INTRODUCTION OF PHYSICS AND MEASUREMENTS

I. OBJECTIVES

1. To cite the important role of physics in the modern world,

2. To be able to distinguish standard units and systems of units;
3. To be able to(a) describe SI, and (b) specify the references for the three main
base quantities of this system.
4. To be able to use common (a) metric prefixes and (b) non standard metric
units.

II. KEY/CONCEPTS

PHYSICS
Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you. You may think
of physics as a burden — an obligation placed on you in school, mostly to be nasty — but it isn’t
like that.
Physics is a study that you undertake naturally from the moment you open your eyes.
Nothing falls beyond the scope of physics; it’s an all-encompassing science. You can study
various aspects of the natural world, and, accordingly, you can study different fields in physics:
the physics of objects in motion, of forces, of electricity, of magnetism, of what happens when
you start going nearly as fast as the speed of light, and so on. You enjoy the study of all these
topics and many more in this manual.
Physics has been around as long as people have tried to make sense of their world. The
word “physics” is derived from the Greek word “phusis,” which means “nature”.
Physics has commonly been divided into mechanics, heat, sound, optics, electricity and
magnetism, atomic and nuclear physics. Mechanics is concerned with the position (statics) and
motion (dynamics) of matter space. Heat deals with temperature scales and measurement, the
concept of heat matter transfer and thermodynamics which concerned mainly with the
relationship between work and heat. Sound- is concerned with vibrations and waves and with
their recording and transmission and perception, as in music and speech. Optics is concerned
with the nature and propagation of light, including the refraction that occurs when light passes
through prisms and lenses. Electricity and Magnetism deals with still other aspects of matter and
space in which the key concepts are electric charge and current. Atomic and Nuclear physics
deals with the study of radiation, photoelectric effect, x-ray, structure of the atom, radioactivity,
nuclear disintegration and other properties of nuclei.

MEASUREMENT AND UNITS

Measurement is important to all of us. It is one of the concrete ways in which we deal
with our world. This is particularly true in physics. Physics is concerned with the description and
understanding of nature and measurement is one of the most important tools.
Measurements are expressed in unit values, or units. As you are probably aware, a large
variety of units are used to express measured values. Some of the earliest units of measurement,
such as foot, were originally referenced to parts of the human body. If a unit becomes officially
accepted, it is called a standard unit.

1
 A group of standard unit and their combinations is called a system of units. Two major
systems of units are in use today—the metric system and the British system. The latter is still
widely used in the United States but is gradually being phased out in favor of the metric system,
which is used throughout the world.

SYSTEM OF UNITS
Metric
Quantity SI English British Absolute
Gravitational
Length m ft ft m
Mass kg slug lb Kg.s2/m
Time s s s s
Weight N pound poundal kg
Energy J ft-lb ft-poundal kg.m

PREFIXES FOR SI UNITS:

Prefix Abbreviation Multiplier Prefix Abbreviation Multiplier
Yotta Y 1024 centi c 10-2
Zetta Z 1021 milli m 10-3
Exa E 1018 micro µ 10-6
Peta P 1015 nano n 10-9
Tera T 1012 pico p 10-¹²
Giga G 10⁹ femto f 10-15
Mega M 10⁶ atto a 10-18
Kilo K 10³ zepto z 10-21
Deca D 10 2 yocto y 10-24
deci d 10-1

CONVERSION FACTORS IN METRIC UNITS

1m = 10-3 km=10² cm=10³ mm=10⁶ μm=10⁹ nm

LENGHT 1μm=10-6 m=10-4 cm=10-3 mm=103 nm
1nm=10-9 m=10-7 cm=10-⁶ mm
AREA 1m2=10-6 km²=104 cm2=106 mm²
1m³=10-9 km³=10³ L (liters)=10 cm³
VOLUME
1L= 10³ ml=10 cm³=10-3 m³
1°=1.747 x10-2 radian=2.78x10-3 revolution
ANGULAR
1radian= 57.3° =1.59x10-¹ revolution
1kg=10³ g=106 mg = 109µg
MASS
1μg=106 g=10-2 mg
TIME 1hr= 60min = 3.6x10³ s
1km/hr = 103 m/hr =16.7 m/min =2.78 x10-1 m/s= 1m/s = 10-3
VELOCITY
km/s=3.6 km/hr = 10 cm/s
ACCELERATION 1cm/s2=10-2 m/s2=10-5km/s2
1km/hr/s=103m/hr/s =10 km/hr/s =2.78 x10-1m/s2= 2.78 x10mm/s2

2
 1atm = 760 mmHg =1.013 x 105 N/m2 =1.013 x 10⁵ kPa
1N/m2 =10 dyes/cm2 =9.87 x10-⁶ atm =1 Pa= 10-3 kPa= 7.50x 10-4
PRESSURE
mm Hg
1joule = 2.39 x 10-1 cal= 2.39x10-4 kcal=2.78 x 10-7kw-hr=
6.25 x1018 ev
ENERGY
1cal= 10-3 kcal= 4.19 joules = 1.16 x10- 6 kw-hr
⁶

CONVERSION EQUIVALENTS:
1meter(m)=39.37 in=3.281 ft=0.0006214mile(mi)
1 inch(in)=0.0254 m; 1 ft=0.3048 m; 1 mile=1609 m; 1 nautical
LENGTH
mile=1852 m=1.1508 mi=6076.10 ft; 1 angstrom(A)=10-10m;
1 mil=10-3in; 1 rod=16.5 ft; 1 fathom=6 ft
1 m2=10.76 ft2=1550 in2; 1 hectare(ha)=104 m2=2.471 acres;
AREA 1 ft2=929 cm2; 1 in2=6.452 cm2=1.273x106 circular mils(CM);
1 acre=43560 ft2
1m3=35.31ft3=6.102x104in3;1 ft3=.02832 m3; 1U.S. gallon=231 in3;
VOLUME
1liter=1.000028x10-3 m3=61.02 in3
TIME & 1 year(yr)=365.2422 days=8.766 x103 hours=5.259 x 105min;
FREQUENCY 1hertz(Hz)=1cycle/sec`
1 kg=2.205 pounds(lbm)=0.06852 slug; 1lbm=0.4536 kg= 0.03108
MASS
slug; 1 slug=32.17 lbm=14.59 kg
1m/s=3.281 ft/s=3.6 km/h=2.237 mi/h=1944 knots;
SPEED 1km/h=0.2778m/s=0.9113ft/s=0.6214mi/h
1mi/h=1.467ft/s=1.609 km/h=0.8689 knot
1g/cm3=1000kg/m3=62.43lbm/ft3=1.940 slug/ft3; 1lbm/ft3=0.03108
DENSITY
slug/ft3=16.02kg/m3=0.01602 g/cm3
1 Newton(N)=105dynes=0.1020 kg wt.=0.2248 lb;
FORCE
1lbf=4.448N=0.4536 kg wt=32.17 poundals
1N/m2=9.869 x 10-6atmosphere(atm)=1.450x10-4lb/in2=0.02089
lb/ft2=7.501 x 10-4cm Hg=4.015 x 10-3in of water=10-5bar
PRESSURE 1lb/in2(psi)=144lf/ft2=6895 N/m2=5.171 cm Hg=27.68 in of water
1atm=406.8 in of water=76 cm of Hg=1.013 x 105N/m2=10330 kