.222 V0.223W -0.229 U -0.748G-0.842) (15)
c
R

La = 0.005 W −0.408 U −0.088 G0.103 ×[ln(1+4470 σ

̅6.015 V 1.168 W 0.485 U -3.741 G-2.898 )] (16)

Where

w v μ0 u
W= V= U= E'R
E'RB E' (17)
σ
G=αE ' ̅σ
=
R

3. Experimental Tests
A series of tests has been done using the pin-on-disk tests test rig which is equipped with a computerized data
acquisition system. A picture of the device is shown in Fig.1. The pin is attached to a 2D load sensor which measures
the normal and tangential force via a suspension system and maintains the normal force constant during the test.

119
 Figure1 Pin on disk tribometer

The coefficient of friction during the test and also the average friction coefficient are automatically recorded. Figure
2 shows three different values of friction coefficient obtained for three different normal loads. All tests were conducted
in air with 50–60% humidity and at room temperature (25–27 C). The stationary pin is made of 521100 and is in contact
with a disk made of st 37. The diameter of the pin and the disk were5 and 50 mm, respectively. The range of sliding
velocity tested was 6-153 rpm. The normal load ranged from 1 to 60 N. The speed and load were held constant during
each test. The duration of tests ranged from 2 to 5 h which corresponds to a sliding distance of 250–1,500 m. The
amount of wear and, consequently, the wear coefficient were obtained by measuring the weight of the disk before and
after the test by means of precise digital scale with the accuracy of 0.0001 gr.

Table 1 Test conditions in line contact and point contact

The
Type of test Load(N) number of Dimensionless speed Distance(m)
test
10 3 8.16e-14-2.15e-14 86
Friction 20 4 8.16e-14-2.15e-14 86
30 4 8.16e-14-2.15e-14 86

Figure2 Friction coefficient values in pin on disk for different loading

4. Results and discussions

In order to obtain the Stribeck curve, the pin on disk experiment has been conducted for three different loads and
different speeds for each applied load. Figure 3 shows the variation in friction coefficient at 36 different speeds at 10(N)
loading in non-conformal line contact in the presence of a lubricant with properties which is shown in table 2, also the
contact of pin and disk schema shown in Figure 3, the results of which are compared with the simulation results.

Table 2 Lubricant used for investigation.

PROPERTIES TEST METHOD VALUE UNITS

ISO GRADE DIN 51 511 15 -

Specific Gravity @ 15 ºC ASTM D-4052 0.832 -
Viscosity in 40OC ASTM D 445 15 𝐿𝐿𝐿 ⁄
𝐿

120
 Viscosity in 100OC ASTM D 445 3.55 𝐿𝐿𝐿 ⁄𝐿
o
Flash point ASTM D 92-90 185 C
o
Pour point ASTM D 97 43- C
Viscosity Index ASTM D-2270 118 -

Figure3 a) Line contact pin b) Pin on disk contact schematic in conformal line contact c) pin on disk contact schematic in
non-conformal line contact

Figure4 The relationship between friction coefficient and dimensionless speed at 10(N) loading in line contact

Figure 4 and 5 shows the variation in friction coefficient at different velocities at 20(N) and 30(N) loading in non-
conformal line contact, the results of which are compared with the simulation results.

Figure5 Relationship between friction coefficient and dimensionless speed at 20(N) loading in line contact

121
 Figure6 Relationship between friction coefficient and dimensionless speed at 30(N) loading in line contact

Figure 7 shows the variation in friction coefficient at 36 different speeds at three different loading in conformal line
contact which the contact of pin on disk schema shown in Figure 3 (c), the results of which are compared with the
simulation results.

Figure7 Changes in friction coefficient relative to the dimensionless velocity in heterogeneous line contact

As shown, with increasing the applied load, the friction begins to decrease, which turns into mixed lubrication
regime from the boundry lubrication regime, which is in accordance with the Stribeck curve [14] and also has a good fit
with the simulation results.
Experiments have been performed using a rotating disk and a static pin, as shown in Figure 1. The disk used has a
hardness of 185 Vickers, which is 570 (Mpa) and a pin of 800 Vickers. The disk has a roughness level of 1.5 × 10−6
and a modulus of elasticity of 195 (Gpa). Due to the high pin hardness, the mass reduction is only observed on the disk.
The friction coefficient was predicted in three dimensionless load number of 2.5 × 10−5 , 5 × 10−5 and 7.5 ×
10 and a dimensionless speed is varied between U = 8.94 × 10−14 and U = 2.15 × 10−12, and fCwas measured at the
−5

beginning of each experiment in the presence of the lubricant and experimental results fitted with simulation. As
indicated in the figures, the increase in load reduces the friction coefficient, which can be concluded due to the
increased shear stress in the contact area. Figure 8 shows the variation of the two parameters Hc and W in the expressed
numerical range for four different dimensionless surface roughness (𝐿̅). In general, by increasing the total load, a
decrease in the central thickness is observed. Also, with increasing surface roughness, it is possible to see an increase in
the central film thickness of the lubricant.

122
 Figure8 Effect of dimensionless load on dimensionless central film thickness in different surface roughness (𝐿 =
9.5 × 10−12, 𝐿 = 462, 𝐿 = 0.005)

Figure 9 shows the effect of dimensionless speed on the dimensionless central film thickness. The dimensionless
speed is varied between 𝐿 = 5 × 10−12 and 𝐿 = 5 × 10−11, while other parameters (𝐿 = 2.5 × 10−5, 𝐿 = 462,
𝐿 = 0.005) are kept constant. As the speed increases, the central film thickness increases, which is due to the ability of
the surface to form a better separation.

Figure9 Effect of dimensionless speed on dimensionless central film thickness in different surface roughness
(𝐿 = 2.5 × 10−5, 𝐿 = 462, 𝐿 = 0.005)
Figure 10 shows the dimensionless central film thickness versus dimensionless speed. The dimensionless hardness
varies between 0.005 to 0.03, while other parameters (𝐿 = 2.5 × 10−5, 𝐿 = 9.5 × 10−12, 𝐿 = 462) are considered
constant. In general, the hardness does not greatly affect the central film thickness. As the roughness of the surface
increases, the hardness effect increases on the central film thickness, which is due to the increase in the asperity load
ratio and causes more asperity deformation.

Figure10 Effect of dimensionless hardness on dimensionless central film thickness in different surface roughness
(𝐿 = 2.5 × 10−5, 𝐿 = 9.5 × 10−12, 𝐿 = 462)

According to equation (11), the central film thickness of the lubricant has a direct effect on the hydrodynamic
friction force. For this reason, the effect of different parameters U, W and V on the central film thickness was
investigated, which makes it possible to predict friction coefficients at different speeds with higher accuracy.
Therefore, the study of the effect of the stated parameters helps to more accurately determine the frictional force.

5. Conclusions
A model was developed to predict the friction coefficient. This model, using surface properties and lubricant
properties, has been able to predict effectively the friction coefficient in the presence of the lubricant in line contact, in
such a way that two geometric models of conformal and non-conformal contact is investigated. In order to increase the

123
accuracy, the limiting shear stress effect is considered. Also, the effect of different parameters on central film thickness
that is directly related to the hydrodynamic friction force is investigated.
According to this method, the total force shared between the surface roughness and hydrodynamic parts. It has been
shown that asperity load ratio plays an important role in the friction coefficient. Experimental tests are conducted to
verify the theoretical results.

6. References

1. D. Dowson and G. R. Higginson, Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication: the fundamentals of roller and gear
lubrication. Pergamon Press, 1966.
2. P. Pan and B. J. Hamrock, "Simple Formulas for Performance Parameters Used in Elastohydrodynamically
Lubricated Line Contacts," Journal of Tribology, vol. 111, no. 2, pp. 246-251, 1989.
3. H. Moes, "Optimum similarity analysis with applications to elastohydrodynamic lubrication," Wear, vol. 159,
no. 1, pp. 57-66, 1992/11/02/ 1992.
4. G. Nijenbanning, C. H. Venner, and H. Moes, "Film thickness in elastohydrodynamically lubricated elliptic
contacts," Wear, vol. 176, no. 2, pp. 217-229, 1994.
5. M. Masjedi and M. Khonsari, "Film thickness and asperity load formulas for line-contact elastohydrodynamic
lubrication with provision for surface roughness," Journal of Tribology, vol. 134, no. 1, p. 011503, 2012.
6. M. Masjedi and M. M. Khonsari, "On the effect of surface roughness in point-contact EHL: Formulas for film
thickness and asperity load," Tribology International, vol. 82, no. Part A, pp. 228-244, 2015/02/01/ 2015.
7. S. Bair, J. Jarzynski, and W. O. Winer, "The temperature, pressure and time dependence of lubricant viscosity,"
Tribology International, vol. 34, no. 7, pp. 461-468, 2001/07/01/ 2001.
8. S. Bair, C. McCabe, and P. T. Cummings, "Calculation of Viscous EHL Traction for Squalane Using Molecular
Simulation and Rheometry," Tribology Letters, journal article vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 251-254, November 01 2002.
9. M. M. Khonsari and D. Y. Hua, "Thermal Elastohydrodynamic Analysis Using a Generalized Non-Newtonian
Formulation With Application to Bair-Winer Constitutive Equation," Journal of Tribology, vol. 116, no. 1, pp.
37-46, 1994.
10. K. Johnson, J. Greenwood, and S. Poon, "A simple theory of asperity contact in elastohydro-dynamic
lubrication," Wear, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 91-108, 1972.
11. S. Bair and W. Winer, "A rheological model for elastohydrodynamic contacts based on primary laboratory
data," ASME, Transactions, Journal of Lubrication Technology, vol. 101, pp. 258-264, 1979.
12. S. S. Bair, High pressure rheology for quantitative elastohydrodynamics. Elsevier, 2007.
13. C. J. A. Roelands, "Correlational aspects of the viscosity-temperature-pressure relationship of lubricating oils,"
1966.
14. R. Stribeck, "Kugellager für beliebige Belastungen," Buchdruckerei AW Schade, Berlin N., 1901.

124
Effect of Surface Texturing on the Friction of Rubber in Lubricated Sliding
Contact. Application in Medical Syringes

Kareem Abd-Rbo 1,2, Abraham J. Domb2 and Haytam Kasem 1,3

1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Azrieli College of Engineering, Jerusalem, Israel
2 School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
3 Tribology Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technion, Haifa, Israel

Correspondence to: Eng. Kareem Abd-Rbo (E-mail: [email protected])

Friction is a genuine issue for the use of many medical devices involving rubbery materials such
as plungers in medical syringes. Low-friction combined with smooth movement are vital
characteristics for drug-delivery devices. However, current materials and design do not optimize these
features. In this context, the present work presents a new direction for the reduction of friction
in medical syringes based on surface texturing of the rubber plunger. It was shown clearly that
friction resistance can be considerably manipulated when using textured plungers.

The tested specimens are prepared from PVS rubber casted into a pre-fabricated negative
template obtained by 3D printing. Friction tests are performed on a home-made test-rig . Each plunger
was tested with three different liquids, i.e. water, glycerine and alcohol. The tests were conducted
under three characteristic sliding velocities.

It was found that the resistance friction force decreases notably with the textured plungers
regardless of the liquid used and/or sliding velocity. The smaller texture generates smaller resistance
force, suggesting the existence of an optimized design for enhanced frictional performances.

Keywords: Syringe, Rubber, Plunger, Surface Texturing, Friction, Medical Syringes

REFERENCES
[1] F. O. Bowden, D. Tabor, The Friction and Lubrication of Solids, 2nd ed., Clarendon Press, Oxford,
2001.
[2] F. L. Roth, R. L. Driscoll, W. L. Holt, U. S. Department or Commerce National Bureau of Standards,
RESEARCH PAPER RP1463, Part of Journal of Research of the Rational Bureau of Standards 1942,
Volume 28.
[3] I. Etsion, Y. Kligerman, G. Halperin, Trib. Trans. 1999, 42. 3. Pp 511-516.
[4] H. Kasem, A. Tsipenyuk, M. Varenberg, Soft Matter 2015, 11, 2909.
[5] R. H. Smith, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group NW, Book Number 13: 978-0-8493-8136-2, 2008.

125
 A New Multi-Functional Tribometer: Application of Block-on-Ring
Test Module
1 2 3
Harun Yanar , Muhammet Demirtaş , Gencaga Purcek
1
Mechanical Engineering Department , Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, TURKEY
[email protected]
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, Bayburt University, Bayburt, TURKEY
[email protected]
3
Mechanical Engineering Department , Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, TURKEY
[email protected]

This paper presents a new-designed tribometer (UTS TRIBOMETER T30M) with block-on-ring
test module for especially characterizing the tribological behaviors of materials of sliding bearing used
in applications such as connecting rods and cranks in internal combustion engines, steam and water
turbines, air compressors and centrifugal pumps. This tribometer with block-on-ring module allows
users to make tribological tests in both dry and lubricating conditions according to ASTM-G77-98
standards at temperatures starting from room temperature up to 150 °C with an accuracy of 2 °C by
adapting a plate type heater. The module can be easily adapted to the tribometer and removed after the
tests, and it has a well-designed special arm for measuring the friction force. The friction force is
precisely measured by inductive sensors placed on this arm. The tribometer has its own software called
Turquoise which allows users to control the experimental parameters such as applied load, rotational
speed (rpm) and diameter of the shaft, sliding distance and test duration. The friction force obtained
during the test are presented graphically via this software. The module simulates different
configurations such as half-bearing and specimens with conform or non-conform contact surfaces. In
addition, it allows user to leakage test of oil seal in lubricating conditions via the specially designed
holder according to ISO standards. Furthermore, this tribometer simulates the different contact
pin/ball-on-disk and test types such as circular (ASTM-G99) and linear reciprocating (ASTM G133).
Tribometer can be operated with or without lubricant according to appropriate standards in all
modules. Also, it is possible to adapt an environmental chamber to the tribometer in order to do the
tests in the different atmospheric conditions.

Keywords: Multifunctional tribometer, block-on-ring module, bearings.

126
Vibration Analysis of a Flexible Rotor Supported by Squeeze Film Dampers
Using Finite Element Method

M. Khakpour1, R. Tikani2 and S. Ziaei-Rad3

1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-
83111, Iran
[email protected]
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-
83111, Iran
[email protected]
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-
83111, Iran
[email protected]

In rotary machines, the choice of suitable supports to reduce the vibrations has always been of
great importance. The use of squeeze film dampers (SFDs) has been able to overcome the defects in
roller and journal bearings and reduce the vibrational amplitude response.
In this paper, the nonlinear behaviour of the rotor system is investigated along with the squeeze
film damper. The system includes a flexible shaft along with an unbalanced rigid disc that runs on two
SFDs. The finite element equations of motion are extracted based on the theory of Timoshenko's beam
theory and, finally, the nonlinear equations of motion of the whole system are solved by the Newark
method.
The analysis was performed by examining the damper parameter. The results indicate that there
are periodic, subharmonic, and pseudo-periodic behaviours that the change of parameter can lead to
the removal of undesirable regions.

Keywords: squeeze film damper, vibration analysis, rotor, finite element.

REFERENCES

[1] Khonsari MM, Booser ER. “Applied tribology: bearing design and lubrication” John Wiley & Sons,
2008.
[2] Inayat-Hussain JI, Kanki H, Mureithi NW. On the bifurcations of a rigid rotor response in squeeze-film
dampers. Journal of fluids and structures. 2003 Mar 1;17(3):433-59.
[3] Zhao JY, Linnett IW, Mclean LJ. Subharmonic and quasi-periodic motions of an eccentric squeeze film
damper-mounted rigid rotor. Journal of Vibration and Acoustics. 1994 Jul 1;116(3):357-63.

127
A Parametric Study of the Newly-Proposed Asperity-Scale Tribocorrosion
Model
Ali Ghanbarzadeh, Farnaz Motamen Salehi, Michael Bryant, Anne Neville

University of Leeds, School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Functional Surfaces,

Leeds, UK

Corresponding author:
E-mail address: *[email protected] (Ali Ghanbarzadeh)

Abstract

In a recent work, authors have developed a novel approach to model the tribocorrosion
material degradation. Components of the model were introduced and the ability to capture the
dynamics of electrochemical current in a tribocorrosive environment was tested. The model
incorporates mechanical and corrosive wear of asperities and calculates the real area of
contact with a deterministic contact mechanics simulation. The individual components of the
tribocorrosive wear was calculated and a new Archard-type tribocorrosion equation was
proposed. In this paper, the sensitivity of the model to a set of parameters used in the model
were examined and their effects on the mechanical, corrosive and total tribocorrosive wear
was investigated. The parameters used in this study were physical (load, velocity, and initial
surface roughness), mechanical (hardness, elastic modulus) and electrochemical (share of
current, applied potential). The results indicate that both mechanical wear and corrosion
linearly vary with the applied load. Results also show that mechanical wear is proportional to
the (1/H) and corrosion is proportional to (1/H2) which is in line with the previous work in
the literature. Applied potential and the charge transfer coefficient significantly affect the
corrosion but their influence on the mechanical wear is negligible. Both the mechanical wear
and corrosion vary almost linearly with the sliding velocity.

Key words: Tribocorrosion; Wear; Electrochemistry; Passive metals; Asperity-scale model

128
 Effect of Shot Peening Parameters on Surface Roughness of Inconel 718

Ali Çulha1, Sinan Fidan2 and Tamer Sınmazçelik3

1 Kocaeli University, Institute of Science, Aviation Knowledge and Technology, Kocaeli, Turkey
[email protected]
2 Kocaeli University, Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Department of Airframe &
Powerplant, Kartepe-Kocaeli, Turkey
[email protected]
3 Kocaeli University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kocaeli,
Turkey
tamersc@ yahoo.com

Nickel-based super alloys such as Inconel 718 has a wide variety of usage in aerospace industry
such as production of gas turbine engine blades. Under service conditions, the critical gas turbine
parts; made up of Inconel 718, such as compressor and turbine blades exposed to high velocity
airborne particles (sand etc.) and surface wear resistance gain importance. Hence, to improve the
surface wear resistance and fatigue life of Inconel 718; shot peening is a key process applied to
surface. Compressive residual stress emerging after shot peening process delay the crack initialization
at surface. Moreover, shot peening process cause plastic deformations on the impacted surface and
resulted with surface roughness changes.

This paper deals with the surface roughness changes occurred in Inconel 718 surface after shot
peening process. In order to discuss shot peening parameters effect on surface roughness, various
parameters were used such as exposure time and blasting pressure. Shot peened Inconel 718 test
samples surfaces were scanned with 3D non-contact laser profilometer and results discussed.

The results showed that shot peening parameters such as exposure time and blast pressure
causes various surface deformations and changes the roughness. Roughness parameters such as profile
average roughness (Ra) and surface average roughness (Sa) were affected by the shot peening process
variables.

Keywords: Inconel 718, shot peening, roughness.

129
1. INTRODUCTION

Inconel-718 is a wrought Ni-Fe-Cr super alloy which is widely used in the hot sections of power
generation and aerospace gas turbine engines as disc material with service temperatures up to 650 °C because of
its room and high temperature mechanical properties and oxidation / corrosion resistance[1][2]. Nickel-based
super alloys are widely employed in aerospace jet engines and various industrial gas turbines due to their high-
temperature strength, fatigue resistance, thermal stability and high corrosion resistance [3]. On the other hand,
shot peening process is also applied to the surfaces of gas turbine engine components manufactured from nickel-
based alloys such as Inconel 718. The main reason of shot peening process is to reduce unwanted residual tensile
stress generated at the surface of components due to manufacturing and surface treatments. The residual stress
emerging on the surface can lead to surface micro cracks and reduces the fatigue life of components
dramatically. Moreover, the tensile residual stress may also reduce the dimension precision of components and
bring great difficulties for the subsequent assembly process [4]. Shot peening is a cold work process consisting
in impinging hard particles at high velocity onto a ductile metallic surface [5]. Shot peening is commonly used in
the aerospace industry to improve mechanical components fatigue life. It introduces compressive residual
stresses and cold work at the surface which tend to close short fatigue cracks and delay their propagation,
respectively. However, shot peening also creates surface irregularities that can be detrimental to fatigue [5].

This research main objective is to develop a better understanding of shot-peening operations on surface
and surface quality, surface structure evolution, and surface roughness changes arise after shot peening process
in Inconel- 718. This is very important in the assessment of the Inconel-718 shot peening parameters.

2. MATERIAL AND METHODS

Circular geometry Inconel-718 nickel alloy test coupons with a nominal thickness of 4 mm and 20 mm diameter
were used for shot peening tests. The samples were polished with grinding papers before shot peening tests.
Table 1 provides the content of Inconel-718 nickel alloy, according to the manufacturer’s declaration.

Table 1. Inconel 718 elemental content by % weight

Inconel 718 elemental content by % weight
Ni Cr Fe Mo Nb Co Mn Cu Al Ti Si C S P B
50- 17- Balance 2.8- 4.75- 1 0.35 0.2- 0.65- 0.3 0.35 0.08 0.015 0.015 0.006
55 21 3.3 5.5 0.8 1.15

The shot peening test rig used in this study is illustrated in Fig 1. Accelerated steel balls were impacted
the sample surface, which can be located at desired distance from nozzle and placed at various impingement
angles (15°-90°) by adjustable sample holder shown in Fig 1. Steel balls have a particle size distribution of 212-
600 µm. Two distinct blast pressures were used in shot peening process which are 1,5 bar and 3 bar respectively.
Stand-off distance between nozzle exit to test samples was 50 mm. Shot peening process was applied for 60,
120, 180, 300 and 600 seconds. The surface roughness characterization of shot peened Inconel-718 nickel alloy
test coupons were scanned by using Nanovea PS-50 non-contact laser profilometer and results were analysed by
using 3D surface programme Mountains Professional 3D 6.2. The surface roughness maps were visualized by
using the same programme to evaluate the roughness parameters.

130
 Figure 1. Shot peening test rig

Steel balls used in shot peening process was scanned by using laser profilometer and 3D surface of steel
balls was given in Figure 2 below. The surface geometry of steel balls shown in Figure 2 greatly effects the
surface plastic deformation of Inconel 718 alloy during process, hence the 3D topography was given to evaluate
the angularity and dimension of the steel balls.

Figure 2. 3D surface of steel balls used in shot peening

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Inconel 718 test samples were shot-peened for 60, 120, 180, 300 and 600 seconds respectively. With
these five test durations, two various test pressures were conducted which are 1,5 bar and 3 bar. Hence, the two
significant test parameter, test duration and blasting pressure, were analysed. Surface topography and roughness
evaluation was achieved by using non-contact laser profilometer.

131
 Figure 3. Roughness values after shot-peening tests (a) 1,5 bar S values (b) 3 bar S values (c) 1,5 bar R values
(d) 3 bar R values

Surface roughness evaluation can be achieved by two ways. By scanning the surface in X and Y direction
and surface area roughness examination (Sa). On the other hand, scanning a profile line from impacted zone and
evaluating the line roughness named as Ra. On surface roughness evaluations, Sv implies valley depth; Sp height
of peaks arise from surface; Sz vertical distance from the top of highest peak to bottom of deepest valley and
finally Sa implies the average roughness value on the whole scanned surface. In Figure 3-a, the maximum Sa
value observed at 1,5 bar 600 seconds whilst the minimum Sa at 60 second duration. By increasing blast pressure
from 1,5 bar to 3 bar (Figure 3-b), maximum Sa was observed at 300 second. As a result increasing blast
pressure has no considerable effect on S values except Sz at 600 seconds. Increasing blast pressure to 3 bar
decreases the Sz value greatly. In Figure 3-c, the R values of 1,5 bar impacted samples were given. Maximum Ra
observed at 600 second whilst minimum at 180 seconds. Rz implies the maximum vertical distance from the top
of the peak to the bottom of the valley occurred due to surface damages. In Figure3-c, the maximum Rz
measured at 600 seconds test duration while second maximum value observed at 60 seconds. This can be
attributed to the initial serious surface degradation at the beginning of shot peening process. The scattered
impacting steel particles caused a heterogeneous surface plastic deformation texture and increase the roughness.
The Rp and Rv values are similar as seen in Figure 3-c and means that sub-surface and over-surface plastic
deformation effects are similar. Figure 3-d shows that increasing blasting pressure from 1,5 bar to 3 bar has no
serious effect on the roughness. Maximum Ra observed at 600 seconds whilst minumum observed at 60 seconds.

132
 Figure 4. Surface topographies after shot-peening tests at 1,5 bar blast pressure (a) 60 seconds (b) 120
seconds (c)180 seconds (d) 300 seconds (e) 600 seconds

According to obtained results, in Figure 4, the exposure time during shot-peening process has a serious
effect on surface topography of Inconel 718. At 120 and 180 seconds test durations, a local region of plastic
deformation zone occurred and heteregeneous surface texture observed (Figure 4-b and 4-c). Enhancing
exposure time to 600 seconds resulted with a homogeneous surface texture and plastic deformation zone spread
all over the sample surface (Figure 4-e). The hammering effect of steel ball particles enhances the surface
topography characteristics. Moreover, spreading the impacts of steel balls to whole surface resulted with a
increased Sa value.

133
 Figure 5. Surface topographies after shot-peening tests at 3 bar blast pressure (a) 60 seconds (b) 120
seconds (c)180 seconds (d) 300 seconds (e) 600 seconds
In Figure 5, in order to explain the effect of increasing shot peening pressure from 1,5 bar to 3 bar; the
variation of surface roughness was plotted with respect to the exposure time. At 3 bar blasting pressures, the
effect of exposure time has a little effect on surface roughness and topography as seen in Figure 5 a,b,c,d and e.
at 60, 300 and 600 seconds a localised surface deformation zone occurred. Moreover, at 120 and 180 seconds
test durations, the hammering effect was spread all over the sample surface (Figure 5-b and 5-c).

4. CONCLUSIONS

In this study, the effect of shot peening parameters on Inconel 718 and surface roughness was
experimentally investigated. In order to evaluate the performance of shot peening process on Inconel 718, the
values of surface roughness were compared with respect to exposure time and blast pressure. The following
conclusions were drawn from the present study:

134
  At 1,5 bar blasting pressure, increasing exposure time intially decreases Ra at 120 and 180
seconds but then a reverse trend occurred and Ra values increases at 300 and 600 seconds.
Maximum Ra observed at 600 seconds.
 At 1,5 bar blasting pressure, Rp and Rv values increase with increasing exposure time. The
nominal values were similar for Rp and Rv. Rz value at 1,5 bar pressure was maximum at 600
seconds.
 At 3 bar blasting pressure, increasing exposure time increases Ra values. Maximum Ra observed
at 600 and 300 seconds. Ra values at 300 and 600 seconds were very close. The increased
blasting pressure eliminate the exposure time effect on Ra for 300 and 600 seconds.
 At 3 bar blasting pressure, Rp and Rv values increase with increasing exposure time. The Rp and
Rv values were similar to results at 1,5 bar. This can be attributed to surface hardening effect
after shot-peening process. Rz value at 3 bar pressure was maximum at 600 seconds.
 The areal surface roughness value Sa was similar for both blasting pressures. After 600 seconds
of steel ball exposure to Inconel 718 surface, at 1,5 bar pressure Sa value was slightly higher
than the 3 bar pressure.

REFERENCES
[1] A. Chamanfar, H. Monajati, A. Rosenbaum, M. Jahazi, A. Bonakdar, and E. Morin, “Microstructure and
mechanical properties of surface and subsurface layers in broached and shot-peened Inconel-718 gas
turbine disc fir-trees,” Mater. Charact., vol. 132, no. August, pp. 53–68, 2017.
[2] J. Lacaze, M. Dehmas, A. Niang, and B. Viguier, “TEM study of high-temperature precipitation of delta
phase in inconel 718 alloy,” Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng., vol. 2011, 2011.
[3] P. Z. Wang, Z. S. He, Y. X. Zhang, and S. Sen Zhao, “Control of Grinding Surface Residual Stress of
Inconel 718,” Procedia Eng., vol. 174, pp. 504–511, 2017.
[4] N. Ben Fredj, H. Sidhom, and C. Braham, “Ground surface improvement of the austenitic stainless steel
AISI 304 using cryogenic cooling,” Surf. Coatings Technol., vol. 200, no. 16–17, pp. 4846–4860, 2006.
[5] T. Klotz, D. Delbergue, P. Bocher, M. Lévesque, and M. Brochu, “Surface characteristics and fatigue
behavior of shot peened Inconel 718,” Int. J. Fatigue, vol. 110, pp. 10–21, 2018.

135
 Erosive Wear Behaviour of Shot Peened Inconel 718

lAi Çulha1, Sinan Fidan2 and Tamer Sınmazçelik3

1 Kocaeli University, Institute of Science, Aviation Knowledge and Technology, Kocaeli, Turkey
[email protected]
2 Kocaeli University, Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Department of Airframe &
Powerplant, Kartepe-Kocaeli, Turkey
[email protected]
3 Kocaeli University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kocaeli,
Turkey
tamersc@ yahoo.com

Solid particle erosion is a progressive phenomenon that can result with surface degradation and
material removal. It occurs in a wide variety of materials and assemblies such as aircraft airframes,
radomes, leading edge control surfaces, gas turbine engine compressor and turbine blades. Inconel 718
is one of the most critical super-alloy used in gas turbine engine hot and cold section blade production.
Moreover, high velocity of airflow through engine resulted with high velocity impacts of micro hard
particles such as sand, dust, fly ash and carbon deposits. These hard particles repeated impacts resulted
with surface deformation and in some cases with material loss.

In order to improve erosive wear resistance of Inconel 718, shot peening is a key process
applied widely. On the other hand, erosive wear behaviour of shot peened Inconel 718 is a crucial
phenomenon which must be investigated.

The aim of this paper is to investigate shot peened Inconel 718 erosive wear behaviour. The
solid particle erosion tests of shot peened Inconel 718 was conducted at 30° impact angle in order to
simulate the worst service condition for impact angle. Alumina 80 mesh abrasive particles were used
as erodent and mass loss was weighted by using high accuracy scale. Post-surface characterization of
shot peened Inconel 718 was accomplished by using 3D non-contact laser profilometer and results
discussed.

The results discussed by means of shot peening exposure time effects on solid particle erosion
mass loss. Besides, shot peened Inconel 718 sample surfaces were analysed by using profilometer
results after solid particle erosion tests.

Keywords: Erosive wear, Inconel 718, shot peening, roughness, mass loss.

136
1 INTRODUCTION

Inconel 718 is a Nb-modified nickel-base super alloy widely used as an important structure material in
gas turbines, pumps, rocket engines and containers due to its excellent corrosion resistance, wear resistance and
high temperature strength [1][2][3]. Inconel 718 is a nickel, chromium and molybdenum based super alloy. It has
the property of excellent high yield tensile and creep rupture; and oxidation resistance at elevated temperatures
[4]. It can resist a severely corrosive environments, pitting and crevice corrosion [4]. Niobium addition makes it
age hardening which allows annealing and welding without spontaneous hardening during heating and cooling
[4]. The addition of Niobium acts with the molybdenum to stiffen the alloy’s matrix and provide high strength
without a strengthening heat treatment [4]. This nickel steel alloy is fabricated and may be welded in either the
annealed or age hardened condition [4].

Erosion, which occurs when solid particles entrained in a fluid stream gaseous or liquid strike a surface, is
a serious problem in many engineering systems, including steam and jet turbines, pipelines and valves used in
slurry transportation of matter, and fluidised bed combustion system [5]. Engineering materials are prone to
degradation caused by wear, corrosion and oxidation. The degradation usually remains limited to the surface and
near-surface zone of the material [6]. Inconel 718 is an important structure material and the mechanical
properties are very sensitive to micro-structure [1]. Hence, components manufactured from Inconel 718 alloy
need to have an erosion resistance surface. Solid particle erosion is the progressive loss of original material from
a solid surface due to mechanical interaction between that surface and solid particles [7]. Erosion is a serious
problem in many engineering systems, including steam and jet turbines, pipelines and valves used in slurry
transportation of matter, and fluidized bed combustion systems.

Nickel-based super alloys are widely employed in aerospace jet engines and various industrial gas
turbines due to their high-temperature strength, fatigue resistance, thermal stability and high corrosion resistance
[8]. On the other hand, shot peening process is also applied to the surfaces of gas turbine engine components
manufactured from nickel-based alloys such as Inconel 718. The main reason of shot peening process is to
reduce unwanted residual tensile stress generated at the surface of components due to manufacturing and surface
treatments. The residual stress emerging on the surface can lead to surface micro cracks and reduces the fatigue
life of components dramatically. Moreover, the tensile residual stress may also reduce the dimension precision of
components and bring great difficulties for the subsequent assembly process [9]. Shot peening is a cold work
process consisting in impinging hard particles at high velocity onto a ductile metallic surface [10]. Shot peening
is commonly used in the aerospace industry to improve mechanical components fatigue life. It introduces
compressive residual stresses and cold work at the surface which tend to close short fatigue cracks and delay
their propagation, respectively. However, shot peening also creates surface irregularities that can be detrimental
to fatigue [10].

The intent of this work is to increase the erosion wear resistance with the aid of a shot-peening process on
the surfaces of Inconel 718 nickel super alloys, which operate under difficult operating conditions. To evaluate
the effects of shot-peening process on erosion resistance of Inconel 718 samples, samples surfaces shot-peened
with steel balls at 1,5 bar blast pressure for 60, 120, 180, 300 and 600 seconds. After shot-peening, Inconel 718
samples eroded with 80 mesh Al2O3 white alumina abrasive particles at 1,5 bar blasting pressure with an impact

137
angle of 30°. The results were analysed by means of mass loss and surface roughness after solid particle erosion
tests.

2 MATERIAL AND METHODS

Circular geometry Inconel-718 nickel alloy test coupons with a nominal thickness of 4 mm and 20 mm diameter
were used for shot peening and solid particle erosion tests. The samples were polished with grinding papers
before shot peening tests. Table 1 provides the content of Inconel-718 nickel alloy, according to the
manufacturer’s declaration.

Table 1. Inconel 718 elemental content by % weight

Inconel 718 elemental content by % weight
Ni Cr Fe Mo Nb Co Mn Cu Al Ti Si C S P B
50- 17- Balance 2.8- 4.75- 1 0.35 0.2- 0.65- 0.3 0.35 0.08 0.015 0.015 0.006
55 21 3.3 5.5 0.8 1.15

The shot peening and solid particle erosion test rig used in this study is illustrated in Fig 1. Accelerated
steel balls were impacted the sample surface, which can be located at desired distance from nozzle and placed at
various impingement angles (15°-90°) by adjustable sample holder shown in Fig 1. Steel balls have a particle
size distribution of 212-600 µm. The abrasive particles used in solid particle erosion tests were alumina oxide
with a particle size of 150-212 µm. For both shot peening and solid particle erosion tests 1,5 bar blasting
pressure was used. Stand-off distance between nozzle exit to test samples was 50 mm. Shot peening process was
applied for 60, 120, 180, 300 and 600 seconds. The solid particle erosion tests were conducted for 20 seconds.
The impact velocities of the particles could be varied by varying the pressure of the compressed air. The velocity
of the eroding particles was determined using a rotating disc method [11]. The velocity of Al 2O3 particles at 1,5
bar blasting pressure was measured as 70 m/s by double disc method. The surface roughness characterization of
shot peened Inconel-718 nickel alloy test coupons were scanned by using Nanovea PS-50 non-contact laser
profilometer and results were analysed by using 3D surface programme Mountains Professional 3D 6.2. The
surface roughness maps were visualized by using the same programme to evaluate the roughness parameters.

138
 Figure 1. Test rig used in shot peening and solid particle erosion tests

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Solid particle erosion test applied to Inconel 718 before shot-peening process in order to find out its
erosion resistance. The Inconel 718 test samples blasted with abrasive Al 2O3 particles for 20 seconds from a
standoff distance of 50 mm. Samples cleaned with air blasting before and after erosion tests in order to remove
sand and dust particles, and then weighed in electronic balance of an accuracy of ±0,1mg. Solid particle erosion
test was carried out according to ASTM G-76. The mass loss of Inconel 718 measured as 48,48 mg after solid
particle erosion tests. The average mass loss calculated by taking average of five tests. The mass loss graph
given in Figure 2.

139
 Figure 2. Mass loss values after solid particle erosion tests

The main of this work is to examine shot-peening effects on solid particle erosion resistance of Inconel
718, sample shot-peened for 60, 120, 180, 300 and 600 seconds respectively. With these five test durations, two
various test pressures were conducted which are 1,5 bar. Hence, five tests duration applied. Surface topography
and roughness evaluation achieved by using non-contact laser profilometer. After shot-peening process of
Inconel 718 samples, mass loss measured in order to examine effect of shot-peening on mass loss. The mass loss
graph given in Figure 3 below.

140
 Figure 3. Mass loss versus shot peening duration

Figure 3 reflects the effect of shot-peening duration time on mass loss of Inconel 718. To examine shot-
peening effect on solid particle erosion of Inconel 718, samples shot peened for 60, 120, 180, 300 and 600
seconds respectively and afterwards solid particle erosion tests performed. The Inconel 718 tested for erosive
wear without shot-peening process and the mass loss measured as 48,48 mgr for this condition. Afterwards shot-
peened samples tested for erosive wear. The results show that after shot-peening Inconel 718 for 120 and 180
seconds mass loss increased when compared with no shot-peened samples. This can be attributed to the transient
material loss due to test duration in shot-peening process. As opposed to 120 and 180 seconds, the samples shot
peened for 60, 300 and 600 seconds show a better erosion resistance and a decrease in mass loss observed.
Samples shot-peened for 300 and 600 seconds greatly affected by the process and a considerable decrease in
mass loss observed. The shot peening process test duration has a great effect on mass loss above a critical
duration such as 180 seconds for Inconel 718. Hence, for shot penning, a detailed experimental work has to be
done for optimization of shot peening duration for Inconel 718.

141
 Figure 4. Roughness values Sa and Ra before and after solid particle erosion tests

Surface roughness evaluation can be achieved by two ways. By scanning the surface in X and Y direction
and surface area roughness examination (Sa). On the other hand, scanning a profile line from impacted zone and
evaluating the line roughness named as Ra. On surface roughness evaluations, Sv implies valley depth; Sp height
of peaks arise from surface; Sz vertical distance from the top of highest peak to bottom of deepest valley and
finally Sa implies the average roughness value on the whole scanned surface. In Figure 4, the maximum Sa value
observed at 120 seconds erosive wear test. This can be attributed to maximum mass loss which was also
maximum at 120 seconds as seen in Figure 3. The surface topography damaged seriously by repeated impacts of
erosive alumina particles. The minimum Sa in after eroion tests observed after 300 second duration shot-peened
Inconel 718. Hence increasing shot-peening process duration to 300 seconds decrease mass loss and increase
surface resistance to solid particle erosion. Moreover, increasing shot-peening process time above 300 seconds
effected Sa in a negative manner and after shot-peening 600 seconds conducted erosive wear tests resulted with
higher Sa value when compared with 300 seconds test. Erosion tests after shot peening Inconel 718 for 120, 180
and 300 seconds resulted with minumum Ra values, but these results are very close to each other. Shot peened
samples for 60 and 600 seconds, have higher Ra values after solid particle erosion tests.

142
 Figure 5. Erosion crater mid-point Ra values (a) shot-peened for 60 seconds; before erosion test (b) shot-
peened for 60 seconds; after erosion test (c) shot-peened for 120 seconds; before erosion test (d) shot-peened for
120 seconds; after erosion test (e) shot-peened for 180 seconds; before erosion test (f) shot-peened for 180
seconds; after erosion test (g) shot-peened for 300 seconds; before erosion test (h) shot-peened for 300 seconds;
after erosion test (ı) shot-peened for 600 seconds; before erosion test (j) shot-peened for 600 seconds; after
erosion test

According to obtained results, in Figure 5, the effect of solid paricle erosion on surface Ra value changes
with damage erosion crater topography. At 120, 180 and 600 seconds shot-peening durations (Figure 5-c, 5-e,5-ı)
the Ra values before erosion tests are higher than 60 and 300 seconds (Figure5-a,5-g). The effect of erosive wear
test can be clearly seen in surface topography as an erosion crater formation. The crater has a elliptical geometry
in surface due to 30° as expected. The erosion creater distrubion on surface is evident for sample shot-peened for
180 seconds (Figure 5-f). The erosion crater depth seems to be maximum with the erosion tests apllied after 600
seconds shot-peening process (Figure 5-j). This can be attributed to higher surface hardness due to hammering
effect after 600 seconds shot-peening process. For future work, the surface micro-hardness of shot peened
Inconel 718 samples will be measured and will be discussed by means of erosion resistance-shot-peening-
hardness.

143
4 CONCLUSIONS

In this study, the effect of shot peening parameters on Inconel 718 erosive wear resistance and surface
roughness was experimentally investigated. In order to evaluate the effects of shot peening process on Inconel
718 erosive wear behaviour, the mass loss and the values of surface roughness were compared with respect to
exposure time. The following conclusions were drawn from the present study:
 At 1,5 bar blasting pressure, the erodent Al2O3 particles gained a velocity of 70 m/s; which has a
particle size of 80 mesh (150-212µm). The average mass loss obtained from solid particle
erosion tests in Inconel 718 alloy is 48,48 mgr without shot-peening process. Five repetations
were done for calculation the average mass loss value.
 In Inconel 718 samples shot-peened for 120 and 180 seconds, following erosion test results
showed that mass loss increase when compared with samples without shot-peening. Hence, the
shot-peening durations 120 and 180 seconds aggravate the erosion reistance of Inconel 718.
 Shot peening Inconel 718 for 60, 300 and 600 seconds improve erosion resistance and mass loss
after solid particle erosion tests decrease. Minimum mass loss observed at samples shot-peened
for 300 and 600 seconds. Mass loss values of shot-peened Inconel 718 for 300 and 600 seconds
very close to each other.
 Maximum Sa roughness value obtained from Inconel 718 after solid particle erosion tests shot-
peened for 120 seconds. Minimum Sa roughness value obtained from Inconel 718 after solid
particle erosion tests shot-peened for 300 seconds.
 Maximum Ra roughness value obtained from Inconel 718 after solid particle erosion tests shot-
peened for 60 seconds. Minimum Ra roughness value obtained from Inconel 718 after solid
particle erosion tests shot-peened for 300 seconds.

REFERENCES

[1] Z. Li, J. Zhou, J. Han, and J. Chen, “Formation of cavitation-induced nanosize precipitates on
the eroded surface for Inconel 718 alloy,” Mater. Lett., vol. 164, pp. 267–269, Feb. 2016.
[2] V. Garcí;a Navas, I. Arriola, O. Gonzalo, and J. Leunda, “Mechanisms involved in the
improvement of Inconel 718 machinability by laser assisted machining (LAM),” Int. J. Mach.
Tools Manuf., vol. 74, pp. 19–28, Nov. 2013.
[3] A. Thomas, M. El-Wahabi, J. M. Cabrera, and J. M. Prado, “High temperature deformation of
Inconel 718,” J. Mater. Process. Technol., vol. 177, no. 1–3, pp. 469–472, Jul. 2006.
[4] B. K. Sahu, S. Datta, and S. S. Mahapatra, “On Electro-Discharge Machining of Inconel 718
Super Alloys: An Experimental Investigation,” Mater. Today Proc., vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 4861–
4869, 2018.
[5] Y. Zhang, Y.-B. Cheng, and S. Lathabai, “Erosion of alumina ceramics by air- and water-
suspended garnet particles,” Wear, vol. 240, no. 1–2, pp. 40–51, May 2000.

144
[6] S. Zafar, A. Bansal, A. K. Sharma, N. Arora, C. S. Ramesh, A. Bansal, A. K. Sharma, N.
Arora, C. S. R. Dry, S. Zafar, A. Bansal, A. K. Sharma, N. Arora, and C. S. Ramesh, “Dry
erosion wear performance of Inconel 718 microwave clad Dry erosion wear performance of
Inconel 718 microwave clad,” vol. 844, 2014.
[7] S. B. Mishra, S. Prakash, and K. Chandra, “Studies on erosion behaviour of plasma sprayed
coatings on a Ni-based superalloy,” Wear, vol. 260, no. 4–5, pp. 422–432, Feb. 2006.
[8] P. Z. Wang, Z. S. He, Y. X. Zhang, and S. Sen Zhao, “Control of Grinding Surface Residual
Stress of Inconel 718,” Procedia Eng., vol. 174, pp. 504–511, 2017.
[9] N. Ben Fredj, H. Sidhom, and C. Braham, “Ground surface improvement of the austenitic
stainless steel AISI 304 using cryogenic cooling,” Surf. Coatings Technol., vol. 200, no. 16–17,
pp. 4846–4860, 2006.
[10] T. Klotz, D. Delbergue, P. Bocher, M. Lévesque, and M. Brochu, “Surface characteristics and
fatigue behavior of shot peened Inconel 718,” Int. J. Fatigue, vol. 110, pp. 10–21, 2018.
[11] A. W. Ruff and L. K. Ives, “Measurement of solid particle velocity in erosive wear,” Wear, vol.
35, no. 1, pp. 195–199, Nov. 1975.

145
 Wear Analysis of Multiphasic Heterogeneous Composites

Qiang Li, Valentin L. Popov

Department of System Dynamics and Friction Physics, Technical University of Berlin, Berlin,
Germany
[email protected]

The friction between a vehicle’s tire and the road is an everyday contact problem. The pavement
surface topography and mixture of aggregates and asphalt binder play a significant role in the skid
resistance as well as tribological behavior of rubber sliding contact. It is also known that the friction
coefficient in the contact between an elastomer and a rigid rough surface is roughly in the order of the
mean slope of the surface [1]. We consider wear of a multiphasic composite in sliding contact with an
elastic half space under a constant normal load under the assumption of Archard’s law of wear.
Two cases are investigated to study the effects of material composition on the mean slope of the
surface. One is an ideal heterogeneous annular cylinder with rings of alternating material (e.g.
representing aggregate and binder of the asphalt respectively) [2]. The Method of Dimensionality
Reduction (MDR) is used to numerically calculate the pressure distribution and the wear depth of the
surface during the wear process. The results are validated by the Boundary element method (BEM).
The other one is a cylinder with randomly distributed multiphase materials having different wear
coefficients, where the boundary element method is applied. Furthermore, a theoretical solution for the
limiting profile at the stationary state is proposed. Based on that, the final surface topography with any
combination of multiphases can be easily calculated with the BEM [3].
The parameter study for a large range of wear coefficient and composite distribution in the case
of biphasic materials is carried out, and the dependence of surface gradient on the ratio of wear
coefficients of and area density was discussed.
Keywords: Wear, Heterogeneous materials, Boundary element method, Surface topography,
Surface gradient.

REFERENCES

[1] V.L. Popov, Contact Mechanics and Friction, 2nd ed., Springer Verlag, 2017.
[2] F. Forsbach, M. Schuster, D. Pielsticker and Q. Li, “Wear Analysis of a Heterogeneous Annular
Cylinder,” arXiv preprint arXiv:1712.01022, 2018.
[3] Q. Li and V.L. Popov, “Wear Analysis of a Multiphasic Heterogeneous Cylinder”, unpublished.

146
THE INVESTIGATION OF TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF CARBON-FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITE
MATERIALS

İsmail KAYA1)*, Zeynep PARLAR1)

1)
Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Composite materials are widely used in the industry because of their mechanical
and tribological properties. They are mostly preferred in conditions of relatively moving
surfaces because of their low friction coefficients. In this study, the effects of fiber
orientation on the tribological properties of carbon fiber reinforced epoxy composite were
investigated. The experiments were carried out with a pin on ring tribometer. The specific
wear rate and friction coefficient of the composite pins are observed. The experiments were
executed according to three different parameters; load, sliding velocity and direction of
reinforcement.
Keywords: oriented carbon fiber, reinforcement, pin on ring, friction, wear

1. Introduction

The advanced high technology arise the need of materials which have superior mechanical and tribological behavior.
According to these needs, the usage of composite materials increases. Thus developing the characteristics of the
composites became crucial. Comparing to metals, composite materials exhibit lower density, higher strength and rigidity,
higher corrosion resistance and improved fatigue performance [1]. The use of fiber reinforced plastic matrix composites
has increased due to those mechanical and tribological properties, especially in space, defense, automotive industries,
construction sector and agricultural machinery. The reinforcement and matrix material, fiber additive ratio, shape
thickness of fiber and fiber orientation [2]. Some researchers have carried out experimental work on different composite
materials changing tribological behavior depend on different fiber orientation.

In a study, friction behavior of polymeric composite materials mixed with carbon fibers having different orientations
has been investigated. In that research, under high load conditions the increase of friction coefficient increases in the
conditions of parallel, antiparallel, normal oriented, respectively. Nevertheless, wear rate decreases with the increase of
normal load [3]. In another study, it was observed that the orientation of fiber affects the friction coefficient directly.
Anti-parallel oriented glass fiber polyester has the lowest friction coefficient and normal oriented has the highest.
Moreover wear endurance of parallel orientation is the highest [4]. In another study, the effect of the fiber orientation on
the tribological properties is investigated. Parallel oriented carbon fiber polyetherimide has shown better tribological
performance than other orientations. In the experiments which the fiber orientation angle exceeds 45 degrees,
tribological properties become unsatisfactory [5]. In the investigation of wear characteristics of aramidfiber-reinforced
epoxy resin (AFRP) and carbon-fiber-reinforced PTFE (CFRTP), FRP showed good wear resistance in parallel
orientation, however antiparallel orientation has poor wear resistance [6]. In another study, normal orientated fiber case
gives lowest wear rate and highest friction coefficient [7]. In this study, friction and wear characteristics of carbon-fiber
reinforced composite materials against stainless steel surface is investigated. The main purpose is to figure out the effect
of fiber orientation on the tribological behavior of this material.

2. Experimental Study
2.1. Test Setup and Materials

In this study, pin-on-ring method is used in order to obtain friction coefficient of test samples. In this method, pin is
stationary and is in contact to the rotating ring’s outer surface. The ring is hard chrome coated stainless steel.
Cylindrically shaped ring has a height of 15 mm and a diameter of 58,45 mm. The pin specimens are of carbon fiber
reinforcement epoxy composite. The cylindrical pin has diameter of 10.25 mm and 14.25 mm length. Shape of the pin
can be seen in Figure 1.

147
 Figure 1 View of test pin

Frictional force at the contact surface is measured by a force transducer which is located on the fixed-end pin holder.
In order to apply normal load, deadweights are used. The ring is located to the DC motor shaft. The DC motor has a
speed range of 30-900 rpm. In Figure 2 the schematic view of the test setup is given. Surface temperatures are measured
by a three point infra-red thermometer with a sensitivity of ±2 ℃. Wear rate of the test samples are determined by
using loss of mass and measured with the accuracy of 0,0001 g.

Figure 2 Schematic view of the pin-on-ring system

2.2. Test Procedure

Test specimens are located on the pin holder. The main purpose of this study is to obtain the effect of fiber
orientation. Therefore pin is placed in the parallel, antiparallel and normal orientations (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Orientations of pins

Counter surface is placed to the output shaft of DC motor. After that deadweights are mounted to obtain the normal
loads of 92N and 150N as two different load parameters. The DC motor is operated at corresponding rotations of 1 m/s
and 2 m/s of velocity at the contact surface. The frictional force obtained from data collector is noted every 500 m’s
sliding distance. Near surface temperature is measured within every 1000 m’s of sliding distance with the infra-red
thermometer. Every experiment is completed in total sliding distance of 10000 m’s.

As a result of these procedures, the frictional force value is obtained from the data collector. Then the friction
coefficient is determined by numerical calculations.

In order to determine the wear properties of the specimens, the weight of the test specimens are measured before and
after each experiment. According to weight loss, wear rate is calculated using the following equation (1) where ∆m is
the loss of mass [g], F is the normal load [N], L is the sliding distance [m].
∆𝐿
𝐿= (1)
𝐿 ×𝐿

3. Experiment Results
In this study, the variation of the friction coefficient according to the reinforcement direction of carbon fiber
148
reinforced epoxy material is examined. In Figure 4, change in friction coefficient due to orientation of test specimens is
given.

Figure 4 Experiment results of 1 m/s sliding speed conditions

In the experiments performed at 1 m/s sliding speed, it was seen that in the case of parallel orientated pin, the
increase in load reduced the friction coefficient.
In the antiparallel orientation case, it was seen that the increase in load is does not have a significant effect on the
friction coefficient.
The normal orientation of the fiber resulted in remarkably high friction coefficient values while temperature values
reached up to 180℃.

Figure 5 Experiment results of 2 m/s sliding speed conditions

Experiments carried out at the sliding speed of 2 m/s showed that the increasing load decreased the friction
coefficient in parallel oriented direction but did not affect the temperature values.
In antiparallel oriented direction for both load parameters it was seen that the friction coefficient increased
significantly after 3000 m sliding distance, while the increase in load had almost no effect on temperature change.
No relation was established between the load increase and the friction coefficient change in the normal oriented
149
direction. For all that, the temperature and friction coefficients were found to rise above acceptable levels after 3000 m
of sliding distance.

Figure 6 Results of variable speed and load parameters of parallel oriented direction experiments

Examining the parallel oriented direction results in variable load and sliding speed parameters, the effect of the
speed increase on the friction coefficient behaved differently in variable loads. The increasing load results in significant
decrease of friction coefficient (Figure 6).

Figure 7 Results of variable speed and load parameters of antiparallel oriented direction experiments

It is seen from Figure 7 that, the increase in speed and load parameters in the antiparallel oriented direction caused a
decrease in the friction coefficient. However, examining the numerical values of the friction coefficient, compared to
parallel orientation higher values are obtained in specimens of antiparallel orientation.

Figure 8 Results of variable speed and load parameters of normal oriented direction experiments

In normal oriented direction case in Figure 8, it was observed that the increase in load caused an abnormal increase
in the friction coefficient after certain sliding distances. However the increase in sliding speed decreased the friction
coefficient in the first 2000 m, followed by various fluctuations.

150
 Figure 9 Wear rates of variable oriented samples according to speed and load parameters

Wear rates of variable oriented samples are given as a block diagram in Figure 9. For the parallel oriented direction
experiments, the increase in load and speed parameters did not have a significant effect in wear but the increase in both
parameters at once reduced the wear rate. In the antiparallel orientation direction, increasing load did not affect wear
rate but increasing speed parameter resulted in higher wear rate values.
In the normal orientation direction case, when the normal load and speed are separately increased, the wear rate is
decreased.

Parallel

Antiparallel

Normal

Figure 10 Optical microscope views of the specimens after experiments

In Figure 10 various fiber orientated specimens’ microscope images after experiments are given. Those images have
been taken by an optical microscope by a scale 10 times and 50 times. In the optic microscope images, sliding
directions can easily be detected for all orientations. However, it has also been investigated that there is significant
deformation on the material surface in normal orientation direction.

151
4. Conclusion
It was observed that in the direction of parallel orientation, carbon fibers parallel to the sliding direction have a
lubricating effect and decrease the friction coefficient values.
In normal orientation directions, acceptable friction test results were obtained up to 3,000 m sliding distance.
However it was estimated that after 3000 m’s sliding distance due to the increase in temperature, epoxy material was
burned and incoherent friction coefficient values were obtained. Moreover, carbon fibers were torn because of the lack
of epoxy material. After these fractions, contact surface of the pin is deformed and abrasive wear mechanism occurred
as seen in microscope images.
After all friction coefficient experiments, wear rate calculations and optical microscope images are seen, it can be
said that parallel orientation of the fiber to sliding direction has better tribological behaviors than normal and
antiparallel orientation.

5. References
1. Islam, M.E., Mahdi, T.H., House, M.V., Jeelani,S. “Characterization of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Composites
Modified with Nanoclay and Carbon Nanotubes”, 6th BSME International Conference on Thermal Engineering,
ICTE 2014, Procedia Engineering 821-828, 2015
2. Zum Gahr, K.H., Microstructure and Wear of Materials, Tribology Series 10, Siegen, Germany,1987
3. Caliman, R., “Friction Behavior of Polymeric Composite Materials Mixed with Carbon Fibers Having Different
Orientations Layout” IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 133, 2016
4. Yaşar, İ., Arslan, F., “Sürekli Cam Elyaf Takviyeli Polyester Matrisli Kompozitlerde Elyaf Hacim Oranı ve Elyaf
Doğrultusunun Tribolojik Özelliklere Etkisi” Turk J. Engin. Environ. Sci. 2000 pp. 181-191
5. Sharma, M., Rao, I.M., Bijwe, J., “Influence of Fiber Orientation on Abrasive Wear of Unidirectionally Reinforced
Carbon Fiber-Polyetherimide Composites” Tribology International 43, 2010, pp. 959-964
6. Tsukizoe, T., Ohmae, N., “Wear Mechanism of Unidirectionally Oriented Fiber-Reinforced Plastics” Journal of
Lubrication Technology 1977, pp. 401-407

152
 THERMO-ELASTOHYDRODYNAMIC SIMULATION OF THE PISTON-CYLINDER CONTACT IN
HIGH-PRESSURE PUMPS AT 3000 BAR

Ömer ÖZDEMIR1)*, Felix FISCHR2), Adrian RIENÄCKER3), Katharina SCHMITZ4)

1) Institute for Powertrain and Automotive Engineering – Machine Elements and Tribology, University of Kassel, Germany
2) Institute for Fluid Power Drives and Systems, RWTH Aachen University, Germany
3) Institute for Powertrain and Automotive Engineering – Machine Elements and Tribology, University of Kassel, Germany
4) Institute for Fluid Power Drives and Systems, RWTH Aachen University, Germany
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: The ambition to raise the rail pressure in common-rail systems from currently
2500 bar to 3000 bar is given due to stronger emission laws. The pressure increase will
allow a fine atomization of the fuel and therefore a more efficient combustion. But within
the technical system of the high-pressure pump, stronger thermal stresses of the piston-
cylinder contact are expected. A pressure drop from such a high level causes high
temperature gradients due to energy dissipation. For a detailed examination, the critical
piston cylinder contact has been investigated in an abstracted test bench with a flat parallel
gap and an equivalent thermo-elastohydrodynamic simulation model.
Keywords: TEHL, simulation, temperature, high-pressure pumps, lubrication.

1. Introduction
Due to stronger emission laws and for a fine atomization of the fuel and therefore for a more efficient combustion,
an increase of the rail pressure in common-rail systems from currently 2500 bar to 3000 bar is to be expected. A drop of
the pressure from such a high levels causes a high temperature increase in the gap of the piston-cylinder contact of the
high-pressure pump due to the hydrodynamic dissipation of the pressure energy in the lubricating fluid. At the
University of Kassel and the RWTH Aachen University, the basics for the design of the piston-cylinder contact of
common-rail pumps at high pressures were developed and investigated in a FVV research project [2]. For this purpose,
measurements of pressure, temperature and leakage were performed in a test bench with a flat gap and compared with
the results of a thermo-elastohydrodynamic simulation model [1].

2. TEHL simulation method

To investigate the tribological system behavior in the contact of piston and cylinder of common-rail pumps or in the
micro gap test bench, it is necessary to consider several fields of mechanics, the hydrodynamics, structure dynamics and
thermodynamics, in a coupled simulation with interactions between different effects in solid structures and fluid films.
The Newton’s law of motion

𝐿𝐿 + 𝐿𝐿̇ + 𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿 (1)

is the basis for transient calculation of multi-body systems to describe the nonlinear movement behavior of elastic
structures due to external loads. The total movement can be separated into a part of rigid-body motion and into a part of
deformation [6]. The elastic gap deformations and velocities are input values to solve the advanced Reynolds equation
[5]:
𝐿 ̅ 3 𝐿𝐿̅
𝐿 𝐿𝐿̅ 𝐿𝐿
𝐿
̅
𝐿𝐿
(𝐿 𝐿 )=𝐿 𝐿 +𝐿 𝐿 𝐿𝐿
+ (2)
𝐿𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝐿𝐿 12𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿
This equation is used for the calculation of the pressure p in the fluid film. The interaction between solid structures
and the fluid film is considered in a coupled simulation. Due to the hydrodynamic pressure, there are elastic gap
changes in the solids which also lead to hydrodynamic pressure changes in the fluid film. Therefore, the coupled
simulation works with double-sided interaction.
Because of the hydrodynamic dissipation of the pressure energy, there is a temperature increase in the fluid film.
Such a temperature stress also leads to gap changes due to solid temperature deformation effects which have to be
considered for high pressures up to 3000 bar. These effects can be calculated by solving the energy equation for the
fluid film [4]:

153
 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
𝐿 𝐿 (𝐿 +𝐿 )− (𝐿 ) = 𝐿 + (𝐿 +𝐿 ) (3)
𝐿
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿𝐿
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝐿 𝐿
By coupling of the energy equation to the heat conduction in the surrounding structures, it is finally possible to
calculate the temperature in the lubricant and also in the surrounding solid structures. The central element of the
coupling is the hydrodynamics with consideration of the structure dynamics and thermodynamics for a higher accuracy
of the simulation.

3. Micro gap test bench

The micro gap test bench was developed to describe the geometry of the piston-cylinder contact as reliable as
possible and to measure local pressures and temperatures as well as the leakage which is important for the efficiency of
the high-pressure pump. It is difficult to manufacture a round gap with only a few micrometers and to install measuring
sensors for pressure and temperature. Therefore, the round gap of the piston-cylinder contact has been unrolled to a flat
parallel gap as an alternative solution. The gap has a length of 21 mm, a width of 3 mm and a height of only a few
micrometers.

Gap coordinate

Figure 1: Micro gap test bench

Along the gap length, pressures and temperatures are measured at three positions (TA,B,C) at 1,5 mm, 10,5 mm and
19,5 mm after inlet [3].

4. TEHL simulation model and results

The main value in the hydrodynamic lubrication is the viscosity η which is dependent on the temperature and the
pressure. A simple way to describe the viscosity dependency on pressure and temperature is the combination of the
Vogel equation [7] for the temperature dependency and the Barus equation [8] for the pressure dependency:
𝐿 𝐿∙𝐿
𝐿(𝐿, 𝐿) =∙ 𝐿
⏟ ∙ 𝐿 𝐿+𝐿 ∙ 𝐿
⏟ (4)
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
Instead of the Barus equation, it is also possible to use the Roelands equation [9] for the pressure dependency which
can describe more complex pressure behavior of fluids:
𝐿 𝐿𝐿
𝐿𝐿
0

𝐿(𝐿, 𝐿) =∙ ⏟𝐿 ∙ 𝐿 𝐿+𝐿 ∙ 𝐿⏟ 𝐿 ((1+𝐿0) −1) (5)

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
The restriction of both methods is that Barus as well as Roelands don’t consider the temperature influence on the
pressure dependency. Many fluids show a different pressure dependency at high temperatures. An alternative solution is
to use a pressure equation beside the Vogel equation which considers pressure as well as temperature dependency or
work with a two dimensional chart for the viscosity which includes the dependencies on temperature and pressure.

For the TEHL simulation, boundary conditions for the inlet and outlet have to be defined as shown in figure 2. The
inlet and outlet pressure definition is necessary to define the pressure gradient. A boundary condition for the inlet
temperature is also necessary to define the temperature level.
BC:
- Inlet pressure BC:
- Inlet temperature - Outlet pressure

Figure 2: Boundary conditions for the flat gap grid in the TEHL simulation
154
 Temperature [ C]

Gap

Inlet Outlet

Figure 3: TEHL simulation model with temperature distribution for 1500 bar inlet pressure

Figure 3 shows the TEHL simulation model of the micro gap test bench for an inlet pressure of 1500 bar. It also
shows the temperature distribution in the solid structure as well as the temperature increase from inlet pocket to outlet
pocket due to the dissipation of the pressure energy. Furthermore, the pressure deformation of the inlet pocket for
1500 bar is visible.
Figure 4 shows the comparison between the measured and calculated pressure decreases in the micro gap from inlet
to outlet for inlet pressures from 1000 bar to 3000 bar. For all pressure levels, the results show a very good accordance
with a maximum deviation of only 6,8 % for an inlet pressure of 2000 bar in the middle of the gap length.

3000
Measurement
2500 Simulation
Pressure [bar]

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 1,5 3 4,5 6 7,5 9 10,5 12 13,5 15 16,5 18 19,5 21
Gap length [mm]

Figure 4: Comparison of simulated and measured pressures

Figure 5 shows the comparison between the measured and calculated temperature profiles in the micro gap for all
inlet pressures. The results also show a very good accordance with a maximum deviation of 4,3 °C or 2,7 % for an inlet
pressure of 3000 bar at the measurement point in the middle of the gap length.
200
3000 bar
180
2500 bar
160
Temperature [ C]

140 2000 bar

120
1500 bar
100
80 1000 bar
60
40 Measurement
Simulation
20
0
0 1,5 3 4,5 6 7,5 9 10,5 12 13,5 15 16,5 18 19,5 21
Gap length [mm]

Figure 5: Comparison of simulated and measured temperatures

155
 In figure 6, the measured leakage and the TEHL simulation results as well as the EHL simulation results for all inlet
pressures are shown. Between the measurement and the TEHL simulation, there is a very good accordance of the results
for all inlet pressures. The maximum deviation of 7,8 % for 3000 bar inlet pressure is probably caused by deviating
fluid data for high temperatures at high pressures. Similarly, EHL simulations were performed for a constant
temperature (mean temperature from TEHL simulation results) in the fluid viscosity 𝐿(𝐿 ̅ ). Only for an inlet pressure
of 1000 bar, the results are in good accordance. For higher inlet pressures, the deviation increases because of
temperature dependencies in the tribological system which have to be considered. These results also outline that a
TEHL simulation of tribological contacts with pressures of more than 1000 bar are necessary because temperature
effects are not negligible.
0,35
Measurement
0,3
TEHL-Simulation
Leakage [l/min]

0,25 EHL-Simulation

0,2

0,15

0,1

0,05

0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Pressure [bar]

Figure 6: TEHL and EHL results of the leakage

5. Unsteady heating up process

Furthermore, unsteady TEHL calculations of the heating up process have been performed within the investigation of
the micro gap. Figure 7 shows the measured and calculated temperatures in relation to time. The test as well as the
simulation reaches the steady-state condition of the temperature after approximately 2500 seconds (42 minutes). The
heating up of the micro gap test bench differs from the simulation only slightly. Improvement of the accordance can be
reached by optimized transient boundary condition for the inlet temperature in the simulation model.
Measurement: Simulation:

Figure 7: Unsteady heating up process for 1500 bar inlet pressure

6. Summary and Outlook

The piston-cylinder contact in high-pressure pumps of common-rail systems has been identified as a critical
tribological contact for pressures up to 3000 bar. Therefore, an abstracted test bench with a flat parallel gap with only a
few micrometers has been developed to measure local pressures and temperatures as well as the leakage. A TEHL
simulation model has been built up also to analyze the temperature effects in the tribological contact. The simulation
results show a very good accordance to the measurements of pressures, temperatures and leakages for pressures up to
3000 bar. The comparison with EHL results outlines the need to consider temperature and pressure effects on the change
of the viscosity and solid deformation for the simulation and design of tribological contacts at high pressures.

156
7. References
1. Ö. Özdemir, F. Fischer, A. Rienäcker and H. Murrenhoff, “Thermo-Elastohydrodynamics of the Piston-
Cylinder Contact in High-Pressure Pumps”, MTZ worldwide, vol. 03/2018, 2018
2. FVV – Research Association for Combustion Engines eV, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
3. F. Fischer and Ö. Özdemir, “Erarbeitung der Grundlagen für die Auslegung von Hochdruckpumpen bis
3000 bar”, FVV final report 1143, 2017
4. D. Jaitner, “Effiziente Finite-Elemente-Lösung der Energiegleichung zur thermischen Berechnung
tribologischer Kontakte“, Dissertation, University of Kassel, 2017
5. A. Rienäcker, “Instationäre Elastohydrodynamik von Gleitlagern mit rauhen Oberflächen und inverse Bestimmung
der Warmkonturen“, Dissertation, RWTH Aachen University, 1995
6. R. Schönen, “Strukturdynamische Mehrkörpersimulation des Verbrennungsmotors mit elastohydrodynamischer
Grundlagerkopplung“, Dissertation, University of Kassel, 2001
7. O. R. Lang, W. Steinhilper. “Das Gleitlager: Berechnung und Konstruktion von Gleitlagern mit konstanter und
zeitlich veränderlicher Belastung“, Springer-Verlag, 1978
8. C. Barus. “Isothermals, Isopiestics and Isometrics Relative to Viscosity“, American J. of Science 45, Vol. 266, 1893
9. C. J. A. Roelenads. “Correlational aspects of the viscosity-temperature-pressure
relationship of lubricating Oil“, Dissertation, Technische Hogeschool Delft, 1966

157
 Interferometric Measurements of Shaft Position in a Dynamically Loaded
Journal Bearing

Atae Jafari-Tabrizi1 and Zafer Dursunkaya1

Middle East Technical University, Mechanical Engineering Department, Ankara, Turkey
1 [email protected]
2 [email protected]

In this work an experimental setup is designed and constructed to measure micron-level gaps
inside journal bearings, and based on these measurements the motion of the shaft inside bearing is
estimated/computed. It is known that almost any mechanical machinery has tribological components,
that is, components that are composed of surfaces interacting with each other. This interaction between
surfaces causes friction and wear. Minimizing these losses in these components improves the overall
performance of the machinery. Directly measuring and monitoring the motion of these surfaces
relative to each other, is a useful proposition in the understanding of and finding a solution to this
problem.
In order to dynamically measure the position of the shaft inside the hub, a fiber optic
interferometer-based measurement technique is used in the main journal bearing of a diesel engine,
while the crankshaft is being rotated at a slower speed than the operating speed. Fiber optic
interferometer works with a laser source having a wavelength of 1550 nm. Fiber optic components
compatible with this wavelength range are widely used in fields such as communications. This fact
makes the components necessary to build this interferometer easily-accessible and low-cost, which are
attractive features of this measurement technique. An algorithm is developed to generate the motion of
the shaft inside bearing based on individual interferometric measurements taken from two points on
the bearing, which are collected simultaneously. With the constructed experimental setup and
developed algorithm, initial experiments are performed where there is no lubricant inside the bearing
subject to the tests. It is known that the presence of lubricant inside bearing decreases the visibility of
the interferometer’s light beam resulting in a dimming of the interference fringes. Therefore, in order
to avoid any external disturbances, and to be able to focus solely on validating the algorithm and
measurement technique, lubricant is removed from inside of the bearing.
There are 4 points on the bearing where 2 interferometer probes can be placed. Measurements
are taken from 5 different configurations of these probe positions on the bearing, while the crankshaft
is rotating at a slow, steady speed. All these interferometric measurements are used to generate the
trajectory that the shaft inside the bearing follows in one cycle of the crankshaft rotation. It is observed
that generated trajectories from all these probe position configurations give similar results for the
trajectory of the shaft. Lack of a dominant force acting on the crankshaft while it is rotating at a slow

158
speed results in similar trajectories for successive cycles, having an elliptical shape. This elliptical
shape has vertices in vertical direction, which is due to the effect of the gravity on the shaft.
Keywords: Fiber optic interferometry, journal bearing, shaft orbit

REFERENCES

[1] J. F. Booker, “Dynamically Loaded Journal Bearings: Mobility Method of Solution,” Journal of Basic
Engineering, vol. 87, no. 3, p. 537, Sep. 1965.
[2] H. Ronkainen, “Optical sensor for journal bearing oil film pressure measurements”, Tribologia -
Finnish Journal of Tribology, vol. 28, no. 3-4, pp. 3-15, Nov. 2009.
[3] H. Moreau, P. Maspeyrot, A. M. Chomat-Delalex, D. Bonneau, and J. Frene, “Dynamic behaviour of
elastic engine main bearings: Theory and measurements,” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, Part J: Journal of Engineering Tribology, vol. 216, no. 4, pp. 179–194, 2002.

159
 Numerical Study of Surface Modification-based Improved
Tribological Performance of Plain Bearing
1 2
Ali Usman and Cheol Woo Park
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology,
Wah Cantt, Pakistan
[email protected]
2 School of Mechanical Engineering Kyungpook National University, Daegu, South Korea
[email protected]

Journal bearings are widely used in rotary machines to minimize friction and wear. Tribo-
characteristics of a bearing have been key design parameters. Modern developments in micro texture -
based surface modification have shown promising outcomes to improve frictional response. The
hydrodynamic conjunction in journal–bearing interface is considered to investigate performance
improvements caused by the surface textures. Performance variations of the textured interface is
observed for varying operating conditions. The Reynolds equation is solved together with mass-
conserving Elrod cavitation algorithm in this study. Results show significant texture-based
improvements in tribo-characteristics. Modified journal surface, in a plain bearing, using micro-
textures normal to the sliding direction perturb the cavitation response and film-reformation in the
trailing section of the bearing.
Keywords: Journal bearing, surface modification, friction, load capacity, performance

1. Introduction
Plain bearing are used in several applications. Rotary machines account for majority of such
applications. Radial journal bearing is simple machine component, however, phenomenon which
makes it work is complex. Considerable amount of energy is dissipated in journal–bearing interface.
Recent studies have shown potential outcomes to improve performance of this interface using micro
surface textures [1, 2]. However, optimum texture geometry and distribution over the surface depend
on application and operating conditions [3, 4].
Surface grooves, normal and along the sliding direction, improves tribological performance
parameters in numerous applications [5-8]. Transverse grooves outperform performance enhancement

160
cause by grooves along the sliding direction. However, effect of grooved journal surface in a plain
bearing is less reported.
This study presents investigation and optimize of tribological performance variations caused by
textured journal surface at varying operating conditions. In the light of available literature transverse
grooves are considered on the journal surface in a plain bearing and geometric parameters of textures
are optimized for reduced friction.

2. Mathematical Model

Two-dimensional Reynold equation is solved with mass conserving Elrod cavitation algorithm
for hydrodynamic conjunction at textured-journal–bearing interface. Surface roughness is neglected
deliberately because bearings are designed to operate in hydrodynamic regime, thus, eliminating
asperity contact.
Film thickness contributed by textures are considered as global addition, hence, accumulative
film thickness can be expressed:

( )

ℎ , = (1 + cos ) + ℎ (1)

where θ is circumferential position, ε is eccentricity ratio, c is radial clearance between journal and
bearing surface, and ht is texture-based addition in the film thickness. Figure 1 illustrates the film
thickness at center-cross section in a textured journal–bearing compared with the untextured one.

Figure 1 Lubricating oil film [µm] in a textured-interface compared with untextured journal
surface–bearing conjunction.

3. Results and Discussion

Simulations are performed for a number of varying texture parameters, load carrying capacity
and friction of a plain bearing with textures on the journal surface compared with that of untextured
bearing are presented in Figure 2 and Figure 3.

161
 It is evident the substantial friction reduction is achievable for grooved journal–bearing with
optimized texture geometry at a slight compensation of load carrying capacity. Variation remains
minimum for varying number of textures distributed along the circumference. Zoomed view reveals
decreased friction for increasing number of textures, however, this variation remains in the order of
–2
10 , therefore, remains in evident in Figure 3.

Figure 2 Load-carrying capacity of textured journal bearing compared with the untextured bearing.

Effect of texture depth is significant in figure 2 and figure3. Load carrying capacity for
untextured is superior, however, magnitude of load-carrying capacity compromised (Figure 2) for
achieving reduced friction remains insignificant (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Friction of journal bearing with textured interface compared with the untextured bearing.

Acknowledgments

The authors are in debt to Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan for supporting this
study by providing financial support. Authors are also in debt to Bio Experimental Fluid Engineerin g
Laboratory (BEFEL) of Kyungpook National University S. Korea for providing technical assistance to
perform this research. This study was also supported by a grant from the Priority Research Centers

162
Program through the NRF as funded by the MEST (No. 2010-0020089), and a National Research
Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIP) (No.2017R1A2B2005515).

References
[1] Etsion I, Halperin G, Brizmer V, Kligerman Y. Experimental Investigation of Laser Surface Textured
Parallel Thrust Bearings. Tribology Letters. 2004;17:295‒300.
[2] Cervantes MJ, Glavatskih S, Cupillard S. Computational fluid dynamics analysis of a journal bearing with
surface texturing. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part J: Journal of Engineering
Tribology. 2008;222:97‒107.
[3] Tala-Ighil N, Fillon M, Maspeyrot P. Effect of textured area on the performances of a hydrodynamic journal
bearing. Tribology International. 2011;44:211‒9.
[4] Yu H, Huang W, Wang X. Dimple patterns design for different circumstances. Lubrication Science.
2013;25:67‒78.
[5] Aggarwal S, Pandey RK. Frictional and load-carrying behaviours of micro-textured sector shape pad thrust
bearing incorporating the cavitation and thermal effects. Lubrication Science. 2016.
[6] Sinanoğlu C, Nair F, Karamış MB. Effects of shaft surface texture on journal bearing pressure distribution.
Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 2005;168:344‒53.
[7] Usman A, Park CW. Optimizing the tribological performance of textured piston ring–liner contact for
reduced frictional losses in SI engine: Warm operating conditions. Tribology International. 2016;99:224‒36.
[8] Vladescu S-C, Olver AV, Pegg IG, Reddyhoff T. The effects of surface texture in reciprocating contacts – An
experimental study. Tribology International. 2015;82, Part A:28‒42.

163
 MOBILE INTO OLD AGE
Christian BUSCH1)*, Patrick KNORR2)

1), 2)
Faculty of Automotive and Mechanical Engineering, Department of Tribology,
Westsächsische Hochschule Zwickau - University of Applied Sciences Zwickau, Germany
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Aging populations and the objective of enabling older and/or disabled
people to live active, healthy and independent lives further into old age calls for
an increasing demand of artificial joints for the human musculoskeletal system.
Artificial joints show great diversity of tribological pairings which mostly are
composed of a combination of organic and inorganic materials. Hip
endoprosthesis are commonly made of a ceramic spherical head and a PE- inlay,
which is embodied in an artificial acetabular cup. The wear of artificial hip joint
components is the main cause for the malfunction of a hip endoprosthesis. The
aim of the project is to accurately identify the wear and its cause and to minimise
it by utilizing suitable material pairings and design solutions. The findings and
results are to be verified in practical tests. Through model tests, a pre-selection of
novel material pairings for later tests on certified hip joint simulators is made.
After an overview of hip arthroplasty, the test preparation and the procedure are
explained in more detail.
The pre-selection with tests on a universal tribometer is a central part of this
article. In particular, the sliding and wear properties of different cross-linked
polyethylene are investigated.

Keywords: biotribology, hip endoprosthesis, wear, artificial joint, synovial fluid

1. Introduction
In Germany the implantation of artificial hip joints is one of the most frequent clinical surgery procedures,
with 214,000 primary surgeries, 21,000 revisions and 167,000 operations of femur fractures (thigh fractures)
cases per year (source: Federal Statistical Office). There are 88% of femur fractures associated with the
generation over the age of 65 [1]. In particular, due to demographic change and increasing life expectancy, a
further increase in surgical primary surgeries and femur fracture operations is expected. In order to keep the
number of revision surgeries down, which can lead to high physical and mental stress as well as critical
situations, especially in the elderly, a long service life and thus useful life of implants is needed. This would
be a significant contribution to ensure mobility into old age while maintaining a reasonable quality of life.
Due to the enormous mechanical stress, the materials in the tribosystem of the tribological pairing of an
artificial hip joint are heavily loaded, which results in high demands on the materials used and in the design
of the surfaces. After John Charnley established the tribological pairing of a metal head and a polyethylene
(PE) cup in the mid-20th century [2], PE inlays embedded in the hip cup are nowadays used in combination
with a ceramic head.

164
 The basic structure of a total hip endoprosthesis (THEP) is shown in Figure 1. The ceramic balls are
attached to the hip stem via a cone.
When using PE, a loss of material and form can be detected. The material abrasion resulting from the
occurring wear forms can lead to aseptic loosening in the affected hip implants. At 38%, this is one of the
main causes of THEP malfunction (source: EPRD 2017). The abrasion particles can lead to foreign body
reactions which, inter alia, cause osteolysis (bone degradation) in the surroundings of the prosthesis, and in
turn lead to the loosening of the implant. An advanced bone loss of the hip cup is shown in Figure 2, based
on X-ray data.

Figure 1: Construction of a total hip endoprosthesis [3] Figure 2: Bone degradation in the hip cup [4]

The increasing wear of the tribologically stressed material partners and the flow of polyethylene by
exceeding the material flow limit lead to a change in shape of the PE inlay. This wear-related change in
shape turns into a change in position resulting in a head decentration, which leads to a new force
transmission and a related relative movement within the tribological system. Figure 3 shows such a change in
form of the PE cup in the example of CT images of an explant. The orange line represents the contour of the
inlay before implantation. A wear-related head decentration causes the PE inlay to be loaded on a smaller
area, thereby further increasing the specific surface pressure. The higher load can cause the components to
wear even more. In the worst case scenario, both the inlay and the metallic cup are destroyed.
Possible consequences of the material abrasion are, in addition to the previously mentioned osteolysis,
extensive inflammatory reactions in the tissue (metalloses), which require a surgical revision (implant
replacement). A study conducted by the Canadian Institute for Health Information identifies inlay and
bearing wear as a reason for hip revisions in 8.9% of cases between 2012 and 2014 [5].

165
 Figure 3: CT scan of an explant with pronounced head decentration

The average life of a hip implant is given as 10 to 15 years. In order to increase these insufficiently short
service lives, a wear-resistant, long-term stable hip implant with an integrated shock absorber is developed to
minimise the load peaks. To minimise wear, in particular the tribological system consisting of a ceramic ball,
polyethylene inlay and serum, which mimics the natural synovial fluid, is analysed.
In screening tests various polyethylene materials with different degrees of cross-linking are tested and
examined with regard to their friction properties (their sliding properties) and their wear resistance. Through
targeted optimisation of the head geometry and new surface structures, the natural lubricant supply is to be
improved. The introduction of damping composite material layers, which limit the processes of material
fatigue, follows.

2. Test preparation
Semi-finished products of different cross-linked polyethylenes are used to produce test specimens in the
form of round disks for inclusion in the tribometer. The contact surface of the PE samples is subsequently
processed to obtain surface qualities that correspond to current standard inlays. The specimens are then
subjected to a 2-week accelerated ageing process at higher temperatures and another 2 weeks of pre-
saturation in a serum. The aim of this preparatory work is, on the one hand, to take into account the ageing of
the PE until implantation and, on the other hand, to track the fluid absorption and thus the swelling behaviour
of the thermoplastics. Subsequently, the prepared specimens are mounted on the sample holder. The sub-
sample is placed in a serum-filled liquid container which in turn is housed in a heat chamber in the test
apparatus.
The ceramic ball heads established in the market serve as contact surface to the PE samples. These
already have hardly measurable wear rates in combination with a standard polyethylene material as a system
partner. Using a specially designed adapter, the ceramic balls are picked up by a cone. By rotating the
ceramic ball on the cone, a new surface area is in tribological contact with each test. Finally, the test chamber
is hermetically sealed by a cuff to protect the test serum against bacterial infestation and premature aging.

3. Test procedure
For the tests, a universal tribometer is used. Test conditions such as frequency, normal force, test
temperature and duration are pre-set based on the determined practical parameters. Figure 4 shows the test
chamber. In order to test a large number of different polyethylene samples in the shortest possible time, a
frequency of 10 Hz is selected. The normal force FN is based on real occurring forces in the hip joint and
was converted to a ball-on-disc contact. Furthermore, the test temperature is based at 37 °C, which is the
body temperature of humans.

166
 The vibration path is set mechanically on the slide and, in conjunction with the test frequency, allows for
comparisons with regard to the sliding paths in artificial hip joints. At the beginning of the test, both the test
serum and the two sliding partners are heated for a sufficient time until the test temperature of 37 °C is
reached. Thereafter, the test starts, with the normal force applied vertically from above. The PE sample on
the holder then oscillates for 72 hours with respect to the ceramic ball fixed in the adapter.

Test conditions:
- Material pairing: ZTA / PE
- Frequency: 10 Hz
- Displacement: 5 mm
- Normal force FN: 10 N
- Test temperature: 37 ° C
- Test duration: 72 h
- Lubricant: bovine serum

Figure 4: Test setup with test conditions

4. Test evaluation / Data analysis

During the experiments with differently cross-linked polyethylenes, the coefficient of friction over time is
recorded continuously and the determined values are then compared with one another. The wear cups on both
the ball and the plate are observed by light microscopy, measuring the surface and determining the
volumetric wear volume. A final particle analysis provides information on the type, number and size of the
particles. In particular, the latter may be an important indicator of the likelihood of aseptic loosening of the
implant.

167
5. Summary and outlook
With the help of the universal tribometer, initial statements can be made about the tribological suitability
of polyethylene as an inlay material for hip joints. Initial results show significantly lower friction coefficients
for highly cross-linked PE samples compared to conventional polyethylene. The wear calotte on the inlay
materials are also reduced with increasing cross-linking of synthetics.
In further research, these results should be checked by changing the boundary conditions. A rotational
movement during the test run that provides information about the anisotropic properties of the polyethylene
is planned. It would also be conceivable to extend the test program and include a pin-on-disc configuration,
which would result in a two-dimensional support based on the true conditions in the hip joint. Since there are
considerable differences in the degree of crosslinking among the highly cross-linked polyethylenes, this
should be determined in further investigations. Tribological investigations should be quantified and
correlated with the tribological test conditions. A detailed analysis of the swelling behaviour of the samples
can be concluded. The aim of this is to obtain information regarding “lubricant uptake” and possibly
enlarged contact surface during later use.

6. Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank the European Social Fund (ESF) for financing this research.

References
1. A. König-Leischnig, J. Klewer, B. Karich and K. Richter, “Age trauma patients with proximal femur
fracture - evaluation of routine data of an age trauma center,” in Trauma Surgeon, Berlin, vol. VII, pp.
667-674, July 2016.
2. K. A. Siebenrock, “Sir John Charnlay - Artificial Hip Pioneer”, in Switzerland Med Forum, Bern, vol.
VIII, p. 159, August 2008.
3. https://gelenk-doktor.de
4. L. Claes, P. Kirschner, C. Perka and M. Rudert “AE manual for arthroplasty - hip and hip revision”,
Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, London, New York, 2012, p. 451
5. P. Damm, F. Graichen, A. Rohlmann, A. Bender and G. Bergmann, “Total hip joint prosthesis for in
vivo measurement of forces and moments,” in Medical Engineering & Physics, vol. 32, pp. 95-100,
January 2010

168
 EFFECT OF ELECTRON BEAM SURFACE MELTING ON MICROSTRUCTURE
AND WEAR BEHAVIOUR OF PTA DEPOSITED STELLITE 12 HARDFACING

Ali Abdul Munim Alhattab1, Shaikh Asad Ali Dilawary1, Amir Motallebzadeh2, C. Fahir ARISOY1
and Huseyin Cimenoglu1*.
1)
Istanbul Technical University, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Istanbul, Turkey
2)
Koc University Surface Science and Technology Centre (KUYTAM), Istanbul, Turkey
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of electron beam surface
melting (EBSM) on the microstructure, surface hardness and wear properties of plasma
transferred arc (PTA) deposited Stellite 12 hardfacing alloy. Microstructural
characterization of the EBSM'ed specimen showed remarkable grain refinement for both
carbides and matrix phases along with a slight increase in hardness. Despite an increase in
the hardness, the wear resistance of the EBSM'ed specimens showed poor wear
performance. Lower wear resistance after EBSM was attributed to extensive refinement of
carbides, which had higher potential for removal during sliding contact as well as lacking
of tribolayers formation on the worn surfaces during the sliding action.
Keywords: Electron Beam Surface Melting, Hardfacing, Plasma Transferred Arc, Stellite 12,
Sliding Wear.
1. Introduction
One of the most commonly applied processes used to enhance the performance of metallic surfaces is Hardfacing. It
is usually utilized to increase the hardness, wear and corrosion resistance of metallic parts that face aggressive working
conditions in order to prolong the equipment life in different industrial fields such as oil refineries, mining and others
[1-6]. For this purpose, many hardfacing components (mainly Fe-, Ni-, and Co-based alloys) are homogeneously
deposited on relatively softer metallic substrates by several techniques such as oxyacetylene gas welding (OAW), gas
metal arc welding (GMAW), shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), submerged arc welding (SAW) and plasma
transferred arc welding (PTA) processes [7-9]. Among these techniques, PTA is widely used owing to its low heat input,
arc stability, wide range of deposit thickness and choices of disposition materials [1,10,11].
Compared to Ni- and Fe-based hardfacing alloys, Co-based ones have been extensively used in the applications that
require a good combination of wear, corrosion and heat-resistance properties such as aerospace, gas turbines, and power
plants [1,12,13]. Stellite hardfacing alloys, the most popular group of Co-based hardfacing alloys [1,6,10], that derived
from Cr (20-30 wt%), W (4-18 wt%) or Mo (up to 28%) and C (< 3 wt%) [14,15] type can be found in several
modifications and commercial grades such as Stellite1, 6 and 12 [6,16]. The main differences between commercial
grades of Stellite hardfacing alloys is content of the carbon and alloying elements (such as Cr, W and Mo) which
considered the strengthening factor in this group by influencing the volume fraction of carbides formed in the
microstructure during the solidification [1,17]. Chromium, increases the strength of hardfacing alloys by developing
M7C3 and M23C6 carbides in the microstructure. Also addition of molybdenum and tungsten can lead to strength the
Stellite hardfacing alloys by the solid-solution strengthening and forming M6C carbides along with intermetallic phases,
such as Co3(Mo,W) [8,17,22].
Stellite 12 alloy is widely used in applications need combination of wear resistance, high temperature performance
and toughness is due to its higher content of W which makes it the hardest among Stellite alloys as well as its moderate
carbon content (approximately 1.5 wt%) that allows it to have better wear resistance and toughness as compared to
Stellite 6 and Stellite 1, respectively [9,23-25].
Enhancing the surface performance has motivated many researchers to modify different grades of Stellite alloys
chemically by adding either alloying elements such as molybdenum, silicon, and yttrium or hard carbides particles
during the deposition. It was reported that the modified alloys exhibited higher hardness and better wear resistance than
those of original chemical composition [1,10,16,20,21,23,26-28]. Continuous efforts have been made to further improve
the surface quality by applying post treatments such as remelting the surface of deposited hardfacings by laser beam
LSM and electron beam EBSM techniques (including both the continuous and pulsed irradiation) [1]. LSM process has
been applied on different metallic materials, the modified surfaces showed a considerable enhancement in wear
resistance and hardness as a result of extensively refined microstructure as well as the uniformal distribution of
strengthening phases (i.e. carbides) as compared to that of the original state [23,24,26,30-32].

169
 Unlike LSM technique, EBSM is usually performed in a vacuum environment which prevents the loss of energy that
might be resulted from the colliding between the liberated electrons and surrounding gas molecules, this in turn ensures
increasing the thermal efficiency of the process and makes it suitable for components with a high affinity to oxygen
[33,34]. As the interaction between the accelerated electrons and the workpiece takes place, the kinetic energy of the
electrons is instantly transferred to the metallic surface and a temperature high enough to melt a great variety of metals
and alloys is generated [34,35]. During the solidification, the high cooling rate that arises from low heat input (10 3 to
104 K/s for the continuous electron beam, and 109 to 1010 K/s for the pulsed electron beam) [2] exhibits unique
microstructural variations in the consisting phases which in turn extensively affects the hardness and wear resistance of
the processed surfaces [34,35,37,38]. Additionally, the uniform energy distribution of the EBSM process comparing
with that of LSM results in lower residual stress on the material surface so that any stress relief treatments may not be
needed [36,39].
In this work, an electron beam pwlaiesdap to Stellite 12 PTA hardfacing alloy in an effort to investigate if the
surface mechanical and tribological properties could be improved. The change of surface properties as a result of the
applied treatments is expected due to the high melting and solidification rates.

2. Materials and Methods

In this study, Commercial Stellite 12 (Sulzer, Amdry 313X) powder with particle size of 53–150 μm was deposited
in a single pass on AISI 4140 steel by a PTA technique under process parameters of current 92 A, voltage 32 V, travel
speed 85 mm/min. The thickness of deposited hardfacing layer was 5 mm. The surface of the deposition was then
flattened by grinding to a thickness of 2.5 mm.
After cleaning processes, an electron beam of a current of 4 mA, voltage of 40 kv, spot size of 1 mm in diameter
scanned the work piece at a rate of 171 mm/min and vacuum pressure of 0.01 bar leading to heat input of 56 J/mm for
EBSM surface melting [3].
An X-ray diffractometer (XRD) with Cu Kα radiation (GBC, Australia), scanning electron microscope (SEM) (TM-
1000 Tabletop Microscope, HITACHI, Japan), and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectrometer (Zeiss, Ultra Plus,
Germany) were utilized to examine the surface and cross-sectional microstructures of the samples which were prepared
using standard metallographic procedures. ImageJ 1.51r software was applied to quantify the volume fraction of the
consisting observed phases in the microstructure of the deposits.
The hardness values in HV scale were obtained by using a conventional microhardness tester (Shimadzu, HMV2,
Japan) with indentation load of 1 kg. Ten measurements were made on the surfaces of each deposit and the average was
the final result of the hardness. A ball-on-disc reciprocating wear tester (Tribotech Oscillating Tribotester) was used for
the dry sliding wear tests of the ‘As PTA’ and EBSM’ed samples. An alumina ball with a diameter of 6 mm was slid ‘to
and fro’ against the sample surfaces with a sliding speed of 10 mm/sec. Overall sliding distance and stroke of the
reciprocating motion were 100 m and 5.0 mm, respectively. The normal load was chosen to be 1 and 4N corresponding
to the lowest and highest limits of the tribotester. The temperature and the relative humidity during the test were
maintained at 25 ± 5° C and 30 ± 3%, respectively. The wear track area was calculated by using 2D contact type
profilometer. Finally, SEM examinations was conducted on the worn surfaces.

3. Results
Microstructural analysis: Figure 1 presents the XRD patterns of As PTA Stellite 12 and EBSM’ed Stellite 12
hardfacing deposits. Analysis of these patterns reveals the main constitution phases of the examined surfaces are α-Co
(ICCD 01-088-2325), Cr-rich carbides in the form of M7C3 and M23C6 (ICCD 00-036-1482 and ICCD 00-003-1172,
respectively), and complex carbides in the form of M6C (ICCD 00-023-09390). These results are consistent with previous
studies on Stellite 12 [1,6,23,24,26].

Figure 1 XRD patterns of (a) As PTA Stellite 12 and (b) EBSM’ed Stellite 12 deposit

170
 The Surface SEM micrographs of the examined deposits are displayed in Fig. 2. It can be seen that microstructure of
As PTA Stellite 12 (Fig. 2a) has a dendritic structure and consists mainly of three distinct phases. According to the
previous studies as well as our EDX and XRD findings, the light gray phase is the cobalt-rich matrix surrounded by the
dark gray phase which is chromium-rich carbides in the form of M7C3 and M23C6 in addition to a relatively low fraction
of the white phase which is mainly tungsten-rich carbides in the form of M6C type complex carbides [1,9,23]. Since
Stellite 12 hardfacing alloy has a carbon content of less than 2%, it exhibits a hypo-eutectic solidification. The α-solid
solution dendrites are the first phase to form during cooling from the liquid state. This phase is of FCC crystal structure
and dominated by cobalt with fewer amounts of chromium, iron, tungsten and nickel. The remaining liquid eventually
solidifies by a eutectic reaction to form a lamellar mixture of solid solution phase with chromium-rich carbides
[17,41,42].

Figure 2 SEM micrographs of (a) PTA Stellite 12 and (b) EBSM’ed Stellite 12 hardfacing

The surface microstructure of the EBSM’ed Stellite 12 deposit is shown in Fig. 2b. It is obvious that the
microstructural consisting phases were tremendously refined after EBSM process and the dendritic morphology of the
matrix phase that is conventionally noticed in As PTA Stellite 12 alloys [1,7,43] was converted into a cellular dendritic
one [7]. It is well accepted that altering the rate at which the molten metal is cooled during the solidification process can
lead to fractional and morphological variations in the consisting phases of processed materials [8]. Under the action of
EBSM process, the surface layer of Stellite 12 deposit was superfast heated, melted, and then it was solidified under
high cooling rate as a result of low heat input [40,46]. Accordingly, the undercooling (∆T) was large enough to exhibit
high nucleation and low growth rates [9] resulted in a refined microstructure [46-48].
As the solidification front moves at a velocity of (V), the solid-liquid interface is enriched in the solute due to
rejecting the solute atoms from the solid to the liquid phase. This enrichment of the remaining liquid leads to
constitutional undercooling near the solid-liquid interface, which results in a negative temperature gradient (G) and
causes perturbation in the advanced planar solidification front. As G/V ratio gets smaller, the microstructure shows a
higher tendency to be converted from planar into cellular morphology [11,23,49,50].
Additionally, it can be observed in Fig. 2b that the EBSM’ed microstructure consists of fine and discrete M 6C
carbides uniformly distributed into the matrix and no chromium-rich carbides can be seen at low magnifications. This
observation can be attributed to that diffusion rates of chromium in a cobalt-chromium solid solitons were found to be
low; considerably higher temperatures and low cooling rates are both required for diffusion [10]. Therefore, a higher
chromium fraction is trapped in the matrix phase [11] during the EBSM process as a solid solution strengthening
element which inversely affects the volume fraction and size of the chromium-rich carbides formed during the eutectic
solidification. This explanation can also be supported by the EDX results in table 1 which shows that the atomic
percentage of chromium in the matrix phase increased by about 8% after EBSM process.

Table 1 The chemical composition of the matrix phase in As PTA and EBSM’ed Stellite 12 deposits measured by EDX

Sample at% Co at% Cr at% W at% Fe at% Ni

As PTA Stellite 12 62.76 26.41 2.27 5.62 2.94
EBSM’ed Stellite 12 61.72 28.46 1.94 5.17 2.71

Figure 3 shows the cross sectional SEM microstructure of the examined Stellite 12 deposits. It can be observed that
all of the consisting phases of the As PTA deposit (Fig. 3a) are homogeneously distributed through the microstructure.
Contrarily, the cross sectional microstructure of the EBSM’ed deposit (Fig 3b) includes only two distinct phases in the
EBSM’ed zone. The unobservable chromium-rich carbides besides the extensively refined structure are the distinctive
appearances of the microstructure after EBSM process.

171
 Figure 3 SEM cross sectional microstructure of (a) As PTA Stellite 12 and (b) EBSM’ed Stellite 12 deposits

The approximate volume fractions of the observed phases in As PTA and EBSM’ed Stellite 12 microstructure are
quantified in Table 2.

Table 2 Volume fraction of the observed phases in the examined deposits

Sample % α-Co matrix % Cr-rich carbides % Complex carbides

As PTA Stellite 12 55.40 35.60 9
EBSM’ed Stellite 12 84.50 - 15.50

It can be noted that the volume fraction of M6C carbide phase in the microstructure increased by 70% after EBSM
process as well as a considerable reduction in the overall volume fraction of precipitated carbides from 44.5% in As
PTA microstructure to 15.5% after EBSM process. Increasing the chromium fraction in the solid solution phase of the
EBSM’ed structure forced a fraction of tungsten out of the solid solution lattice to combine with the carbon and
consequently, higher fraction of tungsten-rich carbides in the form of M6C were formed during the eutectic reaction.
This assumption can also be confirmed by going through the EDX results (Table 1) which show that the atomic
percentage of tungsten reduced in the solid solution matrix phase after the EBSM process.
Hardness: The results of the surface hardness measurements conducted on the examined deposits are plotted in Fig.
4. The hardness of the As PTA surface was measured as 528 ± 25 HV and as 599 ± 30 for that of the EBSM’ed
corresponding to approximately 14% higher surface hardness after the EBSM process.
Since it is commonly accepted that there is a strong relationship between the microstructure and hardness of any
metallic material, this increasing in surface hardness values is believed to be as a result of the microstructural refining
after EBSM process (i.e. the Hall-Petch strengthening mechanism) which developed from the high cooling rate during
the EBSM process besides the effect of solid solution hardening of the matrix phase due to dissolution of chromium
[9,38,42,46,53].

Figure 4 Hardness of As PTA and EBSM’ed Stellite 12 deposits

172
 Wear resistance: Figure 5 shows the 2D wear track appearance formed on the surface of the examined Stellite 12
deposits at wear testing loads of 1N and 4N. It can be noticed that the As PTA and EBSM’ed examined deposits
followed similar trend during the wear test; the higher the wear test load was applied, the wider and deeper was the
wear track (i.e. larger wear track area) formed. In spite of having higher hardness after the EBSM process, EBSM’ed
deposits showed higher rate of wear loss comparing with the As PTA samples at the same testing loads. At 1N test load,
the wear track area is measured as 844±15 μm2 and 1239±23 μm2 for As PTA and EBSM’ed samples, respectively. The
same tendency was shown at the highest wear test load of 4N, the wear track area increased from 3412±30 μm2 for the
As PTA sample to 4786±39 μm2 after EBSM process. Moreover, the wear track profiles of As PTA and EBSM’ed
examined deposits indicate that the worn surfaces exhibit a roughened appearance especially under the highest wear test
load of 4N. To sum up, there is a considerable increase in the wear track area after applying the EBSM process.

1N 4N
As PTA Stellite 12
EBSM′ed Stellite 12

(a) (b)

Figure 5 2D wear track of As PTA and EBSM’ed Stellite 12 deposits at (a) 1N and (b) 4N

To compare the results of wear tests that previously presented, the wear track areas were normalized for each testing
load by dividing the wear track area of the EBSM’ed sample to that of the As PTA one. As can be seen in Fig 6,
EBSM’ed Stellite 12 exhibited about 45% in average higher wear loss than As PTA Stellite Hardfacing.

Figure 6 Normalized wear track area of As PTA and EBSM’ed Stellite 12 deposits tested under loads of 1N and 4N

173
 Figure 7 provides deeper details about wear mechanisms via showing the SESM micrographs of the worn surface of
the examined deposits under testing loads of 1N and 4N. The microploughing which characterizes the worn surfaces of
As PTA and EBSM’ed deposits indicate that the abrasive wear is the dominant mechanism at the maintained testing
conditions [12]. It can be clearly noted in Fig. 7a that the coarse carbides which embedded in the microstructure of As
PTA sample were severely cracked into fine fragments after applying a testing load of 1N, some of these debris were
detached during the sliding action and acted as hard abrasive particles which were forced against and moved relative to
the surface leaving behind discontinues grooves in the matrix parallel to the sliding direction. Moreover, the worn
surface witnessed the formation of limited tribo-oxide patches. As the wear testing load increased to 4N (Fig. 7b), the
worn surface showed the same tendency, however, the grooves were shallower and higher fraction of tribo-oxide
patches were formed.

1N 4N
As PTA Stellite 12

(a) (b)
EBSM′ed Stellite 12

(c) (d)

Figure 7 Worn surface SEM micrographs of As PTA and EBSM′ed tested at loads of 1N and 4N

The worn surfaces of the EBSM’ed sample at testing loads of 1N and 4N are displayed in Figures 7c and d,
respectively. These worn surfaces are featured by continuously ploughed matrix and no tribo-oxide layer can be
detected on the worn surface. Furthermore, increasing the testing load to 4N resulted in total removal of the fine
carbides from the surface layer of the examined deposit and the grooves that were imposed against the matrix became
closer to each other.
Since it was reported that the wear resistance of the Stellite alloys increases with the increasing of hard carbides/soft
matrix fraction ratio and it is strongly influenced by the size, shape, distribution of the hard phases in the microstructure
[2,3,17,41,47], and the formation of tribolayers [54]. the high volume fraction and uniform distribution of the coarse
carbides which were observed in the microstructure of As PTA deposits (Fig. 7a and b) provided a barrier against the
wear attacks via blocking the sliding action after it was cutting and ploughing the matrix [6,8,55]. Contrarily, absence of
the coarse carbides from the microstructure of EBSM’ed deposit besides their low volume fraction assisted in continues
ploughing of the matrix and exhibited higher wear loss.
Agreeing with the fundamentals of sliding wear mechanism and the results obtained from the observation of the
worn surfaces, there are two general situations contributed in developing of wear loss. In the first case, the relative
motion between the mating surfaces (i.e. the harder alumina ball and the softer examined surface) resulted in the
removal of material from the examined surface. In the second case, the detached fragments of carbides (from As PTA
microstructure) or the removed fine carbides (from EBSM’ed microstructure) trapped between the moved surfaces and
penetrated against the matrix which eventually cut through it.

174
 In EBSM’ed deposits, not only the low fraction- and fine-carbides, but also the absence of tribo-oxide layer led to
showing poor wear behavior during the sliding. The formation of this patches prevent direct metal-to-metal contact and
hinder the wear loss to certain extent [56], therefore; shallower grooves were observed in the worn surface of As PTA
deposit tested at 4N as a result of formation considerable volume fraction of these patches. It is supposed that the reason
behind undeveloping the tribo-oxide layer on the worn surface of EBSM’ed deposit was due to the inconsiderable
matrix/carbides interphase interfaces that is considered the preferential sites on which the oxide phase is created during
the sliding process [52].

4. Conclusion
In this study, the microstructure and mechanical properties of EBSM'ed Stellite 12 hardfacing deposited by PTA
were examined and compared with those of As PTA. The conclusions can be summarized as follows:
Microstructurally, carbides and matrix phases were significantly refined as a result of high solidification rate after
EBSM process as well as the dendritic microstructure of the As PTA deposited Stellite 12 was converted into
cellular-dendritic one.
The volume fraction of M6C complex carbide phase increased by 70% in the microstructure after EBSM process.
However, the whole volume fraction of the precipitated carbides reduced by about two third in the EBM’ed deposit.
Hardness of EBSM'ed Stellite 12 slightly increased because of structure refinement along with solid solution
strengthening of the matrix.
Despite an increase in hardness, a considerable decrease in wear resistance after EBSM was observed mainly due to
the redaction in the hard carbides/softer matrix volume fraction ratio as well as the unfavorable structure for the
tribo-oxide layer formation.

5. References
[1] A. Motallebzadeh, E. Atar, and H. Cimenoglu, “Sliding Wear Characteristics of Molybdenum Containing
Stellite 12 Coating at Elevated Temperatures,” Tribiology Int., vol. 91, pp. 40–47, 2015.
[2] M. F. Buchely, J. C. Gutierrez, L. M. León, and A. Toro, “The Effect of Microstructure on Abrasive Wear of
Hardfacing Alloys,” Wear, vol. 259, no. 1–6, pp. 52–61, 2005.
[3] R. G.P., M. Kamaraj, and S. R. Bakshi, “Hardfacing of AISI H13 Tool Steel With Stellite 21 Alloy Using Cold
Metal Transfer Welding Process,” Surf. Coatings Technol., vol. 326, pp. 63–71, 2017.
[4] V. Shibe and V. Chawla, “Enhancement in Wear Resistance By Hardfacing: A Review,” Mech. Confab, vol. 2,
no. 3, pp. 111–122, 2013.
[5] A. Oláh, C. Croitoru, and M. H. Tierean, “Surface Properties Tuning of Welding Electrode-Deposited
Hardfacings by Laser Heat Treatment,” Appl. Surf. Sci., 2017.
[6] A. Motallebzadeh, E. Atar, and H. Cimenoglu, “Microstructure and Tribological Properties af PTA Deposited
Stellite 12 Coating on Steel Substrate,” vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 224–228, 2015.
[7] M. Mohaideen and M. Duraiselvam, “Plasma Transferred Arc Welding of Stellite 6 Alloy on Stainless Steel for
Wear Resistance,” Procedia Technol., vol. 25, pp. 1305–1311, 2016.
[8] F. Madadi, M. Shamanian, and F. Ashra, “Effect of Pulse Current on Microstructure and Wear Resistance of
Stellite6 / Tungsten Carbide Claddings Produced by Tungsten Inert Gas Process,” vol. 205, pp. 4320–4328,
2011.
[9] H. Deng, H. Shi, and S. Tsuruoka, “Influence of Coating Thickness and Temperature on Mechanical Properties
Of Steel Deposited With Co-Based Alloy Hardfacing Coating,” Surf. Coat. Technol., vol. 204, no. 23, pp. 3927–
3934, 2010.
[10] J. C. Shin, J. M. Doh, J. K. Yoon, D. Y. Lee, and J. S. Kim, “Effect of Molybdenum on The Microstructure and
Wear Resistance of Cobalt-Base Stellite Hardfacing Alloys,” Surf. Coatings Technol., vol. 166, no. 2–3, pp.
117–126, 2003.
[11] T. Materials, “Welding Brazing and Soldering,” ASM, vol. 6, 1993.
[12] S. Atamert and J. Stekly, “Current Status Review Microstructure , Wear Resistance and Stability of Cobalt
Based and Alternative Iron Based Hardfacing Alloys,” Surf. Eng., vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 231–239, 1993.
[13] G. R. Mirshekari, S. Daee, S. F. Bonabi, M. R. Tavakoli, A. Shafyei, and M. Safaei, “Effect of Interlayers on
The Microstructure and Wear Resistance of Stellite 6 Coatings Deposited on Aisi 420 Stainless Steel by GTAW
Technique,” Surfaces and Interfaces, vol. 9, no. August, pp. 79–92, 2017.
[14] S. Nsoesie, R. Liu, K. Y. Chen, and M. X. Yao, “Analytical Modeling of Solid-Particle Erosion of Stellite Alloys
in Combination With Experimental Investigation,” Wear, vol. 309, no. 1–2, pp. 226–232, 2014.
[15] M. Sebastiani, V. Mangione, D. De Felicis, E. Bemporad, and F. Carassiti, “Wear Mechanisms and In-Service
Surface Modifications of A Stellite 6B Co-Cr Alloy,” Wear, vol. 290–291, pp. 10–17, 2012.
[16] V. Kuzucu and M. Ceylan, “An Investigation of Stellite-6 Alloy Containing 5.0 wt % Silicon,” vol. 79, pp. 47–
51, 1998.
[17] S. Kapoor, High-Temperature Hardness and Wear Resistance of Stellite Alloys. 2012.
[18] Y. Ding, R. Liu, J. Yao, Q. Zhang, and L. Wang, “Stellite Alloy Mixture Hardfacing via Laser Cladding for
Control Valve Seat Sealing Surfaces,” Surf. Coat. Technol., vol. 329, no. August, pp. 97–108, 2017.
[19] M. S. Sawant and N. K. Jain, “Investigations on Wear Characteristics of Stellite Coating by Micro-Plasma
Transferred Arc Powder Deposition Process,” Wear, vol. 378–379, pp. 155–164, 2017.
175
[20] R. Liu, J. Yao, Q. Zhang, M. X. Yao, and R. Collier, “Effects of Molybdenum Content on The Wear / Erosion
and Corrosion Performance of Low-Carbon Stellite Alloys,” J. Mater., vol. 78, pp. 95–106, 2015.
[21] V. Kuzucu, M. Ceylan, and H. C. Aksoy, “Microstructure and Phase Analyses of Stellite 6 Plus 6 wt .% Mo
alloy,” J. Malerials Process. Technol., vol. 69, pp. 257–263, 1997.
[22] E. Cabrol, C. Boher, V. Vidal, F. Rézaï-aria, and F. Touratier, “Plastic Strain fo Cobalt-Based Hardfacings Under
Friction Loading,” vol. 331, pp. 354–363, 2015.
[23] S. A. A. Dilawary, A. Motallebzadeh, M. Afzal, E. Atar, and H. Cimenoglu, “Laser Surface Melting of 10 Wt%
Mo Alloyed Hardfacing Stellite 12 Plasma Transferred Arc Deposits: Structural Evolution and High
Temperature Wear Performance,” Opt. Laser Technol., vol. 101, pp. 404–412, 2018.
[24] S. Asad et al., “Influence of Laser Surface Melting on The Characteristics of Stellite 12 Plasma Transferred Arc
Hardfacing Deposit,” Surf. Coat. Technol., vol. 317, pp. 110–116, 2017.
[25] E. Díaz, J. M. Amado, J. Montero, M. J. Tobar, and A. Yáñez, “Comparative Study of Co-Based Alloys in
Repairing Low Cr-Mo Steel Components by Laser Cladding,” vol. 39, pp. 368–375, 2012.
[26] S. A. A. Dilawary, A. Motallebzadeh, R. Akhter, E. Atar, and H. Cimenoglu, “Enhanced Wear Resistance of
Stellite 12 by Mo Addition and LSM,” Surf. Eng., vol. 33, no. 0, pp. 1–8, 2017.
[27] I. Radu and D. Y. Li, “The Wear Performance of Yttrium-Modified Stellite 712 At Elevated Temperatures,”
Tribol. Int., vol. 40, no. 2 SPEC. ISS., pp. 254–265, 2007.
[28] B. Li, Y. Jin, J. Yao, Z. Li, and Q. Zhang, “Solid-State Fabrication of WC-Reinforced Stellite-6 Composite
Coatings With Supersonic Laser Deposition,” vol. 321, pp. 386–396, 2017.
[29] P. Petrov, “Optimization of Carbon Steel Electron-Beam Hardening,” J. Phys. Conf. Ser., vol. 223, no. 1, pp. 1–
7, 2010.
[30] Š. Houdková, Z. Pala, E. Smazalová, and M. Vost, “Microstructure and Sliding Wear Properties of HVOF
Sprayed , Laser Remelted and Laser Clad Stellite 6 Coatings,” vol. 318, pp. 129–141, 2017.
[31] H. C- et al., “Tribological Studies on Laser Surface Melted Tribological Studies on Laser Surface Melted
Hastelloy C-276,” vol. 844, 2013.
[32] B. Mehrjou et al., “Laser Surface Treatment of AZ91 Magnesium Alloy Presprayed With Wc–Co Laser Surface
Treatment of AZ91 Magnesium Alloy Presprayed With Wc – Co,” vol. 844, 2016.
[33] L. E. Murr and S. M. Gaytan, Electron Beam Melting, vol. 10. Elsevier, 2014.
[34] S. Biamino et al., “Electron Beam Melting of Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb Alloy: Microstructure and Mechanical
Properties Investigation,” Intermetallics, vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 776–781, 2011.
[35] D. Wei, X. Wang, R. Wang, and H. Cui, “Surface Modification of 5CrMnMo Steel With Continuous Scanning
Electron Beam Process,” Vacuum, vol. 149, pp. 118–123, 2018.
[36] Y. Fu, J. Hu, X. Shen, Y. Wang, and W. Zhao, “Surface Hardening of 30CrMnSi Steel Using Continuous
Electron Beam,” Nucl. Instruments Methods Phys. Res. Sect. B Beam Interact. with Mater. Atoms, vol. 410, pp.
207–214, 2017.
[37] V. P. Rotshtein, “Use of Low-Energy , High-Current Electron Beams for Surface Treatment of Materials,” vol.
96, pp. 117–122, 1997.
[38] J. C. Walker, R. B. Cook, J. W. Murray, and A. T. Clare, “Pulsed Electron Beam Surface Melting of Cocrmo
Alloy for Biomedical Applications,” Wear, vol. 301, no. 1–2, pp. 250–256, 2013.
[39] M. Galati and L. Iuliano, “A Literature Review of Powder-Based Electron Beam Melting Focusing on
Numerical Simulations,” Addit. Manuf., vol. 19, pp. 1–20, 2018.
[40] http/:www.faq-what-is-the-difference-between-heat-input-and-arc-energy.
[41] M. X. Yao, J. B. C. Wu, and Y. Xie, “Wear , Corrosion and Cracking Resistance of Some W- or Mo-Containing
Stellite Hardfacing Alloys,” vol. 407, pp. 234–244, 2005.
[42] K. Jiang, “Effects of Heat Treatment on Microstructure and Wear Resistance of Stainless Steels and
Superalloys,” no. March, 2013.
[43] A. Renz, B. Prakash, J. Hardell, and O. Lehmann, “High-Temperature Sliding Wear Behaviour of Stellite®12
and Tribaloy®T400,” Wear, vol. 402–403, no. October 2017, pp. 148–159, 2018.
[44] X. P. Tan et al., “Carbide Precipitation Characteristics in Additive Manufacturing of Co-Cr-Mo Alloy via
Selective Election Beam Melting,” Scr. Mater., vol. 143, pp. 117–121, 2018.
[45] M. B. Djurdjevič and M. A. Grzinčič, “The Effect of Major Alloying Elements on the Size of Secondary
Dendrite Arm Spacing in the As-Cast Al-Si-Cu Alloys,” Arch. Foundry Eng., vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 19–24, 2012.
[46] D. I. Proskurovsky, V. P. Rotshtein, and G. E. Ozur, “Use of Low-Energy, High-Current Electron Beams for
Surface Treatment of Materials,” Surf. Coatings Technol., vol. 96, no. 1, pp. 117–122, 1997.
[47] W. L. Silence, “Effect of Structure on Wear Resistance of Co- , Fe- , and Ni- Base Alloys,” no. July, pp. 428–
435, 1978.
[48] A. Frenk and W. Kurz, “High Speed Laser Cladding: Solidification Conditions and Microstructure of A Cobalt-
Based Alloy,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 173, no. 1–2, pp. 339–342, 1993.
[49] H. Jones, “Microstructure of Rapidly Solidified Materials,” Mater. Sci. Eng., vol. 65, no. 1, pp. 145–156, 1984.
[50] V. P. Rotshtein and V. A. Shulov, “Surface Modification and Alloying of Aluminum and Titanium Alloys with
Low-Energy, High-Current Electron Beams,” J. Metall., vol. 2011, pp. 1–15, 2011.
[51] B. J. W. Weeton and Lewis, “Diffusion of Chromium in Alpha Cobalt-Chromium Solid Solutions,” J. Appl.
Phys., vol. 14, no. 8, p. 399, 1943.
[52] D. A. Porter and M. Y. S. Kenneth E. Easterling, Phase Transformations in Metals and Alloys. 2009.

176
[53] H. Ningkang, W. Yi, Z. X. Zhong, and W. X. Pu, “Electron Beam Treatment of Detonation-Sprayed Stellite
Coatings,” Surf. Coatings Technol., vol. 46, no. 3, pp. 255–263, 1991.
[54] C. Rynio, H. Hattendorf, J. Klöwer, and G. Eggeler, “The Evolution of Tribolayers During High Temperature
Sliding Wear,” Wear, vol. 315, no. 1–2, pp. 1–10, 2014
[55] B. Venkatesh, K. Sriker, and V. S. V Prabhakar, “Wear Characteristics of Hardfacing Alloys : State-of-The-Art,”
Procedia Mater. Sci., vol. 10, no. Cnt 2014, pp. 527–532, 2015.
[56] A. Kusmoko, D. Dunne, H. Li, and D. Nolan, “Effect of Two Different Energy Inputs for Laser Cladding of
Stellite 6 on P91 and P22 Steel Substrates,” Procedia Mater. Sci., vol. 6, no. Icmpc, pp. 26–36, 2014.

177
 Influence of Thermal Oxidation Time on Tribology Behaviour of Ti6Al4V Alloy

Dilara Celik1, Onur Tazegul1 , Faiz Muhaffel1 and Huseyin Cimenoglu1

1 Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University,
Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]

Titanium and its alloys are widely used in several industries such as automotive, aerospace and
chemical industries. Nevertheless, titanium and its alloys limits their use in wear related applications
due to its insufficient wear resistance [1]. For that reason, there are several studies in open literature
which are related to modify the surface properties of the titanium and its alloys. Thermal oxidation is
one of the surface modification methods to improve the wear resistance of the titanium and its alloys
[2, 3]. During this process oxide layer is obtained at the outermost surface of the material and there is
an oxygen diffusion zone beneath it. In that respect, process time and temperature are important
parameters by means of the surface characteristics of the materials.
In the scope of this study, the effect of thermal oxidation time on tribological behaviour of
Ti6Al4V alloy has been investigated. The thermal oxidation was carried out at 600°C with under
different oxidation time which are 24, 48, 72h. After thermal oxidation, phase identification was
performed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses and microstructures of the samples were
characterized by scanning electron microscope. Hardness measurements were performed by Vickers
hardness method with using indentation load of 50gr. Wear tests were conducted for untreated and
oxidized samples by the reciprocating wear tester under 5N load and dry condition against to alumina
ball which has a diameter of 6mm. Wear performances of the samples were evaluated according to
worn surface characteristics, wear loses and friction coefficient values.
Results of the experiments showed that oxide layer formed on the Ti6Al4V surface mainly
consists of rutile form of TiO2 as well as a little amount of anatase form of TiO2. The oxide thickness
increased from 1.44 µm to 2.21 µm by increasing of oxidation time from 24 to 72h. The increase in
time also increased surface roughness and micro hardness of oxidized samples. It is obvious that the
untreated sample presents the largest friction coefficient value during the whole wear test. The friction
coefficients of the oxidized specimens are all much lower and more stable than the untreated one.
According to the variation of coefficients of friction, wear track depth is decreased with increasing
oxidation time. It was mainly abrasive and adhesive wear under force for untreated sample, while a
mix of abrasion and cracks by rolling oxide particles and severe plastic deformation under high contact
stress between two ceramic materials for the oxidized samples. The oxide coating was not worn out
and improved the wear resistance of titanium alloy.

Keywords: Ti6Al4V, Thermal oxidation, Wear, Tribology.

178
 REFERENCES

[1] V. Totolin, V. Pejakovic, T. Csanyi, O. Hekele, M. Huber, M.R. Ripoll, “Surface engineering of
Ti6Al4V surfaces for enhanced tribocorrosion performance in artificial seawater,” Materials and
Design, vol. 104, pp. 10-18, 2016.
[2] J. Liu, S. Suslov, S. Li, H. Qin, Z. Ren, C. Ma, G.X. Wang, G. I. Doll, H. Cong, C. Dong, C. Ye,
“Effects of ultrasonic nanocrystal surface modification on the thermal oxidation behavior of Ti6Al4V,”
Surface & Coatings Technology, vol. 325, pp. 289-298, 2017.
[3] H. Guleryuz, H. Cimenoglu, “Surface modification of a Ti–6Al–4V alloy by thermal oxidation,”
Surface & Coatings Technology, vol. 192, pp. 164-170, 2005.

179
 The Effects Of B4c Ceramic Sizes On Wear Behavior Of Al 6063metal
Matrix Composites

Abdullah Göçer1, İ. Aydın Yılmaz2 and M. Baki Karamış3

1 Mechanical Engineering Department, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
[email protected]
2 Mechanical Engineering Department, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
[email protected]
3 Mechanical Engineering Department, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
[email protected]

It is expected that the ceramic reinforcements increases the wear resistance of composite
material. But the size of ceramic particles may affect the resistance of the composites materials. In this
study, the effect of B4C reinforcement particle size on the wear properties of aluminum matrix
materials was investigated.
In the composites manufactured by the powder metallurgy method, three different sizes of B4C
particles were added into the Al 6061 matrix phase at 10% volume fraction. Composite bars were
obtained by extruding of composite billets obtaining by compressing at 450 MPa pressure.
Tribological behaviors of these materials were investigated by wear tests performed in dry conditions
with pin-on-ring test configuration.Paragraph 1 should give the outline of the research area and
introduce the problem.
It was also examined how the affects of graphite addition in to the composites wear
characteristics of composites. The findings show that Al 6063-B4C composites exhibit different wear
characteristics under different conditions.
Keywords: Dry wear, pin on ring, composite material

REFERENCES

[1] M. B. Karamış, A. A. Cerit B. Selçuk and F. Nair, “The effects of different ceramics size and volume
fraction on wear behavior of Al matrix composites (for automobile cam material)”, Wear, vol. 289, pp.
73-81, Jun 2012.
[2] A. Nieto, H. Yang, L. Jiang and J. M. Schoenung, “Reinforcement size effects on the abrasive wear of
boron carbide reinforced aluminum composites”, Wear, vol. 390-391, pp. 228-235, August 2017.
[3] M. Valczak D. Pieniak, and M. Zwierzchowski, “The tribological characteristics of SiC particle
reinforced aluminium composites”, Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, vol. 15, pp. 116-
123, June 2014.

180
 Porous ceramics at high temperatures as filters: microstructure and
mechanical properties

Bouzidi Nedjima1 , Lahouazi Naima1 and Blanchart Philippe2

1 Laboratoire de Technologie des Matériaux et Génie des Procédés (LTMGP)/ faculté
de Technologie/ Université de Bejaia, Route de Targa Ouzemour Bejaia 06000, Algérie.
Laboratoire GEMH, ENSCI, 47 à 73, avenue Albert Thomas 87065 Limoges, France.
[email protected]
[email protected]
2 Laboratoire GEMH, ENSCI, 47 à 73, avenue Albert Thomas 87065 Limoges,
France.
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This study focuses on the changes in porosity and microstructure occurring at high temperature
sintering and its effect on the mechanical properties of ceramics. Clays from different genesis (named
KT, KD and KM), essentially composed of kaolinite or kaolinite-halloysite, quartz and muscovite
associated with different impurities, have been sintered at 1100°C1400°C during 1h.
The microstructure and mineralogical phases and the mechanical properties of the samples were
studied. The XRD spectra showed that mullite was present at 1200°C and increases with temperature.
Cristobalite appeared from 1300°C for all the samples, its content increases with temperature except
for KM where it decreases at 1400°C in favor of the amorphous phase content. All kaolin show
homogeneous surfaces, the densification is more important. However, porosities of the samples vary
from 50 % to 30 % respectively for KM and KD at 1100 °C while at 1300°C, this parameter tend to
decrease to 15 % for KD. At 1300 °C, KD has the lowest value of Young's modulus (34.16 GPa)
while KM has the highest one (50.21 GPa).
The Young's modulus and the flexure strength of all kaolin increase with temperature this is due
to the decrease of porosity.
This study highlights the influence of high temperatures on the microstructure and the
mechanical properties of porous ceramics. These results are very promising as the porous ceramics are
especially required for environments where high temperatures are involved. They are suitable for
filtration, high-temperature thermal insulation and support for catalytic reactions.

Keywords: kaolin, sintering, mineralogical phases, porosity, Young’s modulus.

REFERENCES

[1] N.Bouzidi, M. A. Bouzidi, K. Bouguermouh, R. O. Nunes, N.Benabdeslema, L. Mahtouta, D. Merabet.

"Mechanical and dielectric properties of high temperature coating insulators based on by-product of
Algerian kaolin”, Trans. Ind. Ceram. Soc., vol. 73, pp. 1-7 December 2014.J. Clerk Maxwell, A
Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd ed., vol. 2. Oxford: Clarendon, 1892, pp.68-73.
[2] N.Bouzidi, A.Bouzidi, P.Gaudon, D.Merabet, P.Blanchart. “Porcelain containing anatase and rutile
nanocrystals”, Ceramics International. Vol 39, pp 489-495 June 2012.
[3] M. Dondi, C. Iglesias, E. Dominguez, G. Guarini, M. Raimondo. "The effect of kaolin properties on
their bahaviour in ceramic processing as illustrated by a range of kaolins from the Santa Cruz and
Chubut Provinces, Patagonia (Argentina)", Applied Clay Science vol 40, pp143–158 September 2008.
[4] R. D. Sahnoun, J. Bouaziz. "Sintering characteristics of kaolin in the presence of phosphoric acid
binder" Ceramics International. Vol 38, pp.1–7 January 2012.

181
 Investigation of friction wear performance of boron oxide added brake
pads sample
Gülşah Akıncıoğlu1 , Sıtkı Akıncıoğlu2 ,Hasan Öktem3
and İlyas Uygur4
1 Gümüşova MYO,Duzce University, Duzce, Turkey
[email protected]
2 Gümüşova MYO,Duzce University, Duzce, Turkey
[email protected]
3 Hereke MYO, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey
hoktem@ kocaeli.edu.tr
4Mühendislik Fak., Duzce University, Duzce, Turkey
[email protected]

In this study, the brake pads were manufactured by hot press method with boron oxide powder. The
effect on the tribological properties of the boron oxide additive was experimentally investigated. In
recent years, the use of eco- friendly materials have become important, hence boron oxide has been
used is as a natural material that in the brake pad. Also it is intended at providing benefits to the
national economy in the selection of these materials.
The examples were put in the water and oil for 24 hours. The physical, mechanical and tribological
properties of the boron oxide based brake pads were evaluated and compared with the values for the
commercial brake pads. Hardness was measured with Shore D device. Dry sliding wear tests were
conducted in a pin-on-disk test machine. All the tests were performed at room temperature. The
friction–wear tests, carried out according to ASTMG99 standard.
The effect of the boron oxide additive brake pad on wear friction performance has been investigated in
comparison with the results of commercial brake pad. As a result, it was observed that the boron oxide
contribution has a positive effect on the friction coefficient.

Keywords: Brake pad, tribology, boron oxide dust, friction, wear

REFERENCES

[1] I. Sugözü, I. Mutlu, and A. Keskin, "Friction and wear behaviour of ulexite and cashew in automotive
brake pads," Materiali in tehnologije, vol. 49, no. 5, pp. 751-758, 2015.
[2] G. Yi and F. Yan, "Effect of hexagonal boron nitride and calcined petroleum coke on friction and wear
behavior of phenolic resin-based friction composites," Materials Science and Engineering: A, vol. 425,
no. 1-2, pp. 330-338, 2006.
[3] İ. Sugözü, "Bor katkılı asbestsiz otomotiv fren balatası üretimi ve frenleme karakteristiğinin
incelenmesi," Doktora, Makine Mühendisliği, Fırat Üniversitesi, Elazığ, 2009.
[4] A. F. A. W.B.WanNik, S. Syahrullail, H.H. Masjuki, M.F. Ahmad, "The effect of boron friction
modifier on the performance of brake pads," International Journal of Mechanical and Materials
Engineering (IJMME), vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 31-35, 2012.
[5] Y. Han, X. Tian, and Y. Yin, "Effects of ceramic fiber on the friction performance of automotive brake
lining materials," Tribology Transactions, vol. 51, no. 6, pp. 779-783, 2008.

182
 Evaluation of tribological properties of eco-friendly brake pad added
hazelnut shell dust
Gülşah Akıncıoğlu1 , Sıtkı Akıncıoğlu2 ,Hasan Öktem3
,İlyas Uygur4 , Fehmi Erzincanlı5
1 Gümüşova MYO,Duzce University, Duzce, Turkey
[email protected]
2 Gümüşova MYO,Duzce University, Duzce, Turkey
[email protected]
3 Hereke MYO, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey
hoktem@ kocaeli.edu.tr
4 Mühendislik Fak., Duzce University, Duzce, Turkey
[email protected]
5 Mühendislik Fak., Duzce University, Duzce, Turkey
[email protected]

Brake pads are the most important component of the automobile braking system. The use of asbestos
fiber is being avoided due to its carcinogenic nature that might cause health risks. In the present
investigation the brake pads were produced by varying (wt. %) constituents of the existing
composition and new formulations were made with other friction materials.
In this study, new brake pad produced using walnut shell replace asbestos was investigated. The brake
pads with 3,5% ratio hazelnut shell were produced using compressive molding. The examples were
put in the water and oil for 24 hours. The physical, mechanical and tribological properties of the
walnut shell based brake pads were evaluated and compared with the values for the commercial brake
pads. Hardness was measured with Shore D device. Dry sliding wear tests were conducted in a pin-on-
disk test machine. All the tests were performed at room temperature. The friction–wear tests, carried
out according to ASTMG99 standard.
According to the test results, the friction coefficient of the hazelnut dust-added brake pads
samples was higher than the commercial sample’s friction coefficient.

Keywords: Brake pad, tribology, hazelnut shell dust, friction, wear

REFERENCES

[1] S. Qi et al., "Effects of walnut shells on friction and wear performance of eco-friendly brake friction
composites," Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part J: Journal of Engineering
Tribology, vol. 228, no. 5, pp. 511-520, 2014.
[2] S. A. Bahari, K. H. Isa, M. A. Kassim, Z. Mohamed, and E. A. Othman, "Investigation on hardness and
impact resistance of automotive brake pad composed with rice husk dust," pp. 155-161, 2012.
[3] N. A. Ademoh and A. I. Olabisi, "Development and evaluation of maize husks (asbestos-free) based
brake pad," Development, vol. 5, no. 2, 2015.

183
[4] D. S. Yawas, S. Y. Aku, and S. G. Amaren, "Morphology and properties of periwinkle shell asbestos-
free brake pad," Journal of King Saud University - Engineering Sciences, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 103-109,
2016.
[5] T. Singh and A. Patnaik, "Performance assessment of lapinus–aramid based brake pad hybrid phenolic
composites in friction braking," Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 151-
161, 2015.

184
 Effects of Basalt Fiber and Boron Oxide Hybrid Addition on Adhesive
Wear and Thermomechanical Properties of TPE Matrix Composites

Okan Gul1, N.Gamze Karsli2, Taner Yilmaz3

1,3 Mechanical Engineering Department, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey
[email protected]; [email protected]
2 Chemical Engineering Department, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey
[email protected]

Thermoplastic polyester elastomer (TPE) materials exhibit favourable properties such as easy
processing like thermoplastics, as well as elastic behaviour like rubbers. These materials especially
have been used in automotive applications, electronics and sport goods due to their outstanding
properties such as high toughness, impact strength, excellent fatigue, tearing, creep resistance, and
excellent oil, hydraulic fluids and grease resistance. However, various complications such as high
temperature, chemical attacks etc., limits automotive applications of TPE materials [1-3].
In order to improve mechanical and tribological properties and expand usage area of TPE, it can
be reinforced with fiber and/or particulate form fillers [3]. In this respect, basalt fiber and boron oxide
are the natural and efficient fillers for TPE to improve its mechanical and tribological properties [4-5].
In this study, effects of basalt fiber and boron oxide addition on tribological and
thermomechanical properties of TPE materials were investigated. For this purpose, adhesive wear test,
dynamic mechanical analysis and scanning electron microscopy analysis were performed. As a result
of the study, it was found that tribological and thermomechanical properties of TPE was improved in
case of boron oxide and basalt fiber hybrid reinforcement.
Keywords: Thermoplastic elastomer, boron oxide, basalt fiber, adhesive wear.

REFERENCES
[1] J. Lee, B. Choi, J. Moon and E. Lee, “Determination of the tear properties of thermoplastic polyester
elastomers (TPEEs) using essential work of fracture (EWF) test method,” Polymer Testing, vol. 28, pp.
854-865, 2009.
[2] J.V. John, K.R. Kim, S.T. Baek, J.H. Yoon, H. Suh, I. Kim, “Effect of chain-extender modification on
the structure and properties of thermoplastic poly(ether ester) elastomers.” Journal of Applied Polymer
Science, DOI: 10.1002/app.42888, 2015.
[3] M.S. Sreekanth, V.A. Bambole, S.T. Mhaske, P.A. Mahanwar, “Effect of Concentration of Mica on
Properties of Polyester Thermoplastic Elastomer Composites.” Journal of Minerals & Materials
Characterization & Engineering, vol. 8, pp. 271-282, 2009.
[4] A.D. Cavdar, F. Mengeloğlu, K. Karakus, “Effect of boric acid and borax on mechanical, fire and
thermal properties of wood flour filled high density polyethylene composites.” Measurement, vol. 60,
pp. 6-12, 2015.
[5] O. Polat, C. Kaynak, “Use of Boron Oxide and Boric Acid to Improve Flame Retardancy of an
Organophosphorus Compound in Neat and Fiber Reinforced Polyamide-6,” Journal of Vinyl &
Additive Technology, DOI 10.1002/vnl.21445, 2016.

185
 Zeolite and Carbon Fiber Reinforced PPS Matrix Hybrid Composites:
Tribological and Thermomechanical Properties

Ugur Dincer1, Aytunc Kizil2, Okan Gul3, N.Gamze Karsli4, Taner Yilmaz5
1,2,3,5 Mechanical Engineering Department, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey
[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected];
[email protected]
4 Chemical Engineering Department, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey
[email protected]

Poly(phenylene sulphide) (PPS) is an advanced semi-crystalline engineering thermoplastic

material and it is known with its outstanding properties such as mechanical strength, low toxicity, high
chemical and flame resistance etc. By means of these outstanding properties, PPS is commonly
preferred in mechanical and chemical engineering applications in many industries [1,2].
However, unfilled PPS cannot fulfil all the expectations and for this reason it should be
reinforced with some reinforcement materials. Carbon fiber (CF) is an efficient reinforcement material
and it is generally preferred by aerospace and transportation industry because of its excellent
properties. However, relatively high cost of CF limits its usage area. For this reason, simultaneous
usage of CF with particulate fillers reduces the cost and generally improves the ultimate properties of
composites due to the generated hybrid effect. Inorganic minerals can be used as particulate fillers and
zeolite is one of these inorganic materials [3]. Zeolites are alumina silicates which are microporous
crystalline [4].
In this study, adhesive wear and thermomechanical properties of zeolite and CF filled PPS
matrix composites were investigated. In order to investigate the tribological, thermomechanical and
morphological properties of composites, adhesive wear test, dynamic mechanical analysis and
scanning electron microscopy analysis were performed. It was found that hybrid reinforcement
improved tribological and thermomechanical properties of composites.
Keywords: Poly(phenylene sulphide), Carbon Fiber, Zeolite, Adhesive Wear, DMA.

REFERENCES
[1] J. Gu, Y. Guo, X. Yang, C. Liang, W. Geng, L. Tang, N. Li, Q. Zhang, “Synergistic improvement of
thermal conductivities of polyphenylene sulfide composites filled with boron nitride hybrid fillers.”
Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, vol. 95, pp. 267-273, 2017.
[2] H. Rena, D. Xub, G. Yana, G. Zhanga, X. Wanga, S. Longa, J. Yang, “Effect of carboxylic
polyphenylene sulfide on the micromechanical properties of polyphenylene sulfide/carbon fiber
composites” Composites Science and Technology, vol. 146, pp. 65-72, 2017.
[3] B. P. Changa, H. Md. Akila, R. Md. Nasir, “Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Zeolite-
reinforced UHMWPE Composite for Implant Application”, Procedia Engineering, vol. 68, pp. 88 – 94,
2013.
[4] D. Metin, F. Tihminlioğlu, D. Balköse, S. Ülkü, “The effect of interfacial interactions on the
mechanical properties of polypropylene/natural zeolite composites”, Composites Part A: Applied
Science and Manufacturing, vol. 35, issue 1, pp. 23-32, 2004.

186
 Investigation the Tribological and Thermomechanical Properties of
Bentonite and Basalt Fiber Reinforced PPS Matrix Composites

Aytunc Kizil1, Ugur Dincer2, Okan Gul3, N.Gamze Karsli4, Taner Yilmaz5
1,2,3,5 Mechanical Engineering Department, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey
[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected];
[email protected]
4 Chemical Engineering Department, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey
[email protected]

Poly(phenylene sulphide) (PPS) is a semi-crystalline, high performance thermoplastic polymer.

Some of advantages of PPS are good dimension stability, chemical resistance, high mechanical
properties. Because of these properties, PPS is widely used in aerospace and automotive industries [1,2].
However, usage area of unfilled PPS is limited and it can be improved by adding some kinds of
fillers [1]. To improve the properties and expand the usage area of PPS, it can be reinforced with varied
types of particulates, fibers etc. Basalt fiber (BF), which is known as a volcanic rock, is one of these
fiber types [3] and BF addition to polymeric matrix improves mechanical properties and wear behaviour
[4]. Furthermore, hybrid reinforcement of polymers with fibers and particulates creates a synergetic
effect and improves ultimate properties of composites. For this purpose, minerals can be used as
particulate type fillers and bentonite is one of these minerals which is hydrophobic layered silicate [5].
In this study, effects the hybrid addition of bentonite and BF to PPS matrix on tribological and
thermomechanical properties were investigated. In order to investigate the tribological properties,
adhesive wear test was performed. In addition to this, while thermomechanical properties of composites
were evaluated by means of dynamic mechanical analysis, morphological properties of worn surfaces
were investigated by using scanning electron microscopy analysis. Consequently, it was found that
tribological and thermomechanical properties of PPS were improved in the case of hybrid
reinforcement.
Keywords: Poly(phenylene sulphide), Basalt Fiber, Bentonite, Adhesive Wear, DMA.

REFERENCES
[1] J. Xing, Z. Xu, F. Ruan and B. Deng, “Nonisothermal crystallization kinetics, morphology, and tensile
properties of polyphenylene sulfide/functionalized graphite nanoplatelets composites”, High
Performance Polymers, DOI: 10.1177/0954008318764584, 2018.
[2] D. Zhang, H. Qi, F. Zhao, G. Zhang, T. Wang, Q. Wang, “Tribological performance of PPS
composites under diesel lubrication conditions”, Tribology International, vol. 115, pp. 338–347, 2017.
[3] T. Deák, T. Czigány, “Chemical Composition and Mechanical Properties of Basalt and Glass Fibers: A
Comparison”, Textile Research Journal, vol. 79, issue 7, pp. 645-651, 2009.
[4] D. Matykiewicza, M. Barczewskia, D. Knapskia, K. Skórczewskab, “Hybrid effects of basalt fibers
and basalt powder on thermomechanical properties of epoxy composites”, Composites Part B:
Engineering, vol.125, pp. 157-164, 2017.
[5] N. Othman, H. Ismail, M. Mariatti, “Effect of compatibilisers on mechanical and thermal properties of
bentonite filled polypropylene composites”, Polymer Degradation and Stability, vol. 91, issue 8, pp.
1761-1774, 2006.

187
 Polyvinyl alcohol, a new way for efficient redox coating process
from saponification of polyvinyl acetate
Farouk Dehmchi
[email protected]
Farouk Dehmchi Badji Mokhtar University,LPS,LSBO Laboratory

Farhi Halimia Badji Mokhtar University, LSBO Laboratory

Tahar Chelloufi Badji Mokhtar University,LPS Laboratory

Boukhari Abbas Badji Mokhtar University, LOMOP Laboratory

Abstract:

In this study Polyvinyl alcohol organic polymeric material was processed in a reactor of
polymerization by a redox technique of catalysis using redox sytems:

Poilyvinyl acetate Polyvinyl alcohol

from benzoyl peroxide combined to arylamines at low or very low temperatures .APV is produced as
granular material. Polyvinyl alcohol is an odorless substance, translucent or opaque, with white or
cream colored crystals that has crystal structure. Temperature degree of its solubility in water is higher
than 100°C. It has high strength and stiffness. Its strength properties depends on water content . Other
properties of this material are non-toxic, non-corrosive and non-contaminated water. This new
efficient coating for machines and mechanical equipments shows significant durability and resistance
to abrasion, corrosion, scratching, and chemicals when compared to other coatings. Thick coatings can
be achieved quickly and efficiently. Organic granular or powder coatings are currently the fastest
growing section of industrial coatings, because of their favorable environmental attributes and
performance advantages.One of the major advantages of organic materials coatings from APV is that it
produces no volatile organic compounds (VOC),and one other advantage is that coating technology of
polyvinyl alcohol is one of the best ways to abide by environmental standards,because this process is
entirely free of using toxic solvents commonly used in painting coatings.Strength measures, adhesion
tests, solubility tests, Ftir spectra, were carried out on samples of polyvinyl alcohol.
References
Zhao Y, Li X, Wang SQ. 2016 How plasticizer makes a ductile polymer glass brittle? APS March
Meeting, Baltimore, MD, 14--18 March. Bulletin of the American Physical Society, 61.
Guo D, Wang Q, Bai S. 2013 Poly(vinyl alcohol)/melamine phosphate composites prepared through
thermal processing: thermal stability and flame retardancy. Polym. Adv. Technol. 24, 339–347.
(doi:10.1002/pat.3089)Google Scholar

188
Hu P, Jia M, Zuo Y, He L. 2017 A silica/PVA adhesive hybrid material with high transparency,
thermostability and mechanical strength. RSC Adv. 7, 2450–2459.
(doi:10.1039/C6RA25579E)Google Scholar

189
 IMPORTANCE OF SOLID PARTICLE EROSION IN INDUSTRIAL AREAS

Ahmet YAVUZ1*, Tamer SINMAZÇELİK2

1)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kocaeli University Engineering Faculty, Koaceli, Turkey
2)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kocaeli University Engineering Faculty, Koaceli, Turkey
*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Solid particle erosion, which is considered as erosive wear, is an unwanted material
damage; it is also applied to surface treatments such as processing and cleaning of the surfaces of
materials. Factors affecting the solid particle erosion are summarized under three main headings
(experimental factors, abrasive particle properties, target material properties) and also solid
particle erosion application areas and materials exposed to wear have also been shown to be
cleaned with this method.
Keywords: Solid particle erosion, wear, material.

1. Introduction

Solid particle erosion is a corrosion phenomenon that negatively affects the operation of machinery and equipment
and causes material losses. A lot of work has been done to reduce or prevent this wear. Solid particle erosion is a
complex phenomenon which can be affected by many different parameters as well as in other erosion processes.[3]

2. Solid Particle Erosion

Solid particle erosion is a type of wear that occurs when solid particles hit the material surface. As with other
tribological processes, solid particle erosion is also a complex process. The thermal, chemical and physical reactions
between the elements in the tribological interaction closely influence the type and amount of erosion. Solid particle
erosion can be investigated in two different ways. Firstly, erosion occurs when a fluid containing solid particles strikes a
surface. When solid particles of a certain velocity hit a metal surface, material loss occurs in the upper layer of the
surface. Continued loss of material from the surface can lead to serious mechanical defects. If the machine elements are
found in erosive environments, service life of the elements will be reduced by the impact of liquid droplets or solid
particles to the surface. Figure 1 shows examples of solid particle erosion wear types.[4]

Figure 1 Solid particle erosion wear types (Bağcı M., 2010)

Secondly, solid particle erosion is also applied to surface treatments such as the processing and cleaning of the
material surface. At the beginning of these surface treatments, especially sanding processes of the substrate material
surface before the coating.

190
 Figure 2 Solid particle erosion system test fixture (Şahin A.Eren et al., 2012)

The solid particle erosion test fixture is implemented in a specially designed sand blasting fixture comprised of the
components shown in Figure 2. The system consists of air compressor, compressed air tank, protective cabin, adjustable
sample holder which can fix the samples at desired different angles and distance from nozzle. The nozzle is fixed in the
cabin and the opening and closing of the nozzle can be controlled by a pedal from outside the cabin.

The sanding pressure can also be adjusted with a pressure regulator which is located outside the cabin. A sample
fixture is placed in the text fixture case to fix the sample and to spray sand to the sample at the desired angle. Sand can
be sprayed at the desired angle to the sample thanks to the movement of the fixture which allows the sample to be
rotated at different particle collision angles. During the sanding process, the sample were placed at the desired distance
from the nozzle using this fixture. Figure 3 shows a more understandable form of the solid particle erosion system.

Figure 3 Solid particle erosion system (Kaplan M. et al., 2016)

Table 1 shows the annual using rate of abrasive materials such as stainless steel ball-grit, glass, basalt, silica, quartz,
used in solid particle erosion. For example, Silica sand, the most commonly used one, is usually used when light
sanding at light grade in thin sheet metals. However, grit, is the sand type with the least dusting and the best
sandblasting strength.

Table 1 The annual abrasive rate used in solid particle cleaning method in USA (Hansink, 2000)

Usage rate
Abrasive type
(million tonnes)
Silica 1,6
Coal 0.65
Steel grit and sphere 0.35
Copper 0.1-0.12
Nickel 0.05
Iron 0.005

2.1. Solid Particle Erosion Process

2.1.1. Normal angle (90o) and elastic impact

191
 The kinetic energy of the particle is accumulated as elastic deformations in the material after impact, and it is
converted back into particle kinetic energy after particles hit the surface. Cutting and fracture occurs at the surface of
material as a result of sharp edge impacts. When low impact energy particles (low speed and/or small abrasive particles)
hit the high strength rigid materials, elastic impact occurs dominantly.

2.1.2. Normal angle, plastic impact

In metal and ceramic based materials, the transformation of the entire energy into plastic deformation occurs rarely.
It is known that in the early stages of the wear process, the particles are stuck on the surface and have an effect which
causes the material to become heavy.

2.1.3. Normal angle, elastic/plastic impact

It is the most common type of collision. Most of the initial impact energy is converted into heat energy by internal
friction, and the remaining is wasted to plastic deformation of energy. The rebound kinetic energy of the particle is
relatively reduced. Although a single impact does not cause fracture and deformation, repeated impact cause wear in the
impact area. In the material, small micro-cracks may occur which cause wear of the material.

2.1.4. Oblique, elastic plastic impact

This is a very common type of collision. The initial micro-shear and micro-slit (micro-droplet) are different from the
normal impact due to their mechanism. The material deforms like a vertical strike but is additionally cut and split by
abrasive particles, especially with sharp edges. Microcutting and micro-splitting are related to the hardness of the
particles that can penetrate into the target surfaces. A cut type of deformation by particles on the surface of brittle
materials is not expected much. The abrasive particle/material interaction and the energy transfer in between are smaller
than in ductile materials. If the friction coefficient of the colliding materials is high, then more energy is transferred
onto the material. The maximum erosion wear occurs as a result of the increase in internal stresses from the medium
impact angles to the high impact angles. A series of grooves extending in the direction parallel to the impact direction
occur at the initial stage of erosion. The impacted particles slide on the surface and cause growth of the fatigue cracks
and deform the grooves. The growth of these fatigue cracks can be assumed as a step in the erosion process driven by
stresses. Stachwiak summarized the known mechanisms of wear erosion schematically. Part of this demonstration is in
Figure 4.

192
 Figure 4 Possible mechanisms of solid particle erosion (Barkoula and Karger Kocsis, 2002)
(a) wear at minor impact angles, (b) low speed, surface fatigue at high impact angles,
(c) brittle fracture or poly-plastic deformation at medium speed, high impact angle,
(d),(e) surface fusion at high impact velocities, macroscopic erosion with secondary effects

2.2. Solid Particle Erosion Mechanicsms

Material fracture during erosion is linked to many factors. These factors can be investigated in three main headings
as shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Factors Affecting Solid Particle Erosion (Fidan S. and Sınmazçelik T., 2011)

Factors Affecting Solid Particle Erosion

2. Abrasive particle
1. Experimental factors 3. Target material properties
properties
1.1. Particle impact angle 2.1. Shape 3.1. Compound
1.2. Particle velocity 2.2. Mass 3.2. Microstructure
1.3. Particle flow rate 2.3. Hardness 3.3. Specific weight
1.4. Temperature 2.4. Dimension 3.4. Corrosion resistance

2.2.1. Experimental factors

The regional energy density of the abrasive on the impact surface is very important for erosion wear. On the other
hand, the properties of the target material (size, surface topography, hardness, etc.) are also very important. Apart from
these factors, the impact angle, impact velocity and particle flow rate have critical effects. A particle strike means that a
large impact force is applied to the material surface. During the collision, the particle's kinetic energy is consumed in
various forms.[7]

2.2.1.1. Particle impact angle

Depending on the angle of impact (a), the solid particle erosion can be examined in two ways: erosion at the vertical
angle (a ~ 90 °) and erosion at the oblique angle (0 ° <a <90 °). Particle erosion has a mechanism similar to the friction
of two bodies at low collision angles. Because the particles follow a path along the surface of the material during the
interaction. In the case of high impact angles, the wear mechanism is typically a solid particle erosion in the form of
impact. Figure 5 shows the relationship between the angle of impact and the rate of erosion in ductile and brittle
materials.

Figure 5 Erosive wear rates of ductile and brittle materials (Juan R. Laguna-Camacho et al., 2013)

As depicted in Figure 5, the maximum loss of material in brittle materials occurs at high impact angles, while the
loss of material in ductile materials occurs at low impact angles.
193
 Much of the loss of impact energy occurs during roughening the surface of the target material. The interaction that
occurs after the particle impact on the target material has a very complicated sub-structure. When the solid particle hits
the target material with all the energy, it expends the material of the energy to elastic and plastic deformation, and the
heat generation by the friction also deforms in the molecular sense.

It is possible to distinguish the velocity components of the particles as horizontal and vertical. While hard particles
erode the ductile materials, at low collision angles, horizontal velocity component causes the material surface to
drawing and cutting. As the angle increases, the vertical component of the particle velocity increases and this action is
similar to the effect of heavier collision.

It is observed that the effect of these mechanisms and the increase in the angle of impact in the ductile materials
starting from the small angles, reach the maximum of the wear in the intermediate impact angles. After the particles
come in contact with the material, the shear and rotation of the particles also have different effects on the interaction
with the material. Ductile and brittle materials have different properties when measured as a function of mass loss angle
of impact in erosion wear. The characteristic properties of ductile materials are maximum erosion at low impact angles
(15°-30°). Brittle materials show maximum erosion behavior at normal (90°) impact angles.

Table 3 shows the amount of material removed in different angles and different types of target material. As
mentioned above, the maximum erosion rate is seen in the low impact angle. However, as the impact angle increases,
the erosion rate of the target material decreases considerably.[6]

Table 3 Amount of material removed (g) from different impact angles and target material surface (Hutchings I. M.,
1992)

Impact
AISI 4140 Brass Copper
angle (a)
30° 0.0741 0.1656 0.1119
45° 0.0657 0.1752 0.1024
60° 0.057 0.1569 0.0885
90° 0.0536 0.1103 0.0695

2.2.1.2. Particle velocity

The solid abrasive particles are pneumatically pushed and accelerated by the air due to the resistance force. In Figure
6, an abrasive particle is shown in the form of air flow and pressure around the sphere.[1]

Figure 6 Numerically simulated solid particle pressure motion and high velocity air flow (H.A. Dwyer, 1994)

The abrasive particle velocity (v) has a very strong effect on the wear process. If the speed is too low, the stresses at
impact will be insufficient for the formation of plastic deformation, and wear will continue as surface fatigue. When the
speed increases, abrasive material may undergo plastic deformation due to particle impact. In this system, wear occurs
with repeated plastic deformation. In brittle wear behavior, wear occurs as a sub-surface fracture. At very high particle

194
impact velocities, melting can occur at the surface of material. From the medium to the high velocities, following
relation law between the wear rate and the impact velocity can be explained in equation 1:

-dm/dt=kvn (1)

where "m" is the mass of the eroding sample, "t" is the duration of the process, "k" is the experimental constant, and
"v" is the velocity value of the abrasive particle. The characteristic properties of the abrasive and target material define
the value of the 'n'. For materials with brittle properties, the 'n' value ranges from 3 to 5; it was determined that the value
of 'n' changed between 2-3 for the ductile materials.

When the solid particles exceed the threshold impact velocity and strike the target material and break up, it
consumes a lot of energy and the stress intensity on the material causes breakage. (Figure 7.)

Figure 7 Behavior of a brittle particle a; Breaking of a particle that hits the target material surface, b; distribution of
masses and velocities in the collision process, m: mass and V T - propagation velocity of mass m1 along the surface
(Reiners E.,1962)

In literature, glass particles were used as abrasive at 90 o impact angle and the relationship between particle velocity
and wear rate was calculated. As a result of this study, it has been proven by experiments that the rate of wear increases
with increasing particle velocity (Table 4).

Table 4 Relationship between particle speed and wear rate (Wellinger K. et al., 1995 )

Particle
Wear rate
Abrasive material velocity
(m/s) (g/kg)
Corrundum 50 0,7
100 2
125 3
Glass 50 0,3
100 1
150 1,5

2.2.1.3. Particle flow rate

The particle flow rate (the mass of abrasive particles impacting the unit area per unit time) is one of the parameters
that closely influence erosion wear. Theoretically, the amount of abrasion must be independent of the flow rate of
abrasive particles, since all abrasive particles are assumed to strike at the same collision angle and velocity as the target
material. In practice, however, particle deformation has significant effects on the measured wear rate.

It has been reported that a certain flow rate threshold is directly proportional to the flow rate of the erosion wear
amount. This limit value is believed to be a result of the interference between incoming and returning abrasive particles.
This collision theory can play an important role even at very low flow rates. Figure 8 shows the effect of abrasive mass
flux on abrasion rate by using aluminum oxide as abrasive material for different nozzle.

Although the effect of abrasive flow is mainly due to the above-mentioned interactions, different mechanisms can
occur and affect the erosion wear. The process can be considered as a series of transient reactions that occur after each
impact. When the flow rate increases, the time between impacts on the relevant surface decreases. Therefore, before the
next impact, there will be less time for the degradation reaction so that the amount of erosion wear will decrease
195
depending on the grade of degradation. From the above analyzes; it is necessary to select a specific flow rate to remove
the effects of particle interaction and environmental deterioration so that the selected material can not affect the erosion
behavior. When the effect of the abrasive flow rate on the particle velocity is examined, the experimental results show
that the abrasive particle velocity decreases with increasing abrasive mass flux.

Figure 8 Effect of abrasive mass flow rate on wear rate, (Hareux and Riac, 1986)

2.2.1.4. Temperature

Adiabatic conditions that occur at high strain rates in a material with low thermal conductivity and local deformation
resulting in an abrasive particle strike on the target material can produce high temperatures. The maximum temperature
depends on the work done on the target material and the specific heat density of the material. The work done is a
function of the maximum pressure during impact and depends on the hardness of the target material and the abrasive
particle, respectively. If the temperature can drift away from the impact zone away from the formation time, the
temperature increase will be small. High temperatures can soften the material briefly.

Relation of temperature and wear rate can be classified into 3 different groups. In the first group, the wear rate
decreases with increasing temperature, reaches the minimum point and then increases with increasing temperature. The
material such as the 5Cr-1/2Mo, 17-4PH and 410 SS belongs to this group. The second group of 310 SS and 304 SS
alloys, 1018 steel, has an erosion rate that is independent of temperature until the critical temperature is reached, and the
erosion rate increases with increasing temperature. Finally, it is seen that the rate of erosion is decreasing with the
increase of the temperature of the third group materials. Carbon steel, 2.25Cr-1Mo steel and lead are the samples of this
group. Figure 9 shows effect of temperature on the wear rate of materials. As a result, the increase in temperature causes
the melting of the material and wear is more frequent.[2]

196
 Figure 9 Effect of temperature on the rate of erosion of materials (G. Sundararajan et all, 1997)

2.2.2. Abrasive particle properties

2.2.2.1. Hardness

If the erosion process occurs at the oblique angles and when the brittle erosion mechanism dominates, increasing
hardness has an effect that increases erosion. Two different (Brinell and Vickers) indentation hardness tests are
frequently applied to abrasive materials. In laboratory practice, the abrasive particles are immersed in a special resin
matrix and then polished to obtain a straight section of the actual indentation test. Indentation hardness values always
depend on the indentation load.

2.2.2.2. Shape

The abrasive particles are classified as spherical and grit. The spherical structure diameter is lower than 2 mm
globular shape, the grit structure is angular and has sharp edges and broken structure (Figure 10). If the abrasive
particles have a near-spherical shape, the erosion is predominantly plastic deformation; If the particles are sharp edges,
they are more like cutting and breaking.

Figure 10 Abrasive particles in form of grit and spherical structure (Photographs: Kuhmichel GmbH)

2.2.2.3. Dimension

It is assumed that the amount of erosion is independent if particle size bigger than the critical value. This critical
value has been observed between 100-200 μm, which is dependent on the impact conditions and the particle-target

197
material interaction. As far as this critical value, experimental results have reported that the amount of erosion increases
as the abrasive size increases.

In studies, above this value, it has been shown that the abrasive particle velocity decreases with the increase in the
particle size. For a particle with a diameter of 10 μm, while the exit velocity from the nozzle reaches approximately 500
m/s, a particle velocity of 1000 μm reaches a velocity of 150 m/s.

2.2.2.4. Mass

The abrasive particle mass has less effect when other parameters are taken into consideration. Mass is a
characteristic feature of abrasive material.

2.2.3. Target Material Properties

Characteristic features of material have very important effects on erosion wear and are widely studied. Target
material; physical properties such as composition, microstructure, specific gravity, corrosion resistance and surface
roughness as well as mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, hardness and ductility are very important.

Verhoef P. N. W. Kuipers T. J. and Verwaal W. reported that the erosion rate of the target material decreased with
increasing compressive strength, shear-strain strength, elastic strain energy, Young's modulus and fracture toughness.
The material of the target surface hit by the solid particles may be ductile or brittle. The particles that hit the ductile
material cause the surface to rupture, while the particles that hit the brittle material cause the surface to break. (Figure
11)

Figure 11 Surface wear form according to target materials type (Elyyan M., 2017)

2.3. Solid Particle Erosion Areas

Solid particle erosion has received increasing attention from day to day. This interest stems from the research done
on coal conversion plants, the improvements achieved in these systems, and the need to provide flow of solid particles
in various equipment of the plants. This causes severe erosion wear of the particles by impacting the moving wings,
valve holes, pipe connections, pipe bends and other surfaces.[5]

Material loss caused by the impingement of solid particles is the most common of the erosion processes. Some of
the places where such damages may appear are; widespread use of coke as small particles in energy conversion systems,
repeated striking of wings and surfaces with splintering of oxide particles in large turbines, impact of solid particles on
jet motors and helicopter rotor blades. In addition, the propellers of the marine vehicles are exposed to sand, stone and
solid particles, over time these propellers are eroded and unable to perform their full function. Figure 12 shows the
turbine blades, voltage lines, steam boiler tube, pump blade and oil passing pipe through which solid particle erosion
has occurred.

198
 Figure 12 Some of materials exposed to solid particle erosion (Kaplan M. et al., 2016)

3. Cleaned Materials with Solid Particle Erosion

At this stage of the paper we present some examples, which can be represent as a usefull side of the particle erosion.
In order to clean the main material surface we send the particles with a small mohs hardness. These particles are very
soft and don’t damage the target material, but they can clean the dirts and contaminates on the surface of the materials.
As seen in the photos, in a very short time (10-15 seconds) it can be possible to clean the sample surfaces. The main
approach in that kind of studies, the erosive particles should send to the material surface at perpendicular angles for
ductile materials, or send at small angles for rigit materials.

Figure 13 Exhaust manifold and Cylinder head

Figure 14 A part of camshaft mechanism

199
 Figure 15 Intake manifold

Figure 16 Bolt

4. Conclusions

As a result of the studdy, it is possible to say that erosive wear has two face at insustrial applications. The first one is
very dangerous for structural surface integrity of the materials, because particle erosion can cause the catastrophic
damages. On the other hand, particle erosion can be used as a cleaning and restorative manner which provide the
enhancement of the service life of the main materials.

5. References

1. A. Momber, Blast Cleaning Technology, Privatdozent Dr.-Ing. habil., Germany, 2008.

2. G. Sundararajan and Manish Roy , Solid Particle Erosion Behavior of Metallic Materials at Room and Elevated
Temperatures, Triholog International Vol. 30; No. 5, pp. 339-359, India, 1997.
3. M. KAPLAN, A. C. KARAOĞLANLI, M. UYANER Bartın University “Mühendislik ve Teknoloji Bilimleri
Dergisi Katı Partikül Erozyonu ve Mühendislik Malzemeleri Üzerindeki Önemi”, Page 31-34, Turkey, 2016.
4. M. Bağcı., “Cam Elyaf Takviyeli Kompozit Malzemelerin Erozyon Aşınma Davranışının İncelenmesi.”,
doctoral dissertation, Konya/Turkey, 2010,
5. M. K. BAYINDIR “Katı Partikül Erozyon Aşınmasının Alüminyum Alaşımları Üzerindeki Etkisinin Deneysel
Olarak İncelenmesi”, Turkey, 2009.
6. R. Juan Laguna-Camacho, M. Vite-Torres, E.A. Gallardo-Hernández and E.E. Vera-Cárdenas Solid Particle
Erosion on Different Metallic Materials Chapter 5, Mexico, 2013
7. S. FİDAN, T. SINMAZÇELİK, ”Polimerler Ve Polimer Kompozitlerde Katı Partikül Erozyonunun
Mekanizmaları Ve Malzeme Performansını Etkileyen Faktörler.” Kocaeli/Turkey, 2011.

200
 Physical properties of biodiesel from vegetable oil

Mohd Fadzli Bin Abdollah1,2, Noreffendy Tamaldin1,2, Lee Shing Chuan1, and Hilmi
Amiruddin1,2
1)
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka,
Hang Tuah Jaya, 76100 Durian Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia
2)
Centre for Advanced Research on Energy, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka,
Hang Tuah Jaya, 76100 Durian Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia
[email protected]

This study was conducted to characterise the physical properties of biodiesel from vegetable oil to
determine the biodiesel compatibility to the current diesel engine. The measured physical properties of
the pure biodiesel were compared to current biodiesel standards such as the EN 14214 and ASTM
D6751. Based on the comparison, all physical properties measured satisfied the requirements of both
EN 14214 and ASTM D6751 except for the biodiesel purity. The biodiesel purity obtained in this
study was 92.3% whereas the EN 14214 mandated the biodiesel purity to be at least 96.5% while the
ASTM D6751 did not require the biodiesel purity. Besides that, density, kinematic viscosity, flash
point and total acid number of biodiesel blend diesel fuel increased with addition of more biodiesel
while lower heating value of biodiesel blend diesel fuel decreased with addition of more biodiesel.

Keywords: Physical properties; Vegetable oil; Biodiesel

201
 Growth of graphene from solid waste products

Noreffendy Tamaldin1,2, Mohd Fadzli Bin Abdollah1,2 , Noor Ayuma Mat Tahir1, and
Hilmi Amiruddin1,2
1)
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka,
Hang Tuah Jaya, 76100 Durian Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia
2)
Centre for Advanced Research on Energy, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka,
Hang Tuah Jaya, 76100 Durian Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia
[email protected]

This feasibility study was conducted to identify the potential of growing graphene from solid waste
products on 99% copper (Cu) substrate via chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method. This study was
focusing on growing graphene by using two types solid sources, which are fruit cover plastic waste
and oil palm fiber. The coated surface was observed by using scanning electron microscopy embedded
with energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) and Raman Spectroscopy. From the peak
findings, graphene is grown from both sources. However, from the Raman spectrum analysis, oil palm
fiber produces higher carbon content compared to fruit cover plastic waste.

Keywords: Graphene; Solid sources; CVD

202
A TREATISE ON USING HEXAGONAL BORON NITRIDE FOR SPACE LUBRICATION APPLICATIONS

Gökçe Mehmet AY1)*

1)
Engineering and Architecture Faculty, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Eskisehir, Turkey
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract:
Space vehicles' need for lubrication is greater and stricter than vehicles that operate inside
gravity well. Space with lack of maintenance and severe radiation requires specific
lubrication material. Liquid, grease and solid lubricants are used in order to address these
needs.
The most used lubricants are liquid lubricants however solid lubricants, specifically
molybdenum disulphide is used in space applications. Although used in many land and air
based applications hexagonal boron nitride is not used in space applications. In this paper
properties of hexagonal boron nitride and new developments application methods are
reviewed and its suitable applications on space vehicles are examined.

Keywords: Hexagonal Boron Nitride, Space Tribology, Space Lubrication

1. Introduction
In space there is no option of maintenance, thus space mechanisms must perform as desired for 5 to 8 years.
Although conditions in space are very different from those on earth there is no escape from friction and wear. Space
mechanism designers should take into account the fact that if friction increases, a component starts wasting energy and
in worst case might stuck in place. Because friction and wear is generated in bodies that are in relative motion to each
other; designers consider wide range of methods from lubrication to surface modification [1]to reduce friction and wear.
Three main lubrication methods are used in space mechanisms, these are liquid lubrication, greases and solid lubrication.
Lubricants used in space are effected by radiation, zero gravity and ultra-high vacuum [2]. Another handicap for liquid
lubricants in space is limited weight and space considerations. Big reservoirs of lubricants are not feasible for space
mechanisms. Thus mechanism designers should consider self-lubricating systems.

Mineral oils, Esters, Silicones, Synthetic Hydrocarbons, Perfluoropolyethers (PFPE) and Hydrocarbons are
commonly used liquid lubricants for space applications. Most applications today use Multiply Alkylated Cyclopentanes
(MAC) which is a type of synthetic hydrocarbon or PFPEs [3]. There exists commercial formulations for these
lubricants such as Pennzane® SHF-X2000 for MACs and Krytox™ or Fomblin™ for PFPEs.
Greases are based on either PFPE fluids with additional thickeners or as a recent development MAC fluids and PFPE
greases with boundary lubrication additives [4]. Solid lubricants used in space mechanisms are Ion Plated Lead,
Molybdenum

Disulphide MoS2 and Diamond Like Carbon (DLC) Coatings. Ion plated lead coatings are used for precision
spacecraft bearings and was successfully used in antenna DE-spin mechanism at Giotto mission to comet Halley [5].
DLC coatings are hard thin films and have a promising use in space mechanisms such as ball bearings [6]. MoS 2 have
been successfully used in space applications for decades [7]. It’s a lamellar structural solid lubricant [8]. One advantage
of MoS2 is its lubrication properties increase with vacuum. MoS2 forms strong chemical bonds between atoms in plane
of high strength but between each plane bonds are weaker [9]. Hexagonal Boron Nitride shows similar lamellar
structure and exhibits similar solid lubrication properties with some advantages on MoS2.

203
2. Hexagonal Boron Nitride As Solid Lubricant
Hexagonal Boron Nitride has a lamellar structure in which van der Waals forces exist between planes that are
covalent bonded boron and nitrogen atoms as shown in Figure 1. These planes move on each other easily, thus give
hBN it's lubrication properties [10]. It can be used in vacuum and is suitable for high temperature lubrication [11]. hBN
has thermal conduction similar to stainless steel at cryogenic temperatures and extremely low electrical conductivity
which makes it an excellent insulator [12].

Figure 1. Crystal structure of hexagonal boron nitride [13]

hBN was tested for various environments and it was found to be less lubricating than MoS 2 thus deemed unsuitable
in sintered form for space applications [14]. However recent studies showed that although friction coefficient of hBN is
less than MoS2, nano sized hBN particles used as additives greatly reduce specific wear rate [15]. Kimura et al studied
effect of hBN addition to a paraffinic mineral oil of kinematic viscosity 15mm 2/s at 40oC. Wear tests were conducted on
a ring on roller tribometer. JIS SUJ2 steel (similar to AISI 52100) and JIS FCD450-10 cast iron (corresponding to ISO
1083-87 450-10) specimens were tested. As seen in addition of 1\% hBN resulted in decrease in wear more than an
order of magnitude.

Figure 2. Change in the specific wear rate with BN concentration [15]

204
 The reason for this improvement in wear resistance was found to be because of the mending effect of nano sized
hBN particles [16]. As shown in Figure 3, nano sized hBN particles cover asperities. When these attached particles are
removed from surface additional hBN particles filled resulting gaps. Thus over a critical concentration of hBN particles
wear rate decreases.

Addition of nano sized hBN particles resulted in higher seizure forces at four ball test simulating diesel engine
conditions which enabled mechanism to be used under higher loads [17]. A novel study on hBN used hBN as an
additive to Manganese Phosphate coatings. hBN particles decreased friction and wear of coating and increased oil
retention [18].

Figure 3. The wear track, the wear debris and the chemical analysis of the wear debris [16]

3. Proposed hBN Lubrication Methods

In this paper it is proposed that nano sized hBN can be used in mechanisms given below.
3.1. Reaction Wheels, Momentum Wheels And Gyroscopes

Reaction wheel, which is a spinning disk used for attitude control and pointing to targets, is a momentum exchange
device that generally rotates up to 3500 rev/min. Reaction wheel lubricants should have good boundary lubrication
characteristics which can be greatly increased using hBN as oil additive.

Momentum wheels reach higher speeds such as 10000 rev/min and their operating temperatures are higher. Using
nano sized hBN in momentum wheels will result in less friction and more importantly heat conduction of lubricant will
increase.

Gyroscopes are used to measure orientation and operate at speeds up to 10000 rev/min. An important effect of hBN
addition to gyroscope lubricant will be reduction in wear.

3.2. Gears

A spacecraft has actuators and gearboxes that require lubrication. These components usually lay dormant for long
periods of time and then are used without additional lubrication at low speeds. hBN can be used as an additive for these
applications. Self heal effect of nano sized hBN particles will increase gear life thus smaller sized gears can be used. As
an additional approach, hBN coating techniques such as hBN added manganese phosphate coating can be used on gear
surfaces so that life and oil retention properties of components can be increased.

4. Conclusion
In this paper properties of hBN and its potential uses in space vehicles were discussed. hBN shows interesting and
beneficial properties on enhancing lubricant properties and self healing properties of nano sized hBN particles are
especially suitable for space mechanisms. However it was found that very little research was done on using hBN in
space mechanisms. Traditional solid lubricant for space mechanisms has been MoS2 and high friction coefficient of bulk
hBN was deemed a deterrent to investigating novel uses of hBN in space mechanisms. Considering hBN with its high
thermal conduction and electrical insulator properties it can be used in various applications where friction, wear
resistance, thermal conductivity and electrical insulation is required.

205
5. References

[1] R. L. Fusaro, “Lubrication of Space Systems,” Mar. 1995.

[2] W. C. Young, F. J. Clauss, and S. P. Drake, “Lubrication of Ball Bearings for Space Applications,” E Trans., vol. 6,
no. 3, pp. 178–191, Jan. 1963.
[3] “Handbook of Lubrication and Tribology: Volume I Application and Maintenance, Second Edition,” CRC Press,
06-Apr-2006. [Online]. Available: https://www.crcpress.com/Handbook-of-Lubrication-and-Tribology-Volume-I-
Application-and-Maintenance/Totten/p/book/9780849320958. [Accessed: 02-Mar-2017].
[4] W. R. Jones and M. J. Jansen, “Tribology for space applications,” Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part J J. Eng. Tribol.,
vol. 222, no. 8, pp. 997–1004, Aug. 2008.
[5] M. J. Todd and K. Parker, “GIOTTO’s antenna de-spin mechanism: Ots lubrication and thermal vacuum
performance,” 1987.
[6] A. Vanhulsel et al., “DLC solid lubricant coatings on ball bearings for space applications,” Tribol. Int., vol. 40, no.
7, pp. 1186–1194, Jul. 2007.
[7] P. Conley, D. Packard, and W. Purdy, Space vehicle mechanisms: elements of successful design. New York: Wiley,
1998.
[8] R. F. Deacon and J. F. Goodman, “Lubrication by Lamellar Solids,” Proc. R. Soc. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci., vol. 243,
pp. 464–482, Feb. 1958.
[9] G. Stachowiak, Engineering tribology, 3rd ed. Amsterdam ;;Boston: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2005.
[10] F. U. Shah, S. Glavatskih, and O. N. Antzutkin, “Boron in Tribology: From Borates to Ionic Liquids,” Tribol.
Lett., vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 281–301, Sep. 2013.
[11] L. Rudnick, Lubricant additives : chemistry and applications. New York: M. Dekker, 2003.
[12] J. Greim and K. A. Schwetz, “Boron Carbide, Boron Nitride, and Metal Borides,” in Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of
Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2000.
[13] “Boron nitride as solid lubricant [SubsTech].” [Online]. Available:
http://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=boron_nitride_as_solid_lubricant. [Accessed: 09-Mar-2017].
[14] J. M. Martin, T. L. Mogne, C. Chassagnette, and M. N. Gardos, “Friction of Hexagonal Boron Nitride in Various
Environments,” Tribol. Trans., vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 462–472, Jan. 1992.
[15] Y. Kimura, T. Wakabayashi, K. Okada, T. Wada, and H. Nishikawa, “Boron nitride as a lubricant additive,” Wear,
vol. 232, no. 2, pp. 199–206, Oct. 1999.
[16] O. N. Çelik, N. Ay, and Y. Göncü, “Effect of Nano Hexagonal Boron Nitride Lubricant Additives on the Friction
and Wear Properties of AISI 4140 Steel,” Part. Sci. Technol., vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 501–506, Sep. 2013.
[17] M. I. H. C. Abdullah, M. F. B. Abdollah, N. Tamaldin, H. Amiruddin, and N. R. Mat Nuri, “Effect of hexagonal
boron nitride nanoparticles as an additive on the extreme pressure properties of engine oil,” Ind. Lubr. Tribol., vol.
68, no. 4, pp. 441–445, Jun. 2016.
[18] N. Ay, O. N. Çelik, and Y. Göncü, “Wear Characteristics of Traditional Manganese Phosphate and Composite
hBN Coatings,” Tribol. Trans., vol. 56, no. 6, pp. 1109–1118, Nov. 2013.

206
 Ultrasonic Assisted Machining Methods: A Review From 1984-2017

Mehmet Alper Sofuoğlu1 , Sezan Orak 2, Melih Cemal Kuşhan3, Gökçe Mehmet Ay4
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey
[email protected]
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey
[email protected]
3
Mechanical Engineering Department, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey
[email protected]
4
Mechanical Engineering Department, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey
[email protected]

The aerospace, defense and petrochemical industries in which hard-to-handle materials (titanium,
hastelloy, inconel etc.) have been used in recent years are in serious growth. Machining of these
materials in conventional processes is very difficult. Ultrasonic assisted machining is a suitable and
advanced manufacturing method for machining hard and brittle materials with periodic cutting
mechanism. In a typical ultrasonic assisted machining process, high-frequency electrical energy is
converted into mechanical vibrations by means of an amplifier or transducer. Ultrasonic assisted
machining provides the best cutting performance by applying vibration to cutting tool or workpiece in
a certain ultrasonic range (at a certain frequency and amplitude).
In this study, keywords related to ultrasonic assisted turning and machining, hot ultrasonic
assisted turning and machining methods were used to conduct research with SCOPUS database. The
articles and conference proceedings, engineering section and year interval 1984-2017 (July) and
English language were selected as constraints. The number of publications, distribution of publications
by journals, authors, universities, countries and documents have been examined. Ultrasonic turning
and machining have shown a significant improvement over the years.
Keywords: Ultrasonic assisted machining, hot ultrasonic assisted machining, SCOPUS

REFERENCES

[1] D.E.Brehl, TA. Dow,“Review of Vibration-Assisted Machining,” Precis. Eng., 32(3), pp. 153–172,
2008
[2] R.Muhammad, “Hot Ultrasonically Assisted Turning of Ti-15V3Al3Cr3Sn: Experimental and
Numerical Analysis.” Doctoral thesis, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough
University, UK, 2013 http://core.ac.uk/display/16290553
[3] S. Joshi Patil, A.S. Tewari, S.S. Joshi, “Modelling and Simulation of Effect of Ultrasonic Vibrations on
Machining of Ti6Al4V,” Ultrasonics, 54(2), pp. 694–705, 2014

207
 Investigation the Effects of Ultrasonic Assisted Turning on Surface
Properties of Ti6Al4V Alloy

Mehmet Alper Sofuoğlu1 , Melih Cemal Kuşhan2 , Sezan Orak 3, Gökçe Mehmet Ay4
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey
[email protected]
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey
[email protected]
3
Mechanical Engineering Department, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey
[email protected]
4
Mechanical Engineering Department, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey
[email protected]

In this study, the surface properties of Ti6Al4V machined by ultrasonic assisted turning were
examined. In this context, micro hardness measurements were carried out centrally (up to 300 mm)
over the surface. Also, the grain sizes were measured from the surface to the center in the same way.
According to the results, the hardness increases from the center to the surface in the ultrasonic assisted
turning compared to conventional turning. The increase in hardness is also observed with the grain
size decreasing significantly towards the surface.
Keywords: Ultrasonic assisted turning, Ti6Al4V, Micro-hardness, Grain size

REFERENCES

[1] S. Joshi Patil, A.S. Tewari, S.S. Joshi, “Modelling and Simulation of Effect of Ultrasonic Vibrations
on Machining of Ti6Al4V,” Ultrasonics, 54(2), pp. 694–705, 2014
[2] A.Maurotto, R. Muhammad, A. Roy, V.I. Babitsky, V.V.Silberschmidt, “Comparing Machinability of
Ti-15-3-3-3 and Ni-625 Alloys in UAT,” Procedia CIRP, 1, pp. 330–335 ,2012

208
 TWO-BODY AND THREE-BODY WEAR OF NICKEL-TITANIUM SHAPE MEMORY ALLOY

Mohammad SATTARI1), Saleh AKBARZADEH2)*, Mahmoud KADKHODAEI3)

1,2,3)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran.
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Near equiatomic Ti-Ni (Nitinol) is a shape memory alloy with some noticeable
advantages such as biocompatibility, good resistance against fatigue, erosion and corrosion,
good work hardening, low friction coefficient, superior wear resistance as well as
indentation resistance compared to conventional materials with similar or even much
hardness. it was observed that, by placing a cloth filter in the wear track of this alloy, the
three-body wear mechanism (with the presence of wear particles) is changed to the two-
body wear mechanism and the friction coefficient and the weight loss significantly drop and
the wear track in the former was milder than that of the latter.
Keywords: Shape Memory Alloy, Nickel Titanium, Two-body wear, Three-body wear.

1. Introduction
1.1. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs)
Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) are a group of intelligent materials that exhibit certain behaviors by using their solid-
state transformation between the two main stable phases of austenite and martensite at high and low temperatures,
respectively. The austenite to martensite reversible phase transformation gives these alloys the ability to retrieve large
residual strains by heating. Depending on the applied stress and temperature, SMAs show two unique behaviors, called
Shape Memory Effect (SME), and Superelasticity or Pseudoelasticity (SE or PE) effect. The shape memory effect is the
ability of a SMA to restore it to its original configuration by using heat to a certain temperature after an inelastic
deformation. The pseudoelasticity effect refers to the ability of a SMA at higher temperatures to recover a large strain after
a loading-unloading cycle. Because of these special properties, SMAs have different applications in medical, automotive,
robotics, aerospace, and so on [1-5].
1.2. Wear and its classifications
Wear is defined as damage to a solid surface due to the removal or displacement of materials by the mechanical
action of a solid, liquid or gas in contact with it [6]. The main components of a tribo-system are: the first body, the
second body, the interfacial elements (the third body), the surrounding medium (external environment), relative motion,
and contact forces. The “first body” is the body (or bodies) to be worn. The wear of which is of the most concern. The
“second body” is the counterface body. Its wear is not so important because its relative motion in direct or indirect
contact with the first body, is such that forces are transferred to the first body. So the second body is often the main
cause of the wear of the first body. Some authors do not use the term "second body" and they prerefer “the body”
instead of the first body and "the counterbody" instead of the second body. The “interfacial elements (third body)” are
the substances (in terms of auto production or external matter) or other special conditions that may exist at the interface
of the first and second bodies. Wear debris, lubricants, entrained solid particles and reactive chemicals are some
examples of these elements. The "surrounding medium" is also referred to “the fourth body” [7].
Sometimes the relative motion causes severe damage to the contacting surfaces and forms a thin layer (film) of
material. If this film contains hard particles or flows on one of the bodies, it creates a type of wear known as "abrasive
wear", which can sometimes be very fast. Other types of wear are: "adhesive wear", "fatigue wear," "erosive wear," and
"corrosive wear," [8]. The most noticeable sign of abrasive wear is the grooves produced on the surface, which is why the
abrasive wear is also called "grooving wear". From a perspective, abrasive wear is divided into two types of abrasion:
“two-body wear” and “three-body wear” [7].
1.3. Two-body and three-body wear
The "three-body abrasive wear" is referred to as the abrasion caused by free abrasive particles, as the interfacial
elements between a solid and a counterbody. In this way, the "two-body abrasive wear" is referred to as the abrasion on
a metal surface sliding on a rougher and harder body [7].
1.4. Friction coefficient in wear process
In the early stage of wear process, the value of the coefficient of friction seems to be controlled by plowing of the
surface by asperities. Adhesion does not play any significant role in this state because of the contaminated nature of the
surface. The deformation of asperities does take place at the onset of sliding, which affects the static coefficient of friction.
However, it appears that in stage I asperity deformation is not the major factor that determines the coefficient of friction
209
since the asperities deform as soon as sliding commences and the surface is easily polished, with the generation of new
asperities. Consequently, the friction coefficient in this stage is largely independent of material combination, the surface
conditions and the environmental conditions. In stage II the frictional force begins to rise slowly because of an increase in
adhesion. The slope in stage II can be steeper if the wear particles generated by asperity deformation and fracture are
entrapped between the sliding surfaces and plow the surfaces. Stage III is characterized by a steep increase in slope due to
the rapid increase in the number of wear particles entrapped between the sliding surfaces as a consequence of higher wear
rates. The slope is also affected by the increase in adhesion due to the increase in clean interfacial area. The force required
to deform the asperities will continue to contribute to the frictional force in this stage as long as surface asperities are
present [9]. Also this increase is due to the increase in the plowing component of friction as previously reported by Suh
and Sin [10]. Stage IV is reached when the number of wear particles entrapped at the interface remains constant. This
occurs when the number of newly entrapped particles is equal to the number of entrapped particles leaving the interface.
The adhesion contribution to friction also remains constant in stage IV [9].
1.5. Friction coefficient of 2-body and 3-body wear
The removal of abrasive particles from the interface or the addition of certain particles artificially causes a change in
the friction coefficient [10]. The lubricant reduces the intensity of plowing and optimizes the value of friction coefficient
by preventing the accumulation of particles or removing these particles from the interface [11]. Kuwahara and Masumoto
investigated the effect of joining the abrasive particles to the disk surface on friction and characteristics of the wear of
copper, stainless steel, and carbon steel against a rotary copper disk under unlubricated conditions in air and vacuum.
They found that by removing abrasive particles from the surface of the disk with a brush, the friction coefficient and the
intensity of wear would turn from severe to mild. After removing the brush from the surface, the friction coefficient
gradually returned to its initial value, while no recurrence was observed in vacuum conditions [12]. Of course, the time
needed to retrieve the friction coefficient was much less from the time it took to reach that constant value at the beginning
of the wear test [10]. According to these observations, the oxidized abrasive particles by plowing the surfaces, have an
effective role in exacerbating wear process [12]. According to Suh and Sin investigations (1980), the initial friction
coefficient for metals was in the range of 0.1 to 0.2 (but more in the range of 0.12 to 0.17) regardless of the materials tested,
namely gold on gold, steel on steel, brass on steel, etc. The wear particles that stuck between the sliding surfaces increase
the friction coefficient to 0.5-0.7. The increase in the amount of wear debris is associated with the increase in the friction
coefficient. The stability of the friction coefficient indicates the constant amount of the debris in the interface. In this case,
the number of new particles formed was equal to the number of particles removed from the interface (μ = 0.28 initial value,
μ = 0.63 steady-state value). If the abrasive particles cannot leave the surface and the accumulation of particles
continuously continues, the value of steady-state wear rate may be higher [13].
1.6. Wear particles
The microscopic mechanisms that create and detach abrasive particles hfreom t sliding solid surfaces are:
micro-cutting of adhesive junctions between surfaces, mechanical failure of contacting asperities (i.e. non-elastic
deformations, cutting, abrasion, break off, fracture, fatigue of surface asperities etc.), surface spalling, plastic
deformations of surfaces in a form of grooves and scratches, nucleation and propagation of surface and subsurface
cracks and voids, oxidation, corrosion, and chemical reactions [13]. The effect of plowing caused by the presence of
abrasive particles in the interface becomes more intense when the sliding metals have equal hardness since the particles
penetrate both surfaces and prevent the slip between the particles and the surfaces [9]. Instead of the number of particles
in the interface, the size of the abrasive particles appears to be more effective in increasing the friction coefficient. The
larger particle size results in greater friction coefficient. Generally, soft and ductile metals tended to greatly agglomerate
large particles. it is plausible that mechanical interlocking is the primary mechanism in which particle agglomeration
occurs. On the other hand, soft and ductile metals, as compared to harder metals, tend to interlock more (due to plastic
deformation) that leads to more agglomeration [10].
1.7. Wear process of TiNi

According to recent studies, near equiatomic TiNi (Nitinol) alloy exhibits superior wear resistance compared to
other conventional wear-resistant materials, such as 304 stainless steel, GCr 15 steel, and Co-based alloys even if its
hardness is the same with other common materials. Because of this, the TiNi alloy may be a very suitable alternative to
conventional materials for wear-resistant applications. Studies on the wear mechanisms of iNffietirneonlt in d wear
conditions indicate that the excellent wear resistance of the Nitinol depends on its rapid work hardening, great fatigue
resistance and martensitic variant accommodation [14]. According to classical wear theories, hardness is the most
important factor in detecting the high resistance of a material against wear. However, in the case of Nitinol, the
superelasticity effect is known to be the dominant component of its wear resistance [15]. The pseudoelastic
deformations of Nitinol can effectively increase its elastic contact area and diminish maximum Von Mises stress and can
reduce its plastic damage during wear process [14]. This high recoverable elastic and inelastic strain is due to its stress-
induced martensitic transformation. During the loading, austenite to detwinned martensite phase transformation is
associated with a large deformation. However, for conventional materials, loading will result in a slight elastic
deformation and then the onset of non-recoverable plastic deformation. On the other hand, upon unloading, the reverse
transformation of martensite to austenite is associated with a large recoverable strain. But in the case of conventional
materials, unloading will only result in elastic strain recovery. Pseudoelasticity is corresponding to low E/H and high
elastic recovery ratio. The E/H value of TiNi is 15 while that of AISI 304 steel is 85. The average elastic recovery ratio
for superelastic TiNi obtained from nanoindentation tests is over 7 times that of AISI 304 stainless steel, although both
have similar hardness. The load (for a given indenter) that induces plastic deformation in superelastic TiNi is over two
orders of magnitude higher than that of AISI 304 steel [15].
210
 To date, there has not been a specific study on the comparison of the behavior of SMAs and conventional materials
under two-body and three-body abrasive wear condition. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effect of the
removal of particles on the wear mass and the friction coefficient of nickel-titanium shape memory alloy with respect to
its superior wear resistance properties.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Nitinol specifications and preparation
The pseudoelastic Nitinol wire was provided by Memry Co., with 1.5 mm diameter with the material parameters
listed in Table 1 [16]. A Nanoindentation test was used to measure the Nitinol hardness. The results are shown in Table
2. Figure 1 shows the loading and unloading vs. displacement curve of the Nanoindentation test.
Table 1 Material parameters of the TiNi alloy wires [16]

EM (GPa) EA (GPa) εL Mf (oC) Ms (oC) As (oC) Af (oC)

20 37 0.057 -50 -45 -1 15
CM (MPa/K) CA (MPa/K) s cr
(MPa)  cr (MPa)
f
Ρ (kg/m3) C (J/kg K) λ (J/kg)
5.5 5.6 20 80 6500 703 24000

The temperature Af corresponds to the temperature at which the martensite-to-austenite transformation is completed.
Based on the numbers reported in Table 1, the Nitinol wire is in austenitic or pseudoelastic state at the room
temperature.
Table 2 Nanoindentation test condition and its results on Nitinol

Loading rate Max Stop time at max Measured Vickers equivalent

Tip type Temperature
(mN/min) load load Hardness (MPa) hardness (kgf/mm2)
1500 10 mN 60 s Berkovich Ambient 4254 384

The results obtained from the hardness test and microhardness test were in accordance with the nanoindantation test
which ensures the validity of using these values at larger scales.

10

8
Load (mN)

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Displacement (nm)

Figure 1 Loading and unloading vs. displacement curve of Nanoindentation test on Nitinol

Nitinol wire was used as the role of the pin in pin-on-disk wear instrument which was used for experiments. The
Nitinol wire was cut into short pieces by iron saws with under a very low speed and force to avoid the accumulation of
plasticity effects and reduce the ability of the alloy for transformation. The wire head was then polished by P1200
sandpaper to form a semi-spherical shape. Its arithmetic average of surface roughness was measured to be
approximately 0.2 µm. The wire was then then fully recovered to the superelastic state by placing in boiling water.
Finally, it was cooled to the room temperature.
2.2. Disk preparation
AISI D3 cold work tool steel with large hardenability, especially high resistance to the wear was austenitized at
920 °C for 15 minutes and was quenched with oil. In the next step, it was tempered at 180-200 °C for 2 hours, then was
used to prepare the disks. The hardness of the resulting disks reached 720-800 Vickers (62 HRC). The surfaces of the
disks were polished to have an arithmetic asperity height of Ra= 0.2 µm.

211
3. Results and discussion
All the pin-on-disk wear tests were conducted at 0.05 m/s linear speed, 18-20 % air humidity and room temperature
(22 oC). Figure 2 shows smoothed friction coefficient vs. a portion of the distance passed in a wear test with 5.6 kg
normal load. As shown in Figure 2, there is a sharp drop in the friction coefficient at Point A, which is due to the
insertion of a fabric filter on the disk's abrasion path for a few seconds. As shown in Figure 2, to return the friction
coefficient to the amount before filtering, it is necessary to follow the path of 6 meters. But to get the friction coefficient
to its constant and maximum value at the beginning of the wear test, it was necessary to pass 15 meters. This is
consistent with the results of previous studies [10], which less time is required to recover the friction coefficient after
stopping the removal of abrasion particles than the time it takes to reach the friction coefficient to its maximum and
constant value at the beginning of the wear test.

recovery
distance
COF

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
distance (m)

Figure 2 Smoothed friction coefficient vs. distance of wear test at room temp. and 5.6 kg normal load with insertion of
a fabric filter

Some two-body (with the presence of the fabric filter) and three-body (without the presence of the fabric filter) wear
tests were conducted at 1.4, 2.9, 4.3 and 5.8 kg normal wear loads. Figure 3 shows friction coefficient vs. distance of
wear at 2.9 kg (part a) and 4.3 kg (part b) normal load and 100 m passed distance. According to Figures 2 and 3, the
stable friction coefficient in the 3-body wear between the Nitinol and steel is 0.5-0.8, and 2-body wear is 0.1-0.2 which
is consistent with the results reported previously [13]. During the 2-body wear tests, noise and vibration of the
tribological system were negligible and had very little change as a result of load increasing. But during 3-body abrasive
wear, these two parameters increased continuously with increasing loads and changed from pulse mode at low loads to
continuous mode at higher loads. On the other hand, the amplitude of friction coefficients in the two-body wear is much
smaller than the amplitude of friction coefficients in the three-body wear, which indicates that the friction amplitude is
related to vibration and sound level.

body
body
COF
COF

A
0 B
0 20 40

Figure 3 Friction coefficient vs. distance of 2-body and 3-body wear at normal loads of a) 2.9 kg and b) 4.3 kg

In Figure 3, for 2-body abrasive wear at points A and B, there are sudden and jagged-like drops in the friction
coefficient, due to the rapid replacement of the current filter with a clean and free of wear particles one. This tendency
of the friction coefficient to increase even in the presence of the filter is due to the accumulation of wear particles on the
surface of the filter and their re-transfer to the wear path.
Figure 4 shows the first 5 m wear distance of the wear tests showed in Figure 3. The initial value of the friction
coefficient in the two-body and three-body wear which is due to an increase in adhesion [9] are equal and almost 0.3. In
three-body wear, the friction coefficient starts from the initial value and increases continuously to reach a constant value.
This behavior is due to continuously wear particles generation and their entrapping between the sliding surfaces. But in
the two-body wear, the coefficient of friction is rapidly reduced from the initial value and stays in its minimal state if
212
 the fabric filter is regularly replaced and the accumulation of wear particles is prevented.

1,2
COF

COF
b

Figure 4 Friction coefficient vs. first 5 m distance of 2-body and 3-body wear at normal load of a) 2.9 kg and b) 4.3 kg

Table 3 shows the results of wear mass for the wear tests with various normal load values. According to Table 3, the
weight loss in the two-body cases is not necessarily proportional to the applied load. According to equation 1 which is
Archard’s relation, the wear volume is directly proportional to the normal load and sliding distance, and inversely
proportional to the hardness of the material.
FL
Wk (1)
H

where W is the wear volume, F is the applied load, L is the sliding distance, and H is the hardness of the softer material.
The parameter k is the so called Archard’s wear coefficient that corresponds to materials of the contacting bodies and
their dry or lubricated condition [17]. According to the results shown in Table 3, the 3-body Archard’s wear coefficient
between Nitinol and AISI D3 tempered cold work tool steel is equal to 6.53×10 -4. However, according to some of the
previous valuable studies [18], Nitinol does not follow Archart's relation due to the pseudoelastic properties, and its
Archer's coefficient changes with normal wear load variations. But its order is irrefutable in the limited range of forces
used.
Table 3 2-body and 3-body wear mass for various normal wear loads

Wear mass (mg)

load (kg) 2-body 3-body Archard’s wear coefficient ( 104 )
1.4 0.5 1.6 7.687
2.7 0.3 2.8 6.975
4.3 0.5 3.7 5.787
5.8 0.5 4.9 5.682
Average: 6.53

Rabinowicz has reported [19] that for three-body abrasive wear, Archard’s wear coefficient for steel is equal to
17×10-4 and for many of materials it is equal to 7×10-4. By comparing these values, with the amount obtained for
Nitinol, more wear resistance of Nitinol than steel (with even more hardness than that of Nitinol), and more than many
conventional wear resistant materials is known, as previously mentioned [14].
Figure 5 shows an optical microscope image of the abrasion path created on the disk against Nitinol. Part a
corresponds to the two-body wear in 2.9 kg load, and Part b corresponds to the three-body wear under the same load.
The vertical lines are related to the wear direction and the horizontal lines are related to the disk surface pattern. It is
clear that the surface pattern of the disk has changed completely after wear process, and its pattern lines are plowed in
the direction of wear (vertical). So the dominant wear mechanism for two materials used was abrasion. On the other
hand, the bright background and the bright spots related to the disk and the darker spots are Nitinol particles clamped on
the disk surface. This can be due to two reasons: the adhesive wear due to the breakage in the welding joints between
the two sliding surfaces or the pressing and squeezing of the Nitinol abrasive particles created on the disk surface due to
the high normal pressure.

213
 a b

Figure 5 optical microscope image of a) 2-body and b) 3-body wear in 2.9 kg load

It is clear from images that the effect of the three-body wear on disk surface is much more destructive and more
severe than the effect of the two-body wear in the same other conditions. This observation confirms the results of
previous comparisons between these two types of abrasion.

4. Conclusions

5. References
[1] M. Kamarni and M. Kadkhodaei, “An investigation into the simple tensile test of SMA wires considering stress
concentration of grippers,” J. Mater. Eng. Perform., vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 1114–1123, 2014.
[2] B. Heidari, M. Kadkhodaei, M. Barati, and F. Karimzadeh, “Fabrication and modeling of shape memory alloy
springs,” Smart Mater. Struct., vol. 25, no. 12, pp. 1–16, 2016.
[3] M. Hesami et al., “Rotary bending fatigue analysis of shape memory alloys,” J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct., pp.
1–13, 2017.
[4] A. Alipour, M. Kadkhodaei, and M. Safaei, “Design, analysis, and manufacture of a tension–compression self-
centering damper based on energy dissipation of pre-stretched superelastic shape memory alloy wires,” J. Intell.
Mater. Syst. Struct., vol. 28, no. 15, pp. 2129–2139, 2017.
[5] H. Badnava, M. Mashayekhi, M. Kadkhodaei, and A. Amiri-Rad, “A non-local implicit gradient-enhanced
model for thermomechanical behavior of shape memory alloys,” J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct., pp. 1–17, 2018.
[6] J. R. Davis, SURFACE ENGINEERING FOR CORROSION AND WEAR RESISTANCE. 2008.
[7] J. D. Gates, “Two-body and three-body abrasion : A critical discussion,” Wear, vol. 214, pp. 139–146, 1998.
[8] G. W. Stachowiak and A. W. Batchelor, ENGINEERING TRIBOLOGY, 4th Editio. Elsevier, 2014.
[9] N. P. Suh and H. C. Sin, “The genesis of friction,” Wear, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 91–114, 1981.
[10] D. . Hwang, D. . Kim, and S. . Lee, “Influence of wear particle interaction in the sliding interface on friction of
metals,” Wear, vol. 225–229, pp. 427–439, 1999.
[11] S. T. Oktay and N. P. Suh, “Wear Debris Formation and Agglomeration,” J. Tribol., vol. 114, no. 2, p. 379,
1992.
[12] K. Nakayama and J. Okamoto, “Wear particle distribution and its relation to the wear transition under boundary
lubrication,” Wear, vol. 70, no. 1, pp. 125–129, 1981.
[13] A. Zmitrowicz, “Wear Debris: a Review of Properties and Constitutive Models,” J. Theor. Appl. Mech., vol. 43,
no. 1, pp. 3–35, 2005.
[14] Y. Wang, R. Xu, S. Hu, F. Tu, and W. Jin, “Research combining experiment and FEM analysis on sliding wear
behaviors and mechanisms of TiNi alloy,” Wear, vol. 386–387, pp. 218–222, 2017.
[15] R. Neupane, “Indentation and Wear Behavior of Superelastic TiNi Shape Memory Alloy,” 2014.
[16] F. Zare, M. Jannesari, M. Kadkhodaei, and P. Mosaddegh, “Thermomechanical modeling and experimental
investigation of transformation-induced creep and stress relaxation in shape memory alloy wires,” J. Intell.
Mater. Syst. Struct., vol. 28, no. 7, pp. 923–933, 2017.
[17] S. Akbarzadeh and M. M. Khonsari, “On the Applicability of Miner’s Rule to Adhesive Wear,” Tribol. Lett., vol.
63, no. 2, pp. 1–10, 2016.
[18] R. Liu and D. . Li, “Modification of Archard’s equation by taking account of elastic/pseudoelastic properties of
materials,” Wear, vol. 251, no. 1–12, pp. 956–964, 2001.
[19] E. Rabinowicz, Friction and Wear of Materials. Wiley, 1995.

214
 Plane Surface Grinding Implementation of Experimental Design and
Optimal Solutions with the Taguchi Method

Senai Yalcinkaya

Marmara University, Technology Faculty, Mechanical Engineering Department, Istanbul,

Turkey
[email protected]

Abstract

This experimental study; AISI 316 Stainless Steel material with flat surface form is processed.
In the study, grinding stone with different structure was used in surface grinding process. The purpose
of this study was to examine the effects of different grinding stones on surface roughness.

Grinding is the process of bringing the abrasive small grains with different cutting geometry on
the rotating stone surface to the moving work piece at the contact point in the horizontal position and
lifting the small chips to the desired precise gauge and surface quality of the work piece.

In experimental work, grinding application was carried out by using three different grain style
grinding stone. Renol XB special lubricant-waste water was used at all stages of the work. In the first
step EKR 36, in the second step EKR 60, in the grinding stone, in the third step, in the third step, in
the grinding stone EKR 80 was applied in the experimental work.

The grinding stone used was pink stone with dimensions of 350x127x40. In the experimental
study, all the operations were performed at 1600 rpm. In the experimental study, grinding stones with
three different grains were used. AISI 316 Stainless Steel block was used and this study was
conducted in order to determine the effect of grinding on the surface surface on the surface roughness.

As a result of the experiments, surface grinding process; The grinding stone EKR 80 in number
is more effective than the other two different stones and the higher surface roughness is achieved.

Keywords: Plane surface grinding, Average surface roughness, AISI 316 Stainless Steel, EKR
grinding stone.

REFERENCES

[1] Y.Şahin and S.Yalcinkaya., ICAMR Conference, January 22-24, “Application of Taguchi Technique to
Surface-Grinding of Mold Steel”, Turin-İtaly, 2016.
[2] Metals Handbook, Vol. 3, Properties and Selection: Stainless Steels, Tool Materials and Special-
Purpose Metals, Ninth Edition, ASM Handbook Committee, American Society for Metals, Materials
Park, OH, 1980.
[3] KARBOSAN Manufecturer of Grinding Wheels, Grinding Stone, Söğütlü Çeşme, and Halkalı
Road,No: 256, Sefa köy Küçükçekmece - İstanbul - Turkey, 2017
[4] Belgin Lubricants, Gebze Organized Industrial Zone Gebze Organize Sanayi Bölgesi, İhsan Dede Cad.No:125,41480
Kocaeli-Turkey,2017.
[5] Zhang Julie Z., Chen Joseph C., Kirby E. Daniel., “Surface Roughness Optimization Đn an End-Milling
Operation Using The Taguchi Design Method”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 184, 2007.
pp. 223-239.

215
 A research for Wear Behaviours of Coated Cutting Tools: A Mini Review
Senai Yalcinkaya1, Aydan Ustundag2 and Acar Can Kocabicak3

1 Marmara University, Technology Faculty, Mechanical Engineering Department, Istanbul,

Turkey
[email protected]

2 Marmara University, Technology Faculty, Mechanical Engineering Department, Istanbul,

Turkey
[email protected]

3 Marmara University, Technology Faculty, Mechanical Engineering Department, Istanbul,

Turkey
[email protected]

Abstract

Machining of hardened steels is difficult. The processed metal parts are required to have
minimum cost and maximum quality. The quality of these products, which are produced by machining
method, is primarily determined by the surface quality.

Cutting tool material is one of the most important factors affecting surface quality. In order to
obtain better quality surfaces, it is necessary to work at higher speeds and with appropriate cutting
parameters. Coated cutting tools are suitable for obtaining quality surfaces. Cutting tools to be used in
the processing of high strength steels produced by the developing technology should have better wear
resistance and fracture toughness. Studies on coating technology show that the use of a coated cutting
tool is advantageous for machining high strength steels. Coated cutting tools also increase the tool life
of the coating when compared to uncoated cutting tools. Such cutting tools seem to have a longer life
and cutting parameters are more suitable for working.

In this study, the performance of cutting tools coated with different materials at different values
of cutting speed, feed rate, cutting depth will be examined. Recent studies on the processing of
difficult parts with special cutters have been presented. In particular, the wear mechanisms that occur
in cutting tools are emphasized in the milling process.

Keywords: Cutting Tool, Coating Technology, Wear Behaviour, Cutting Parameters.

REFERENCES

[1] C.Y. Wang, Y. X. Xie, Z. Qin, H. S. Lin, Y. H. Yuan, Q. M. Wang, “Wear and Breakage of TiAlN and
TiSiN Coated Carbide Tools During High-Speed Milling of Hardened Steel”, Wear 336-337 (2015) 29–
42
[2] Y. Y. Chang, H. M. Lai, “Wear Behavior and Cutting Performance of CrAlSiN and TiAlSiN Hard
Coatings on Cemented Carbide Cutting Tools for Ti Alloys”, Surface & Coatings Technology 259
(2014) 152–158

216
[3] Y. Niu, J. Wei, Z. Yu, “Microstructure and Tribological Behavior of Multilayered CrN Coating by Arc
Ion Plating”, Surface & Coatings Technology 275 (2015) 332–340
[4] A. Gilewicz, B. Warcholinski, “Tribological Properties of CrCN/CrN Multilayer Coatings”, Tribology
International 80 (2014) 34–40
[5] A. Inspektor, P. A. Salvador, “Architecture of PVD Coatings for Metalcutting Applications: A
Review" Surface and Coatings Technology 257 (2014) 138-153

217
 Structure and Tribological Properties of Fluidized Bed Nitrided
Surfaces on H13 Hot Work Tool Steel
Zafer Can Teoman, Faiz Muhaffel, Huseyin Cimenoglu
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Istanbul Technical University,
Maslak, 34469 Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]

Tool steels is a specialized group of highly alloyed steels and they are used for applications
requiring long life at high operating temperatures and heavy working conditions such as heavy cuts,
high-speed machining and mould production. High working hardness, high wear resistance, excellent
toughness and shock endurance are some of the required properties from the tool steels at both room
temperature and elevated temperatures. To overcome these expectations, surface modifications and
coatings such as nitriding are applied on tool steels. Nitriding is one of the surface hardening methods
which provides increased surface hardness by forming a thin layer on the material surface. It is a
method which has been used for a long while for improving surface properties of many ferrous and
nonferrous metals and generally conducted up to 550 °C temperatures.
In the present study, fluidized bed nitriding process was performed up to 400 °C to prevent
tempering effect and/or change in the microstructure via producing non-desirable equilibrium phases
and to incorporate nitrogen mainly dispersed in to the matrix in order to enhance the surface hardness
and wear resistance. Samples were nitride in fluidized bed furnace for different temperatures and
durations. Dry sliding wear tests were conducted to samples at room temperature and 600 °C. The
phase composition, wear profiles, the cross-sectional micro hardness and surface morphology were
investigated.
The results showed that applying the nitriding process on relatively higher temperatures and for
longer durations increased the diffusion layer thickness. The XRD spectra revealed that as a result of
the nitriding, γ’-Fe4N and ε-Fe3N started to form at 400 °C while γ’-Fe4N is not observed on the 375
°C. The surface hardness values increased with the increasing temperatures and duration along with
increased diffusion layer thicknesses. The nitriding process in fluidized bed improved the wear
resistance at 25 °C significantly as compared to untreated state. On the other hand, elevated
temperature (600 °C) wear tests showed that nitriding process enhanced high temperature wear
resistance only for about %25 by the optimized nitriding parameters.
Keywords: Tool steel, nitriding, hardness, elevated temperature, wear resistance.

218
 Synthesis of an Antibacterial and Wear-resistant Multilayer Coating on
Biomedical Titanium-based alloys
Faiz Muhaffel1, Dilek Teker Aydogan1, Meryem Menekse2, Nevin Gul Karaguler2, Murat
Baydogan1, Huseyin Cimenoglu1
1 Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Istanbul Technical University,
Maslak, 34469 Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]
2 Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak,
34469 Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]

Titanium and its alloys are attractive materials in the biomedical industry for the manufacturing
of implants owing to their low density, low Young’s modulus, high tensile strength, and good
biocompability. However, their ease of surface degradation under mechanical contact and poor wear
resistance are factors limiting their widespread usage along with sustaining antibacterial efficiency
against infections leading to inflammation around the implants. For instance, aseptic loosening
occurring after implantation and inflammation of the surrounding tissue, giving rise to the bone
resorption (osteolysis) upon release of wear debris into the bloodstream is crucial problems associated
with the poor wear resistance of titanium and its alloys. Therefore, surface modification is required for
titanium-based implants to extend implantation periods by minimizing in vivo surface degradations
under mechanical contact. Therefore, attention has been paid to combine a wear resistant hard layer
and antibacterial and/or bioactive compounds containing layer by micro arc oxidation (MAO) process
to achieve desired tribological and biological properties.
In the present study, an innovative multilayer coatings comprising a bioactive compound layer
(consisting of hydroxyapatite and calcium titanate) with an underlying hard titanium oxide layer (in
the form of anatase and rutile) has been developed on biomedical titanium-based alloys. After
structural and morphological characterization of the samples, antibacterial properties were evaluated
against Staphylococcus aureus strains, one of the major causes for infections associated with metallic
implants. Further tribology tests were applied in an artificial environment which replicates similar
conditions of body fluid.
The results showed that MAO coatings exhibited a better wear resistance up to a factor of about
12 as compared to untreated titanium substrate. Thus, fabricated MAO coating protected the surface
from intensive wear-related failures along with good antibacterial properties.
Keywords: Titanium alloy, oxide coating, hydroxyapatite, antibacterial, wear.

219
 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF WIND TURBINEBLADES
COATED WITH COMPOSITE MATERIALS
H. E. Kattariea1, B. S. Azzam2 and T. A. Osman3

1
M.Sc. Candidate,
Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
Email- [email protected]
2 Professor,

College of Engineering, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Mounawarrah, KSA

[email protected]
3
Professor
Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Due to the increasing need to get power from different sources withless maintenance costs and highdurability, wind
turbines are considered as one of the main renewable energy sources which got a wide recently attraction, as a
source of pure power generation.Due to the high effective loading acting on wind turbines, it is preferred to be
manufactured from high strength steel to withstand the applied wind stresses. The main object of this work is to
study and select different types of proposed composite materials to be used as a cladding layer for coating the wind
turbine blades to protect them against environmental effects. This coating layer may help in reduce their
maintenance costs and extend their life. Therefore, the experimental work performed in this study has focused
onsome steel specimens coated with different types of fibrous materials as; glass, carbon, and kevlar fibers. The
performance of these fibrous coatings has been compared with hard chrome coating. The coated steel samples have
been exposed to various environmental factors as;erosion and hot corrosion followed by mechanical testing.
The results showed that the hard chrome coating could not so bear weather factors that is not suited to protect the
wind turbine blades.Whereas; theCRP (Carbon Reinforced Polyester) coating has shown a good ability to withstand
the different environmental effects. This appropriate composite material has been verified through some
experimental testing to verify its design safety under different environmental loads applied on wind blades.
The output results also showedthat the CRP could enhanced the mechanical performance of the wind blades more
than the other types of composite materials.

Keywords:Wind turbine, Steel C22, Carbon fiber composite, Glass fiber composite, Kevlar fiber composite, Hard
chrome, Erosion and Hot corrosion.

1. INTRODUCTION

220
As the need for renewable energy sources increases, the methods of design and analysis for the structures
servicing these sources must be advanced to become more resilient when subjected to various loading
conditions. The different sources of renewable energies include solar, geothermal, hydropower, ocean,
hydrogen and wind. The advantage of utilizing wind turbines for energy collecting is that wind is free and
can be easily captured. Wind turbines work by turning the kinetic energy of the wind into torque that
causes the wind turbine to turn and drives an electrical generator to produce an electrical energy.
Although, the wind turbine consists of many parts, the rotor blades are considered as the main part of the
wind turbines.
Recently, the technology used in manufacturing wind turbine blades has broaden and evolved to achieve a
reduction in both the cost and the probability of defects by cladding them with fibrous composite
materials.
Composite technology includes both the reinforcement fibers and the polymeric matrices (as polyester
and epoxy) on a broad scale. Skins are comprised of multi axial fabrics and some use of unidirectional of
many types of composites, including high performance fibers like;glass, kevlar and carbon fibers. The
type of fiber, fiber volume fraction and fiber orientation are the main factors affecting the performance of
the composite material.
In the design of a wind blade, a high performance fiber like carbon is realized in the tensile direction and
most prevalent in the tensile properties. The industry is clearly moving toward larger turbines with longer
blades, which produce more energy; this is a basic target for driving costs down.
Therefore, developing the composite material blades for the wind turbine technology is very important.

2. MAIN TYPES OF WIND TURBINE BLADE MATERIALS

Older style wind turbines blades were designed of wood, but because of its sensitivity to moisture
and processing costs, nowadays, wood is not used so far in wind turbines. Recently, metallic
materials (as steel and aluminum) are the most common material for manufacturing these wind
turbine blades. On the other hand, composite materials [1] as glass fiber reinforced polymers (GRP),
carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CRP) and Kevlar fiber reinforced polymers (KRP) areextensively
used to design the wind blades.

2.1 Selection Criterion of Blade Materials

The most important factors affecting the selection of materialsare the mechanical, thermal and
chemical properties. In addition, the physical properties such as, size, weight, and appearance
properties of the materials are also affecting the selection of the wind blade materials. The blade
material must be reliable, available in large enough quantities with high functional safety and low
cost with simple processing.

2.2 Material Properties of Blades

Resin technology has expanded to include both polyester and epoxy on a broad scale. Skins are
comprised of multi axial fabrics with some use of unidirectional materials.The characteristics that
make composites suitable for construction of wind turbine bladesespecially glass fiber-reinforced and
wood/epoxy composites are; low density, good mechanical properties, and excellent corrosion
resistance [2].In addition, the carbon fibers are strong and stiff, while the new resins provide high
toughness and short process cycle time. Although, most turbine blades are manufactured from
aluminum used in sheet forms, steel has been used for large turbine rotors using the spar and skin
construction method [1]. The fatigue strength deteriorates quickly when the stress amplitudes and the
number of cyclic loadings are large. On the other hand, during the last few decades, fibrous
composite materials have started to be used in fabrication of wind blades. This because of these
composite materials have low density and possess good tensile properties. Some fibrous composites
as glass-reinforced polymers (GRP) are also economic, strong with moderate fatigue properties.

221
Carbon and aramid fibers such as kevlar-reinforced composites have the best mechanical properties
of all the blade materials. Beside the kevlar is cheaper than carbon fibers, it has an advantage of non-
conducting of electricity which preventing the need for protection against lightning strikes.

2.3 Coating Materials for Wind Blades

As mentioned before that most of the turbine blades are preferred to be totally fabricated from
composite materials, which have high strength/weight ratios. On the other hand, for huge blades,
which fabricated from steel spur and sheet, they must be cladded with composite layers to sustain the
environmental attacks. Therefore, the following composite materials will be tested to be used as
coating layers for the wind turbine blades and compared to the hard chrome steel blades.
a- Kevlar fiber composite [5, 6]: it has a good impact resistance and high strength to weight
ratio with low heat expansion.
b- E-glass fiber composite:The disadvantages of E-Glass fiber composite include low modulus
and low strength to weight ratios, relatively low fatigue resistance and higher density
compared to carbon fibers and organic fibers.
c- Carbon fiber composite [3, 4]: Although it has good tensile strength and high fatigue
resistance, it is a brittle and rigid composite.

2.4 Failure Criteria of Wind Turbine Blades

Since the blade failures of wind turbinesare often catastrophic [1 and7], therefore, much attention
must be given to the causes of these failures during their design and fabrication. Most causes of blade
failures are:
1- Excessive applied loads on the wind blades due to the effect of the winds and storms.
2- Deterioration of the blade strength such that in case of wind blades having defects which occurred
due to the non-compliance of the blade during its manufacturing process.
3- Large manual processes of the blade manufacturing uses.
4- The cracks, whichfound in blades at the bonding resin [8 and9].
5- The environmental conditions which may act on the wind blades as: the rains, moistures,
temperature changes, ices, UV radiation and lightning.

3. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
An experimental study has been done to test the performance of different types of composite
materials as a coating layer for the metallic blades (steel C22) of wind turbines. The study has
considered different environmental loads acting on the blades as; erosion, hot corrosionand
mechanical loadings.

3.1 Specimen Preparation for Testing

Identical specimens of composite materials are laboratory tested to select the most suitable types of
composites for using as a coating layer for the wind turbine blades.The composite materials, which
considered are;glass fiber (E-glass), Kevlar fiber 49 and carbon fiber (HM) reinforced polyester as a
resinous material. Two sets of specimens are prepared, one contains steel C22 as a core material with
composite coating and the other is totally composite.

3.2 Procedures of Specimens Preparations

1- Three equal sheets’ sets of steel C22 are well cleaned on a sand blasting machine to get free of
any dust, grease or any other contaminants.
2- The cleaned steel sheets arethen covered with the composite layers as a coating material with
the following stacking sequences:
a- The first set of specimens has coated with one composite woven layer of 0o/90o fiber
orientations of three different composites: GRP, KRP and CRP.
b- The second set of specimens has coated with two woven layers stacked with 0◦/90oand
90o/0ofiber orientation of the three types of fibrous composites.

222
 c- While, the third set of specimens has coated with three woven layers stacked with 0◦/90o,
90o/0o and +45/- 45o fiber orientations.
3- The composite materials are pasted on both sides of the steel specimens by a polyester resin as
a matrix material and then dried and cured to ensure that they have been completely pasted.
4- The specimens are then introduced into an oven in order to ensure the integrity and consistency
of the samples.
5- The specimens groups are divided into three subgroups for performing the following three types
of tests:
- A subgroup for erosion test.
- A sub group for hot corrosion test.
- A subgroup for mechanical test.
6- All the specimens of the three groups are weighed separately before and after the test to
calculate the weight difference for each sample.
7- The wear rate is then calculated for each specimen as follows:

weight loss initial

wearrate = weight x time

3.3 Experimental Tests and Results

3.3.1 Erosion Test
This test is carried out by exposing the samples to atmosphere conditions of dust and wind similar to
nature by placing samples of composite materials for hard chrome, GRP, KRP and CRP in front of a
pistol, which connected to a drilling machine, that drives a stream of fine sand in front of samples as
shown in figure (1).
A pistol that drives the fine sand works by compressing the air with pressure 15 bars. Samples are
exposed to a fine sand pistol at a distance of about 3- 4 cm. The diameter of the piston nozzle used is 70mm.
Exposure time for each sample is about 2 minutes.The test is carried out on samples of four different types of
coating materialscovering the steel C22; three with composite materials and the forth with hard chrome.
The samples are dried for moisture disposal and then weighed for wear rate calculation. The wear
rate is calculated for each sample (for two minutes test) and illustrated in table (1).

Figure (1) A pistol which used to push a stream of sand

Figures (2, 3, 4and5) showthethree samples of steel C22 coated with one, two and three layers of GRP,
KRP, CRP and hard chrome, respectively after testing showing how erosion test could affect their
surfaces.

Table (1) Wear rate of samples after 2 minuteserosion test

1 layer 2 layers 3 layers

E- Glass Fiber/polyester 0.0104 0.0095 0.0092
Kevlar 49/polyester 0.0112 0.0099 0.0093
Carbon Fiber/polyester 0.0092 0.0085 0.0080
Hard chrome/polyester 0.0191 0.0125 0.0101

223
 one layer two layers three layers
Figure (2) Samples coated with E-glass after erosion test

one layer two layers three layers

Figure (3) Samples coated with Kevlar 49 after erosion test

one layer two layers three layers

Figure (4) Samples coated with carbon fiber (HM) after erosion test

one layer two layers three layers

Figure (5) Samples coated with hard chrome after erosion test

The results showed that the erosion wear rate of all the composite specimens has decreased with
increasing the number of layers. Figure (6a) shows that the erosion wear rate of E-glass samples has
decreased from one layer to two layers; by a ratio of6.28%, meanwhile from two layers to three layers
by a ratio of 2.93%.Similarly, figure (6b) shows that the erosion wear rate of kevlar 49 has decreased
with increasing the number of coating layers from one layer to two layers by a ratio of 10.54%, while
from two layers to three layers by a ratio of 49 is 6.32%.
In addition, figure (6c) shows that the erosion wear rate of carbon fiber has decreased from one layer
to two layers by a ratio of 7.69%, while from two layers to three layers by a ratio of 6.05%. While,
figure (6d) shows that the erosion wear rate of hard chrome has decreased from one layer to two layers
by a ratio of 34.43%, while from two layers to three layers by a ratio of 19.80%.
Wear rate of E-Glass

Wear rate of Kevlar 49

(a) GRP (b) KRP

224
 wear rate of Carbon Fiber

Wear rate of Hard Chrome

(c) CRP (d) Hard chrome
Figure (6) Erosion wear rate (after 2 minutes test)

The visual observation of the samples showed that the erosion wear rate of the layers of composite
materials above the sample surfaces was uniform and homogenous.
It is observed that glass fiber and carbon fibers give the lowest erosion rate in composite material
samples, while hard chrome is the highest worn due to the effect of erosion, as shown in figure (7).
Wear rate of samples

Figure (7) Erosion wear rate of samples of different composite materials and hard chrome

3.3.2 Hot Corrosion Test

The hot corrosion test has been carried out on four samples of different types of coating materials;
three with composite materials and the forth with hard chrome covering the steel C22. The composite
samples are GRP, KRP and CRP. All the samples have been exposed to a hot steam of the
Mediterranean sea water at an average temperature of about 77- 81◦C, with mean salinity level of total
dissolved solids (TDS) of about 3700–3800 PPM[10,11]for three periods of times; one day, one week
and one month.

a- Hot Corrosion for a Day

The results of the wear rate for the tested samples (one-day test) are illustrated in table (2).Figure
(8a)shows that the hot corrosion wear rate of KRP 49 composite layershas decreased with increasing
the number of coating layers from one layer to two layers by a ratio of 27.9%, meanwhile from two
layers to three layers by a ratio of 5.1%.Figure (8b) shows also that thehot corrosion wear rate has
decreased with increasing the number of coating layers of GRP composite layers from one layer to two
layers by a ratio of 9.21%, while from two layers to three layers by a ratio of72.06%. Similarly, figure
(8c)shows that hot corrosion wear rate has decreased from one layer to two layers by a ratio of 16.9%,
meanwhile from two layers to three layers by a ratio of 19.3%.Also, for the hard chrome, the hot
corrosion wear rate has decreased from one layer to two layers by a ratio of 15.8%, while from two
layers to three layers by a ratio of 35.3%, as shown in figure (8d).

225
Table (2) Hot corrosion wear rate of samples for one-day test

1 layer 2 layers 3 layers

Kevlar 49/Polyester 0.000196 0.000141 0.000134
E-Glass Fiber/polyester 0.000143 0.000129 0.000121
Carbon fiber/polyester 0.000128 0.000106 0.000086
Hard chrome/polyester 0.000129 0.000109 0.000705
Hot corrosionwear rate

0.0001958

Hot corrosion wear rate

0.0001412 0.000134

(a) KRP (b) GRP

Hot corrosion wear rate

Hot corrosion wear rate

(c)CRP(d)Hard chrome

Figure (8) Hot corrosion wear rate of samples for a test of one day

The visual inspection of the samples showed that the hot corrosion wear rate on the surfaces of the
samples coated by composite layers was uniform and homogenous.
By the naked eyes observation, it is observed that GRP and CRP coating layers give similar hot
corrosion wear rate on their surfaces, while hard chrome gives the highest rate of wear corrosion, as
shown in figure (9).
Wear rate of Samples

Figure (9) Comparison of hot corrosion wear rate of different coated samples for a day

226
b- Hot Corrosion For a Week Test
The results of the wear rate for the tested samples (one-week test) are illustrated in table (3). Figure
(10a) shows that the hot corrosion wear rate of KRP composite layers has decreased with increasing
the number of coating layers from one layer to two layers by a ratio of 7.36%, meanwhile from two
layers to three layers by a ratio of 13.6%.Figure (10b) shows that the hot corrosion wear rate has also
decreased with increasing the number of coating layers of GRP composite layers from one layer to two
layers by a ratio of 23.8%, while from two layers to three layers by a ratio of 0.17%.Similarly, figure
(10c) shows that hot corrosion wear rate has decreasedwith increasing the number of coating layers of
CRP composite layers from one layer to two layers by a ratio of 28.8%, while from two layers to three
layers by a ratio of 3.54%.While, the corrosion wear rate for the hard chrome has decreased with
increasing the number of coating layers from one layer to two layers by a ratio of 39.13%, while from
two layers to three layers by a ratio of 14.7%, as shown in figure (10d).

Table (3) Wear rate of samples with polyester by using hot corrosion test for a week test

1 layer 2 layers 3 layers

Kevlar 49/polyester 0.000211 0.000195 0.000168
E-glass Fiber/polyester 0.000219 0.000167 0.000138
Carbon Fiber/polyester 0.000107 0.000076 0.000074
Hard chrome/polyester 0.001234 0.000751 0.000640
Hot corrosion wear rate

Hot corrosion wear rate

for a week

for a week

E- Glass
Fiber/polyester

(a) KRP (b)GRP

Carbon Fiber/ polyester Hard chrome/polyester

0.0014
0.0012
Hot corrosion wear rate

Hot corrosion wear rate for

0.001
0.0008
for a week

Carbon Fiber/polyester Hard

a week

0.0006 chrome/polyester
0.0004
0.0002

1.00 2.00 1 2 3

No. of Layers No of Layers

(c) CRP(d)Hard chrome

Figure (10) Hot corrosion wear rate of samples for a test of one week

The visual observation of the samples showed that the hot corrosion wear rate above the samples
surfaces of the composite layers was uniform and homogenous. While, the hard chrome samples gives
non-homogenous wear.By the naked eyes observation, it is observed that carbon fibers give the lowest
hot corrosion wear rate incomposite material samples, while hard chrome samples give the highest rate
of corrosion wear,as shown in figure (11).

227
 Wear rate of samples for a
week

Figure (11)Comparison of hot corrosion wear rate of different coated samples for a week test

c- Hot Corrosion for a Month Test

The hot corrosion test was also done for one week for the three different composite samples and
thehard chrome sample. When testing the same samples for a month, the hard chrome samples were
completely destroyed with the test results shown in Table (4).

Table (4)Hot corrosion wear rate of composite samples for a month test

1 layer 2 layers 3 layers

Kevlar 49/ Polyester 0.000889 0.000538 0.000334
E-Glass Fiber/ Polyester 0.000702 0.000491 0.000394
Carbon fiber/ Polyester 0.000609 0.000558 0.000258

Figures 12(a, b, c and d) show the samples of steel C22 coated with one, two and three layers of the
three different composite layers besides the hard chrome, respectively after hot corrosion test for a
month.

one-layer two layers three layers

Figure (12a) Hot corroded KRP samples after a month of test

one layer two layers three layers

Figure (12b) Hot corroded GRP samples after a month of test

228
one-layer two layers three layers
Figure (12c) Hot corroded CRP samples after a month of test

one-layer two layers three layers

Figure (12d) Hot corroded hard chrome samples after a month of test

The results of the wear rate for the tested samples (one-month test) are illustrated in table (4). Figures
13(a, b, c and d) show that the hot corrosion wear rate for all the composite coated layers have
decreased with increasing the number of coating layers. The rate of KRP has decreased from one layer
to two layers by a ratio of 39.5%, while from two layers to three layers by a ratio of 37.8%. Similarly,
the rate of GRP has decreased from one layer to two layers by a ratio of 30.14%, while from two layers
to three layers by a ratio of 19.59%. Finally, the rate of CRP has decreased from one layer to two
layers by a ratio of 8.4%, while from two layers to three layers by a ratio of 53.8%.
Hot corrosion wear rate
Hot corrosion wear rate

(a)KRP (b)GRP
Hot corrosion wear rate

Wear rate of samples

(c) CRP (d)Comparison of hot corrosion wear rate of

different samples
Figure (13)Hot corrosion wear rate of samples for a month of test

The visual observation of the samples showed that the hot corrosion wear rate of the layers of
composite materials above the sample surfaces was uniform and homogenous.By the naked eyes
observation, it is observed that carbon fibers give the lowest hot corrosion wear rate in composite
material samples for a month as shown in figure (13d).

229
 3.3.3 Mechanical Test (Tension Test)
Due to the effect of different loads and operating conditions applied on the wind turbine blades, they
will be subjected to different mechanical stresses such as; bending stresses, Fatigue stresses and creep.
The design of blades should to be safe against these applied loads.Therefore, the mechanical tensile
properties of their materials must be tested and estimated.
In this test, two new sets of composite material samples from carbon fibers (HM), glass fibers (E-type)
and kevlar fibers (49)were prepared and cut with dimensions of 30 cm length and 2 cm width. The
test was performed on a mechanical tensile testing Machine MTS- 810 at the aircraft factory of the
Arab Organization for industrialization. After new different groups of two layers and three layers of
composite materials reinforced with polyester [12] andheated in an oven with temperature of 50◦ C for
24 hours and under pressure of 1 atm in order to ensure the completion of the paste samples well,the
test in high load limit is 100 kN.The test results are shown in table (5).

Table (5) Mechanical testing results of composite materials samples

Density
Density of
Modulus of Ultimate
of fibers, compos Area,
Strain, Ɛ Elasticity, Tensile
Kg ite, mm2
MPa Strength,MPa
m3 Kg
m3
Kevlar 49 Fiber (2-layers) with fiber
0.0144 8.4836 18581.8 267.9
orientation 0°/90◦ 1107.3
1467
Kevlar 49 Fiber (2-layers) with fiber 2
0.0244 11.804 9787.5 239
orientation 0°/90◦+(1-layer) 45◦
E-Glass Fiber (2-layers) with fiber
0.024 7.137 8669.5 208.4
orientation 0°/90◦
2550 2074
E-Glass fiber(2-layers)) with fiber
0.0257 10.09 7513.9 192.9
orientation 0°/90◦+(1-layer) 45◦
Carbon fiber (2- layers)) with fiber
0.019 7.41 19046.8 362.1
orientation 0°/90◦
1750 1546
Carbon Fiber(2- layers) with fiber
0.0113 10.98 23712.7 268.2
orientation 0°/90◦+(1-layer) 45◦

Figures 14(a, b, c) show the sample photos after the tension test of KRP, GRP and CRP,
respectively.

one-layer two layers three layers

(a) Samples photos of KRP after mechanical tensile test

one-layer two layers three layers

(b) Samples photos of GPR after mechanical tensile test

230
 one-layer two Layers three layers
(c) Samples photos of CRP after mechanical tensile test

Figure (14) Samples photos after mechanical test

Mechanical testresults
Throughout the mechanical tensile test results given in table (5) with thevisual observation of the
samples after test, the following outcomes could be raised:
- Fracture of all the composite samples occurs suddenly.
- The fracture is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the samples.
- Tensile strength of KRP is less than the tensile strength of GRP.
- KRP composite gives the highest strength/weight ratio among the other types of fibrous composites.
- GRP composite has the lowest strength/weight ratio among the other composites.
- Young`s modulus of KFR is lower than the other two types of composites.

4. CONCLUSIONS
Throughout the experimental tests performed on steel samples coated with different types of composite
layers, the following conclusions could be withdrawn:
1- Hard chrome has been completely destroyed after a hot corrosion test for a week. This indicates
that the hard chrome cannot withstand the various weather conditions as; high humidity and high
temperatures applied on wind blades. Therefore, it is not recommended to be used as wind steel
blades’ coating.
2- Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CRP)gives the lowest hot corrosion wear rate, which indicates
that this type of composite coating can withstand various weather conditions of different
temperatures, and humidifies.
3- The CRP gives also the best homogeneity of wear rate distribution.
4- The mechanical tensile tests showed the highest values of both the strength/weight ratio and the
modules/weight ratio of the CRP with lowest value ofinduced strain among the other types of
composites.
5- As a final conclusion, CRP can be considered as the most appropriate composite type for coating
the wind turbine bladesamong the other types of composite materials.

REFERENCES
[1] K.S. Babu and M.S. Reddy, "The Material Selection For Typical Wind Turbine Blades Using A
MADMApproach& Analysis Of Blades",Chania, Greece, June 19-23, 2006.
[2] A. L. Wood, "Assessment of Research Needs for Wind Turbine Rotor Materials Technology", Ch.3,"
Materials Properties and Life Prediction", ISBN: 0-309-58318-7, pp35-59, Washington, 1991.
[3]http://www.christinedemerchant.com/carboncharacteristics.html
[4] R. Szabo, L. Szabo, "Composite Materials for Wind Power Turbine ", Obuda University, H-1034 Budapest,
Hungary, ISBN 978-86-919769-1-0, 2017.
[5]http://www.christinedemerchant.com/aramid_characteristics.html
[6]https://www.slideshare.net/vijaysagar1238/kevlar-properties-and-applications
[7] Abumeri, G. and F. Abdi, "Advanced Composite Wind Turbine Blade Design Based on Durability and
Damage Tolerance", Long Beach, CA90804, February, 2012.

231
[8] M. Malkin, A. Byrne and D. Griffin, "Does the Wind Industry have A Blade Problem?", "Wind Power",
California University, 2014.
[9] B. S. Nivedh, "Major Failures in the Wind Turbine Components and the Importance of Periodic
Inspections", UL India PVT LTD, Bangalore, India, November, 2014.
[10]http://www.softschools.com/formulas/physics/flow_rate_formula/88/
[11]B. Ladewig and B. Asquith, "Characteristics of Membrane Concentrate", DOI: 10.1007/ 978-3-642-24852-
8_2, 2012.
[12]http://www.tkmna.com/wcm/idc/groups/internet/documents/web_content/mdaw/mdi4/~edisp/d_009553.pdf

232
 INVESTIGATION ON TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF LASER SURFACE TREATED TI6AL4V
ALLOY

Niyazi Çavuşoğlu1), Selim Gürgen2), Fatih Hayati Çakır2) and Abdullah Sert3)*
1)
Mechanical Faculty, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yıldız Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
2)
Eskişehir Vocational School, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey
3)
Mechanical Engineering Department, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to improve the laser surface of the titanium alloy. The
oxide layer is formed on the surface of the material by the modification of laser to titanium
alloy. The presence of oxides in the alloy results hardness increases as well as reduction of
friction properties. In this study, oxidation of titanium alloy has been developed through
laser texturing, using different scan speed of the laser beam, and its influence on the sliding
wear behavior was analyzed. For this purpose, using ball on disc tribological tests were
analysed The results for the improvement of tribological behavior have been detected in
textured surfaces, resulting in a decrease in the friction coefficient values.
Keywords: Ti6Al4V, Laser texture, Surface modification, Friction coefficient.

1. Introduction
Titanium alloys are widely used in many sectors such as biomedical, automotive, food processing, aviation and
chemical industry. The superior corrosion resistance, specific strength values and mechanical properties of titanium
alloys can be maintained up to high temperatures, these properties of titanium alloys increases titanium alloy usage in
many fields [1], [2]. Despite these superior properties, the friction and wear properties of titanium alloys limit the use of
these alloys for different applications. Different studies and methods have been used to improve the surface properties
of titanium alloys. Ti6Al4V is one of the widely being used titanium alloys widely used in aerospace and biomedical
applications. Besides titanium alloys have a short lifetime due to their poor tribological properties [3]. In order to
improve tribological properties of titanium alloys previous studies have focused on forming new phases on the alloy
surface with different methods such as thermal oxidation [4]–[6] nitriding [7], [8] boronizing [9], Chemical Vapor
Deposition [10], [11] and Physical Vapor Deposition [12] techniques methods used to improve the surface properties of
titanium alloys.. In addition to these methods, there are studies using Laser and plasma surface treatment methods [13],
[14], [15]. Laser treatment applications could alter the surface properties by supporting the formation of oxide layers
and in some studies surface texturing can be obtained with laser treatment. Surface texturing is another way of
improving contact elements tribology with shallow pores [16] [17]. These pores acts as oil reservoirs and collects worn
particles [18]. Surface texturing with laser treatment both improves the oxide formation and surface properties. For this
reason, in this study a surface texturing is attempted to improve the surface properties of titanium alloys such as laser
treatment. There are studies focused on the pattern of texturing [18] and parameters of laser modification [15]. In this
study the patterns were same for all the samples and the effect of laser modification parameters were changed in order
to improve surface properties. The results shows that surface texturing significantly alters friction and tribological
behaviors of titanium alloys.

2. Experimental Details
In this study, specimens made of Ti6Al4V were used in size of 10×10×10 mm3. Before the laser treatments,
specimen surfaces were prepared to the surface roughness Ra of 0.05. A pulse laser system was used to modify the
specimen surfaces adjusting the parameters such as 20 W power and 20 kHz frequency. Scanning speed was varied from
500 to 1500 mm/s using 100 μm of scanning gaps. The treatments were open to atmosphere to form oxide layers on the
surface. The laser modified surfaces were polished using a 2000 mesh abrasive before the tribological investigations.
Tribological tests were carried out in a ball-on-disk configuration using a 3 mm dimension WC ball for 5000 cycles
under the applied load of 2 N.

3. Results and Discussions

Figure 1 shows the macro-view of laser surface modified specimens with various scanning speeds. From these
images, there is no significant difference among the specimens. However, micro-view images shows the effect of
scanning speed as shown in Figure 2. Difference in scanning speed leads to a change in the surface topography while

233
100 μm of scanning gap is seen as constant for each specimen. Energy input to the specimens increases as the scanning
speed reduces and therefore, melting depth and oxide formation exhibit different behaviors in the specimens. In the
specimen scanned with 500 mm/s, the peaks are higher than that of in the other specimens. This is observed with the
surface roughness measurements since the results are 4.04 µm, 1.88 µm and 1.28 µm for the specimens of 500, 1000
and 1500 mm/s respectively.

Figure 1 Macro-view of laser surface modified specimens

Titanium alloys are highly reactive and thus, more prone to form oxides in open to atmosphere conditions. The oxide
layers on the surface provide a resistance to corrosion and wear for the base material. Oxidation of titanium alloys leads
to the formation of TixOy groups [19]. TiO2 (rutile) is the most predominant oxide group for titanium alloys and heavily
influences the tribological properties of base material. Increasing the temperature such as from 600ºC to 800ºC, the
amount of anatase phase reduces and rutile groups extend within the microstructure. This change results in an enhanced
corrosion and wear resistance in the material [20], [21].

Figure 2 Micro-view of laser surface modified specimens

Figure 3 shows the wear profiles of specimens. From the results, the wear rates are 6.37×10-4, 1.88×10-4, 3.96×10-4
and 5.13×10-4 mm3/N.m for untreated, 500 mm/s, 1000 mm/s and 1500 mm/s specimens respectively. It is clear that
laser surface treatment with the scanning speed of 500 mm/s shows the minimum wear scar among the specimens. Laser
treatment leads to the formation of oxide groups on the specimen surface and these oxides reduce the contact of
specimen and ball in the tribological tests. For this reason, wear rate is reduced in the laser surface treated specimens.
On the other hand, the amount of oxide groups is related to the amount of energy input. In this light, lower scanning
speed, which enables higher rate of energy input to the material, extends the oxide layers in the microstructure and
thereby lowering the wear rate.

Figure 3 Wear scar lengths of materials with different laser scanning speed

234
 Figure 4 shows the coefficient of frictions for each specimens. Based on these results, friction curves exhibit more
stable profiles beyond 3000 laps. The coefficient of frictions are 0.410, 0.289, 0.340 and 0.442 for untreated, 500 mm/s,
1000 mm/s and 1500 mm/s specimens respectively. Hence, laser surface treatments with the scanning speed of 500 and
1000 mm/s show a lowering effect on coefficient of friction however, increasing the scanning speed to 1500 mm/s
increases this parameter.

Figure 4 Coefficient of friction values of materials with different laser scanning speed

4. Conclusions
In the present work, Ti6Al4V specimens were laser surface treated varying the scanning speed. The treatments were
carried out in open to atmosphere conditions to enable the formation of oxide layers on the specimen surfaces.
According to the results, increasing the scanning speed in laser modification reduces the surface roughness of the
specimens. In addition, wear resistance of titanium alloy increases modifying the surfaces with lower scanning speeds
which is related to the formation of oxide groups on the specimen surface. The results exhibit that the laser treatment
with the scanning speed of 500 mm/s gives the better properties among the other conditions.

5. References
1. Ezugwu E.O., Wang, Z.M., “Titanium alloys and their machinability—a review”, J. Mater. Process. Technol., 68,
262–274, 1997.
2. Luo, Y., Jiang, H., Cheng, G., Liu, H., “Effect of Carburization on the Mechanical Properties of Biomedical Grade
Titanium Alloys”, J. Bionic Eng., 8, 86–89, 2011.
3. Celik, O. N., Sert, A., Gasan, H., Ulutan, M., “Effect of cryogenic treatment on the microstructure and the wear
behavior of WC-Co end mills for machining of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy”, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., 95, 2989–
2999, 2018.
4. Wang, S., Liao, Z., Liu, Y., Liu, W., “Influence of thermal oxidation temperature on the microstructural and
tribological behavior of Ti6Al4V alloy”, Surf. Coat. Technol., 240, 470–477, 2014.
5. Jamesh, M., Sankara Narayanan, T. S. N., Chu, P. K., “Thermal oxidation of titanium: Evaluation of corrosion
resistance as a function of cooling rate”, Mater. Chem. Phys., 138, 565–572, 2013.
6. Wang, S., Liu, Y., Zhang, C., Liao, Z., Liu, W., “The improvement of wettability, biotribological behavior and
corrosion resistance of titanium alloy pretreated by thermal oxidation”, Tribol. Int., 79, 174–182, 2014.
7. Mohseni, H., Nandwana, P., Tsoi, A., Banerjee, R., Scharf, T. W., “In situ nitrided titanium alloys: Microstructural
evolution during solidification and wear”, Acta Mater., 83, 61–74, 2015.
8. Li, B., Shen, Y., Hu, W., “Friction-Stir Nitriding of Titanium Alloy Surface Layer”, Mater. Manuf. Process., 29,
493–497, 2014.
9. Atar, E., Kayali, E. S., Cimenoglu, H., “Characteristics and wear performance of borided Ti6Al4V alloy”, Surf. Coat.
Technol., 202, 4583–4590, 2008.
10. Li, Y.S., et al., “CVD nanocrystalline diamond coatings on Ti alloy: A synchrotron-assisted interfacial
investigation”, Mater. Chem. Phys., 134, 145–152, 2012.
11. Askari, S. J., Chen, G. C., Akhtar, F., Lu, F. X.,“Adherent and low friction nano-crystalline diamond film grown on
titanium using microwave CVD plasma”, Diam. Relat. Mater., 17, 294–299, 2008.
12. Ceschini, L.,Lanzoni, E., Martini, C., Prandstraller, D., Sambogna, G., “Comparison of dry sliding friction and wear
of Ti6Al4V alloy treated by plasma electrolytic oxidation and PVD coating”, Wear, vol. 264, no. 1–2, pp. 86–95, Jan.
2008.

235
13. Cassar, G., Banfield, S., Avelar-Batista Wilson, J. C., Housden, J., Matthews, A., Leyland, A., “Micro-abrasion wear
testing of triode plasma diffusion and duplex treated Ti–6Al–4V alloy”, Wear, 274–275, 377–387, 2012.
14. Khorasanian, M., Dehghan, A., Shariat, M. H., Bahrololoom, M. E., Javadpour, S., “Microstructure and wear
resistance of oxide coatings on Ti–6Al–4V produced by plasma electrolytic oxidation in an inexpensive electrolyte”,
Surf. Coat. Technol., 206, 1495–1502, 2011.
15. Vázquez-Martínez, J. M., Salguero, J., Botana, F. J., Contreras, J. P., Fernández-Vidal, S. R., Marcos, M.,
“Metrological Evaluation of the Tribological Behavior of Laser Surface Treated Ti6Al4V Alloy”, Procedia Eng., 63,
752–760, 2013.
16. Wakuda, M., Yamauchi, Y., Kanzaki, S., Yasuda, Y., “Effect of surface texturing on friction reduction between
ceramic and steel materials under lubricated sliding contact”, Wear, 254, 356–363, 2003.
17. Kovalchenko, A., Ajayi, O., Erdemir, A., Fenske, G., “Friction and wear behavior of laser textured surface under
lubricated initial point contact”, Wear, 271, 1719–1725, 2011.
18. Sedlaček, M., Podgornik, B., Ramalho, A., Česnik, D., “Influence of geometry and the sequence of surface texturing
process on tribological properties”, Tribol. Int., 115, 268–273, 2017.
19. Martinez, J.M.V., Francisco, J.B.P., Marta, B.G., Jorge, S.G., Mariano, M.B., “Sliding Wear Behavior of UNS
R56400 Titanium Alloy Samples Thermally Oxidized by Laser", Materials, 10, 830-843, 2017.
20. Aniołek, K., Kupka, M., Barylski, A., “Sliding wear resistance of oxide layers formed on a titanium surface during
thermal oxidation”, Wear, 356–357, 23–29, 2016.
21. Guleryuz, H., Cimenoglu, H., “Oxidation of Ti–6Al–4V alloy”, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 472, 241–246,
2009.

236
TRIBOLOGICAL AND FINITE ELEMENT STUDY ON THE ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF A STEEL SPHERE
AGAINST A DEFORMABLE FLAT MATERIAL

Selim GÜRGEN1), Abdullah SERT2)*

1)
Eskişehir Vocational School, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey
2)
Mechanical Engineering Department, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: The present study considers an elastic contact analysis of a steel sphere with a
deformable flat (mild steel) using finite element analysis. Different loads had been
considered to study the effect of subsurface contact stress. Also all tribological tests were
performed with the same contact loads from 0.5 to 1 N under dry conditions with a rotating
tribometer for up to 50 meters on mild steel. After tribological tests, wear track profile area
and maximum wear depth were suggested. The results clearly shows that for different loads
the material hold different stress values. When this stress values increases the wear track
area and length were also increased.
Keywords: Tribology, Contact stress, Finite element, Load carry capacity.

1. Introduction
Contacted bodies cause stress generation within the bodies and therefore, deformations may be observed in these
bodies. Deformation rate increases with the increase in the contact loads. Tribological properties of materials are also
influenced from the contact loads [1]. For this reason, load carrying capacity is significant for the materials to
understand the material behavior in service life [2]. In order to predict the material behavior in service conditions,
numerical methods are extensively utilized [3]. In the present work, tribological properties of two contacted bodies are
studied using experimental investigations. In addition to this, a numerical model is built to investigate deformations and
stress generations in the materials.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Details
In this study, 12×12×12 mm3 sized mild steel specimens were used after a surface preparation stage. Before the
tribological tests, surface roughness was prepared as 0.03 µm. Figure 1 shows the microstructure of specimen made of
mild steel. A ball-on-disc configuration was used in the tests and a 6 mm diameter hardened steel ball was used as a
counterpart on the specimens. Contact loads were varied from 0.5 to 1 N for the tribological tests with the linear speed
of 8 cm/s and the distance of 50 m. After the tests, wear scars on the specimens were monitored with optic microscopy.
In addition, wear profiles were obtained using a surface profilometre.

Figure 1 Microstructure of mild steel

2.2. Numerical Methods

A finite element software program was used in the numerical analyses. The configuration of the model was built as
given in Figure 2. In order to enhance the accuracy in the simulations, element sizing was enabled in the model.

237
Element size was gradually increased from the contact region to inside of the bodies. The sizing was completed using
eight layers through the thickness of the bodies. A frictional contact was defined between the bodies and the coefficient
of friction was used as 0.46 - 0.56 based on the tribological experiments. The plate was fixed in all directions and a
boundary condition of force loading was applied on the ball acting in normal direction of the plate for three different
force levels.

Figure 2 Numerical model of contacted bodies

3. Results and Discussions

When two non-conforming bodies are contacted each other, a point or a line contact is seen between the bodies and
therefore, infinite stress condition appears in mathematical aspect since the stress is force over the contact area. In 1882,
an analytical method was developed by Heinrich Hertz to give the understanding of contact conditions in terms of
contact types and body deformations based on the studies of elastic contact between two glass lenses. The method was
called Hertzian theory and Hertzian stress was defined as the stress generated within the contacted bodies. Although
contact loads are at quite lower levels, stress in the bodies may be destructive since the contact area is very small in
most of the cases [1].

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 3 Analytical and numerical stress distribution in the contact force of (a) 0.5 N, (b) 0.75 N and (c) 1 N
238
 In the Hertzian stress analysis, analytical and numerical methods were used to predict the contact stress distribution
within the bodies. Figure 3 shows the analytical and numerical stress distributions for each contact force level.
According to the analytical results, maximum Hertzian stresses are obtained as 519.7, 594.9 and 654.8 MPa for the
contact loadings of 0.5, 0.75 and 1 N respectively. As shown in the stress contours, stress distribution expands into the
materials at a distance from the contact surface. Furthermore, stress distribution influences wider area in the cross-
section of the materials as the loading increases in the contact zone. This is also related to the wear performance of
materials at tribological conditions.

Figure 4 Wear scar lengths of mild steel of (a) 0.5 N, (b) 0.75 N and (c) 1 N

Figure 4 shows the wear scars on the specimens for each level of contact loads. From these images, wear scar width
increases as the contact load increases in the tests. The widths were measured as 180.4, 254.2 and 304.5 µm for the
contact loads of 0.5, 0.75 and 1 N respectively. Although the contact load was enhanced by two times from 0.5 to 1 N,
stress formation in the material was increased from 519.7 to 654.8 MPa. This trend was also observed in the numerical
results. This shows that increase in the stress generation in the material triggers the wear rate of mild steel.

Figure 5 Wear scar profile of mild steel of (a) 0.5 N, (b) 0.75 N and (c) 1 N

Figure 5 shows the wear scar profiles for each contact loads in the tests. From the results, increase in the contact
load leads to increase of wear rate and therefore, extended wear scars on the surface. Based on the measurements, wear
section areas are 80, 127 and 230 µm2 for the specimens subjected to 0.5, 0.75 and 1 N contact loads respectively.
Increase in the contact load causes a high temperature contact boundary and therefore, the strength of specimen
gradually reduces by the effect of heat input. It is clear that heat generation in the contact region significantly reduces
the wear resistance of material [4]. In addition to this, wear scar profile is more prone to have sharp peaks and valleys as
contact load increases. Based on the microscopic images, the wear characteristics of mild steel exhibit combined type
wear which includes both abrasive and adhesive failures. Abrasive type wear forms due to the increase in the contact
load whereas adhesive wear dominates the failure due to the heat generation.

239
4. Conclusions
In the present work, mild steel specimens were subjected to tribological test using ball-on-disc configuration.
Contact load was varied from 0.5 to 1 N as a variable parameter. Wear rates and wear scar characteristics were studied
using optic microscopy and surface roughness measurements. In addition, contact stresses were investigated modeling
the system in a numerical software program. From the results, maximum Hertzian stresses are found as 519.7, 594.9 and
654.8 MPa for the specimens subjected to 0.5, 0.75 and 1 N contact loads respectively. It is also seen that wear rate
increases as the contact load is increased in the tribological system. In the wear behavior of mild steel, abrasive and
adhesive types of wear dominate the system because abrasive wear stems from the high level contact stresses and
adhesive wear arises from elevated contact temperatures.

References
1. Gandhi, V.C.S., Ramesh, S., Kumaravelan, R., “Analysis of Elastic-Plastic Contact Performance of Rigid Sphere
Against a Deformable Flat-Effect of Strain Hardness”, American Journal of Applied Sciences, 9, 240-245, 2012.
2. Göncz, P., Potofinik, R., Glodež, S., “Load capacity of a three-row roller slewing bearing raceway” Procedia Eng.
1196-1201, 2011.
3. Kadiric, A., Sayles, R. S., Zhou, X. B., Ioannides, E., “A Numerical Study of the Contact Mechanics and Sub-
Surface Stress Effects Experienced Over a Range of Machined Surface Coatings in Rough Surface Contacts”,
Journal of Tribology, 125, 720-730,2003.
4. Lakshminarayana, V., Balu, P. V., “Influence of Varying Load on Wear Rate and Frictional Resistance of EN-8 Steel
Sliding Against EN-31 Steel”, ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 10, 5655-5658, 2015.

240
 Tribocorrosion Behavior of Electroless Ni-P/Ni-B Duplex Coating on
AA7075 Aluminum Alloy

Harun Mindivan1
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, Bilecik Seyh Edebali University, Bilecik, Turkey
[email protected]

Tribocorrosion tests have been conducted on samples of AA7075 aluminum alloy with and
without the application of electroless Ni–P/Ni-B duplex coating with a thickness of 43 m.
Tribocorrosion tests were performed under open circuit potential, as well as under potentiodynamic
polarization using a reciprocating ball-on-plate tribometer. Experimental results showed that upper Ni-
B coating deposited on the surface of first Ni-P layer by duplex treatment exhibited superior hardness,
and tribocorrosion performance as compared to the AA7075 aluminum alloy.
Keywords: AA7075 aluminum alloy, electroless Ni-P/Ni-B duplex coating, tribocorrosion.

REFERENCES

[1] J. Sun, L. Weng, Q. Xue, “Duplex treatment for surface improvement of 2024 Al”, Vacuum, 62,
pp.337-343, 2001.
[2] F. Delaunois, P. Lienard, “Heat treatments for electroless nickel–boron plating on aluminium alloys”,
Surface and Coatings Technology 160, pp. 239–248, 2002.
[3] C. Subramanian, K. Palaniradja, “Effect of Surfactant on the Electroless Ni-P/Ni-B Duplex Coatings on
Aluminium 7075”, International Journal of Metallurgical Engineering, 4(2), pp.25-32, 2015.

241
 Characterization of the Friction and Wear Effects of Graphene
Nanoparticles in Oil on the Ring/Cylinder Liner of Internal Combustion
Engine

elman Demirtaş1, Hakan Kaleli2, Mahdi Khadem3,4,Dae-Eun Kim3,4

S

1 YILDIZ Technical University, Mechanical Faculty, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Energy Division, Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]
2 YILDIZ Technical University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Automotive Division,
Istanbul 34349, TURKEY
[email protected]
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
[email protected]
4 Center for Nano-Wear, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
[email protected]

In this study, the tribological characteristics of a Napier-type second piston ring against
a cylinder liner in the presence of graphene nano-additives mixed into 5W40 fully synthetic
engine oil was investigated. Wear tests were carried out in the boundary lubrication condition
using a reciprocating tribometer and real engine tests were performed using a single spark
ignition Honda GX 270 test engine for duration of 75 hours. The experimental results of the
tribometer tests revealed that the nano-additives formed a layer on the rubbed surfaces of both
the piston ring and the cylinder liner. However, this layer was only formed at the top dead
center (TDC) of the cylinder liner during the engine tests. The accumulation of carbon (C)
from the graphene was heavily detected on the rubbed surface of piston ring/cylinder liner,
mixed with other additive elements such as Ca, Zn, S, Zn, and P. Overall, the use of graphene
nano-additives in engine oil was found to improve the frictional behavior in the boundary and
mixed lubrication regimes. Abrasive wear was found to be the main mechanism occurring on
the surface of both piston rings and cylinder liners.
Keywords: Friction, wear, graphene nanoparticles, piston ring, engine test, lubrication

REFERENCES

[1] Usman A, Park C W. Transient lubrication of piston compression ring during cold start-up of SI engine.
International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology (IJPEM-GT) 3:
81-90 (2016).
[2] Kim H J, Seo K J, Kang K H, Kim D E. Nano-Lubrication: A Review. International Journal of
Precision Engineering and Manufacturing (IJPEM) 17: 829-841 (2016).

242
[3] Khadem M, Penkov O V, Pukha V E, Maleyev M V, Kim D E. Ultra-thin carbon-based nanocomposite
coatings for superior wear resistance under lubrication with nano-diamond additives. RSC Advances 6:
56918–56929 (2016).
[4] Holmberg K, Anderson P, Erdemir A. Global energy consumption due to friction in passenger cars.
Tribology International 47: 221–234 (2012).
[5] Khadem M, Penkov O V, Pukha V E, Maleyev M V, Kim D E. Ultra-thin nano-patterned wear-
protective diamond-like carbon coatings deposited on glass using a C60 ion beam. Carbon 80: 534-543
(2014)

243
 APPLICATIONS OF CUTTING FLUIDS ON MACHINING

Murat KIYAK

Mechanical Faculty, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yıldız Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]

Abstract: In the last decades a lot has been discussed about the suitability of using cutting fluid to cooling and lubricate
machining processes. The use of cutting fluid generally causes economy of tools and it becomes easier to keep tight
tolerances and to maintain workpiece surface properties without damages. There are various advantages of cutting
fluid application as increasing tool life, decreasing machining times and improving surface quality. However, there are
some disadvantages of cutting fluid as high costs relating storages, preparation, filtration and recycling, pollution
harmful to environment. In the other hand, it brings also some problems, like fluid residuals and human diseases.
Because of environmental and health problem some alternatives has been sought to minimize of cutting fluid in
machining operations. Various methods such as spray application, MQL, dry machining and internally cooled have
been offered in machining processes. However, there are also situations where cutting fluid must be used, such as gear
making, broaching and honing. Therefore, topics like kinds and methods of applications of modern cutting fluids and
what are new in this area will unavoidably are considered.

The results of investigations on the development and use of methods of applying cutting fluids were given in this paper.

Keywords: Cutting Fluid, Machining, Environmental and Health.

1. Introduction
Machining is a material removal process, in which a sharp cutting tool is generally used to mechanically cut material
to produce a desired geometrical part. Machining is applied to achieve the desired geometry, tolerances and surface
quality on the workpieces. Machining provides important advantages in a short time and economically such geometric
dimensioning, tolerance and surface quality. Machining is the most commonly used process in manufacturing. It is able to
produce a very good surface finish with high precision and accuracy.

Heat is generated during machining operations as known. Thermal damage and wear on the cutting tool
continuously increases and this leads to shorter tool life. Moreover, the wear on cutting tool causes to poor surface
quality on workpiece. The rate of tool wear strongly depends on the cutting temperature, therefore, any measures which
could be applied to reduce the cutting temperature would reduce the tool wear as well. Figure 1 shows the parameters
that influence the rate of tool wear [1].

Fig. 1. Cutting tool wear as a function of basic process parameters [1]

244
 The energy dissipated in cutting operations is largely converted into heat, raising the temperature of chip, tool, and
workpiece. The cutting fluid, if used, is an excellent heat sink. There are three sources (Fig. 2) for heat development:
1. the shear process itself.
2. the tool-chip interface friction.
3. the flank of the tool rubbing the workpiece

Figure 2. Typical wear pattern in cutting tool

Most of the heat produced is carried by the chip implying that the shear process (plastic deformation) is most effective
in producing heat. Cutting fluids are used to remove negative effects of heat. Figure 3 shows that tool wear is affected by
cutting temperature depending on the time.

Figure 3. Tool wear variation with respect to time.

Cutting fluids are employed to minimize influence of heat on cutting tool. There are various advantages of cutting
fluids as increasing tool life and improving workpiece surface quality. Besides of these there are some disadvantages as
follows, pollution harmful to environment and health problems. Nowadays, many approaches are presented to solve the
problems of cutting fluid in cutting process. Various methods such as MQL or internally cooled cutting tools have been
offered as an alternative methods in machining operations.

2. Cutting Fluids
Cutting fluids have been using in machining operations to lubricate the chip-tool and tool-workpiece interfaces,
remove heat from the workpiece and cutting zone, flush away chips from the cutting area, and inhibit corrosion [2].

The global lubricant demand was 39.4 million tons in 2015 and it is expected to reach 43.9 million tons in 2022. The
industrial lubricant market can be segmented into several categories taking into account their applications. Some of the
most used lubricants are gear oils, hydraulic lubricants and engine oils. Cutting fluids represent about 5% of the global
lubricant market, with Asia as the largest consumer. Approximately, 85% of the cutting fluids used are mineral based.
However, the estimated values deviate significantly because of the processes diversity [3]

Cutting fluids are widely used in machining processes. The advantages and disadvantages of cutting fluids are given in
Table 1. The main cutting fluid roles are cooling, reducing friction, removing metal particles, and protecting the
workpiece, the tool and the machine tool from corrosion. However, the use of cutting fluids has also associated some
disadvantages such as their cost, environmental impact and health hazards to workers. In machining processes,
sustainable manufacturing can be addressed for example, by reducing the consume of electric energy, improving the tool
life and the surface quality of the workpiece. The main alternatives include dry machining, minimum quantity lubrication
(MQL), cryogenic cooling, gaseous cooling and nano-fluids [3].

245
 Table 1. Cutting fluids advantages and disadvantages in machining operations[3].
Advantages Disadvantages
Increase tool life Cost related to cutting fluid purchase, storage,
maintenance, waste fluid disposal
Lower cutting forces and power required As time passes it can cause workpiece and machine tool
damages due to a bad maintenance
Higher cutting speeds and feeds rates Environmental impact
Reduce post-process heat treatments Worker health hazards
Better workpiece quality

Cutting fluids reduce the heat, wash away the chips, and protect the machined surface from oxidation. It is a coolant as
well as a lubricant. The mechanism of cutting fluid action involves capillary action in which case the fluid should have
small molecules and proper wetting of the surface. The cutting fluids are applied in flood or in mist conditions. Flood
cooling is applied on gear making, broaching, honing and drilling in generally. Mist cooling is applied in grinding and
turning. Selection of the cutting fluid depends on the workpiece, on the machine tool and on the operator safety [4].

However conventional cutting fluids growing public health concern worldwide and following this issues, in 2008,
Aggarwal et al. [5] have written the following limitations towards conventional cutting fluids:
 Environmental pollution due to chemical dissolition of cutting fluid.
 Biological problems as skin problems and respiratory problems when come in physical contact with the cutting
fluid.
 Contamination of water and soil pollution during disposal.
 The need for additional floor space and additional system for pumping, storage, refining, recycling, cooling, etc.
 Increase of the cost of disposal of cutting fluids.

3. Types Of Cutting Fluid

The modern lubricants are most often the products of the petroleum chemistry. By the physical state, lubricants (Fig.
4) can be divided into liquids, solids, gaseous and also plastics. Among these, liquid lubricants are the most widely used.
Liquid lubricants can be classified based on their origins [6, 8].

Figure 4. Classification of cutting fluids [7]

1. Straight oils
Straight oil is made up from entirely mineral oil or vegetable oils and is used primarily for operations where
lubrication is required. Although being excellent lubricating oil, their heat transfer capabilities exhibit very low. Mineral
oil, which is highly flammable, has low efficiency at high cutting speed and relatively high cost.

2. Soluble oils
Soluble oil is a mixture of oil and water and has increased cooling capacity than straight oil and provided rust
protection. This type water-based cutting fluids is suitable for turning, milling and grinding process. In addition, water-
based cutting fluids reduce the effect of heat generated by tool wear.

3. Semi-synthetics
It contains inorganic material or other water-soluble compounds. Adding emulsified oil in synthetic cutting fluid
results in semi-synthetic fluids that have properties combined. It is also better than soluble oil, but tarnishes easily when
exposed to other machine fluids and can cause dermatitis risk to workers.
4. Synthetics
246
 Synthetic oils are a chemical liquid containing inorganic or other chemical that are soluble in large quantity of water
and offer superior cooling performance. Synthetic lubricants were not initially favored due to their high cost of
production. However, as time passes synthetic oils have gained more attention and applications. Synthetic oils can be used
for more specific and high performances applications such as operating at extreme temperatures. Synthetic oils include
synthetic hydrocarbons such as polyalkylene glycol, various esters and polyalphaolefins. The cutting fluids properties are
given in Table 2. Regarding towards to green manufacturing, biodegradable lubricant plays important role.

Table 2. Cutting fluids properties [3, 7]

Straight oils Emulsions Semi-synthetic Synthetic
Aspect Oily Milky Translucent Transparent
Lubricity Excelent Good Good Poor
Cooling Poor Good Good Good/ Excellent
Chip removal Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Corrosion control Excellent Poor Good Good
Microbial control Excellent Poor Good Excellent
Fire Hazard Non-flammable Non-flammable Non-flammable
Other Easily contaminated
Limited to low-speed Evaporation losses Hard water influence
disadvantages by other processing
operation create mist foam tendencies foam tendencies
fluids

4. Cooling Techniques
The application types of cutting fluids are given in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Cooling techniques

1. Flooded (wet) cooling
Flood (wet) cooling is a technique in which cooling jet aimed at the active zone for cooling, lubricating and get rid of
chips produced during machining. This method is suitable for the cutting processes in which excess heat energy is
produced.
2. Dry machining
Dry cutting is a process without the use of any cutting fluid during machining.
3. Minimum quantity lubricant (MQL)
Small quantities of cutting fluid is injected with an air pressure in the form of fine droplets at high velocity into the
cutting zone.
4. Cryogenic cooling
Cryogenics cooling is the use of gases in minus temperatures. Liquid nitrogen and carbon dioxide are widely used in
cryogenic cooling.
5. High pressure cooling (HPC)
Coolant jets are used with very high pressures which around 100–1000 bar in this system. The coolant jet is directed at
very high pressure exactly on the rake face of the cutting tool.
6. Nano-fluid
Nano-fluids are defined as colloidal suspensions of nano-particles in a base fluid and these suspended metallic or

247
nonmetallic nano-particles change the transport properties and heat transfer characteristics of the base fluid
Figure 6 illustrates the relative percentage of oil, water, and additives found in water-soluble metalworking fluids.

Figure 6. Relative proportion of water, oil and additives in water-soluble metalworking fluids[9].

Table 3. Presents a qualitative estimation of the environmental impact of various lubricant/cooling systems used in the
machining taking into account [3].

Table 3. Qualitative estimation of cooling environmental impact [3].

Residue Dangerous Mist and Workers healt
subtances emissions hazards
Cutting fluid ***** **** ***** *****
Dry machining * * * *
MQL ** ** *** ***
Cryogenic cooling * * ** *
Gaseus cooling * * * *
Nanofluids **** Unknown **** Unknown
(*) Very low, (**) Low, (***) Medium, (****) High, (*****) Very high

The purposes of cutting fluid in machining operations are to cool the workpiece and tool, reduce friction and through
away the chips. The cutting fluid contributes significantly toward machining cost and also possesses environmental
threats. There are some attempts to minimize the amount of cutting fluid in machining. The cost effect of different cutting
fluids is given in Table 4.
The tangible cost factors to be considered include: initial cost per liter, mix cost, production rates, tool life, overheads,
part cleaning costs, machining cost per piece, cutting fluid life, scrap caused by rusting, rework costs due to rust, cost of
fluid disposal. The intangible cost factors include: cleanliness of machines and the workshop, operator satisfaction and
hygiene, smoke problems, work accuracy, ease of handling and viewing parts, adaptability to different jobs, safety, fire
hazard, and disposability.

Table 4. Qualitative estimation of cooling system costs. [3]

Fluid Equipment Cleaning Disposal cost
consumption cost cost
Cutting fluid ***** **** ***** *****
Dry machining * * * *
MQL ** *** ** **
Cryogenic cooling *** ***** * *
Gaseus cooling *** **** **** ***
Nanofluids **** **** **** *****
(*) Very low, (**) Low, (***) Medium, (****) High, (*****) Very high

Dry cutting is easy and cost-effective. However, cryogenic and nanofluid applications are difficult and expensive. The
effect of sustainability of the cutting fluids versus cost is given in fig 7. Sometimes the cutting fluid costs are more than
twice (fig 8) the tool-related costs[10, 11].

248
 Figure 7. Cost of cooling system in machining as a function of sustainability [3]

Figure 8. Cost of cutting fluid versus other cost. [10]

5. Results And Conclusions

Cutting fluids play an important role on machining operations. However, they use have some drawbacks such as
their negative effects over the environment and workers health as by costs associated such as the equipment, fluids
purchase and waste fluid treatment. Conventionally, mineral oils were used as cutting fluids. However, the mineral oils
cooling capacity is limited and therefore soluble oils were seen as a good alternative. Nevertheless, soluble oils contain
water which is susceptible to bacterial attack. Synthetic lubricants are superior in many regards, but cost is higher. The
alternative techniques such as MQL, cryogenic, gaseous cooling and nano-fluids have been implementing in some
machining processes, even may become more efficient than conventional cooling. The best environmental alternative is
dry machining since completely removes the cutting fluid and ensures a clean atmosphere and workers safety, though it
has many application limitations. However, there are still applications where cutting fluids cannot be removed such as
gear making, broaching.

6. References
1. http://me.emu.edu.tr/me364/ME364_cutting_wear.pdf
2. Adler D. P., Hii W.W.S, “Examining the Role of Cutting Fluids in Machining and Efforts to Address Associated
Environmental/Health Concerns”, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Engineering Mechanics Sustainable
Futures Institute, Michigan Technological University
3. Benedicto E., Carou D., Rubio E.M., “Technical, Economic and Environmental Review of the Lubrication/Cooling
Systems used in Machining Processes”, Proc.Eng., V.184, (2017), pp. 99-116
4. http://www.public.iastate.edu/~mebbs/courses/ME322/Machining.html
5. Aggarwal A., Singh H., Kumar P., Singh M., “Optimization of Multiple Quality Characteristics for CNC Turning
under Cryogenic Cutting Environment Using Desirability Function”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, V.
205, (2008), pp. 42–50
6. Osama M., Singh A., Walvekar R., Khalid M., Gupta T.C.S.M., Yin W.W, “Recent developments and performance
review of metal working fluids”, Tribology International 114 (2017) 389–401
7. Wank Z., “The Correlation Between the Penetration Force of Cutting Fluid and Machining Stability”, A Thesis of the
Degree of Master of Science, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, May 2010
8. Liew P.J., Shaaroni A., Sidik N.A.C., Yan J., “An overview of current status of cutting fluids and cooling techniques of
turning hard steel”, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 114 (2017) 380–394
9. Steven J. Skerlos, “Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing at the Machine Tool”, The University of Michigan, V1,
December 15, 2006
10. http://www.zet-chemie.de/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/1_Info_Kuehlschmierstoffe_in_der_
Metallbearbeitung_englisch.pdf
11. Astakhov V.P., “Ecological Machining: Near-Dry Machining. In: Davim JP (ed) Machining: Fundamentals and Recent
Advances” 2008, Springer, London

249
 Comparison between Selection Methods of Genetic Algorithm used in
Scheduling Problems (FSP)

Hani A. Al-Rawashdeh
AL-Hussein Bin Talal University / Faculty of Engineering / Mechanical Engineering Department

Abstract

The primary objective of flow shop scheduling problems (FSP) is to obtain the best
sequence which optimizes one or more of the following objectives: makespan, total flow
time, total tardiness, or number of tardy jobs,… etc. Due to the combinatorial nature of the
permutation problem, there is a lot of artificial intelligence methods proposed to solve it.
The Genetic Algorithm (GA), one of these methods, is considered a valuable search
algorithm capable of finding a reasonable solution in a short computational time. In this
paper, we compare between the selection methods for GA used in solving the scheduling
problems (FSP). Six types of selections methods discussed here.

Keywords: Selection Methods; Scheduling Problems; Flow Shop Scheduling Problems;

Genetic Algorithm; makespan.

250
 Tribotest of Engine Piston Ring/Cylinder Liner Pairs With Different
Nanoparticles Added into Engine Oil
eSlman Demirtaş1, Hakan Kaleli2
1 YILDIZ Technical University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Automotive Division,
Istanbul 34349, TURKEY,
[email protected]
2 YILDIZ Technical University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Automotive Division,
Istanbul 34349, TURKEY
[email protected]

Wear on internal combustion engines is a loss of material that occurs with the rubbing of the materials
in contact with each other and significantly reduces the economical life of the engine. Even, the
smallest precaution that can be taken to prevent friction and wear in the engines, can provide
economical savings in very large quantities. In this study, real piston ring-cylinder specimens were
tested with reciprocating tribometer using 6 different nanoparticles added engine oil to investigate
their wear and friction behavior. The tests have been carried out under under boundary and mixed
lubrication conditions at 100°C. According to the results, it has been found that the best results are
given by TiO2 and SWCN nanoparticles related to the BN 50mg-10mL, MWCN an graphene
nanoparticles added to the engine oil, respectively. At the end of the tests, different wear mechanisms
has been determined after the surface analyzes on the piston ring and cylinder surface and abrasive
wear has been observed as the main wear mechanism.

REFERENCES

[1] A. Beel, M. Gottschalk, A. Huetten, K. Toensing, D. Anselmetti,, “Tribological Performance of TiO2-

Nanostructured Particles as Oil-Lubricant Additives for Different Iron-Carbon Alloys,” Materials
Today: Proceedings, Volume 4, Supplement 2, pp. S75-S80, 2017.
[2] W. Dai, B. Kheireddin, H. Gao, H. Liang, “Roles of nanoparticles in oil lubrication”, Tribology
International., vol. 102, pp.88-98, 2016.
[3] G. Vakili-Nezhaad, A. Dorany, “Effect of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube on the Viscosity of
Lubricants,” Energy Procedia, vol. 14, 2012
[4] M. Laad, V. Kumar S. Jatti,, “Titanium oxide nanoparticles as additives in engine oil,” Journal of King
Saud University - Engineering Sciences. Volume 30, Issue 2, 2018
[5] R. Dinesh, M.J. Giri Prasad, R. Rishi Kumar, N. Jerome Santharaj, J. Santhip, A.S. Abhishek Raaj,
“Investigation of Tribological and Thermophysical Properties of Engine Oil Containing Nano
additives,” Materials Today: Proceedings., Volume 3, Issue 1, Pages 45-53, 2016

251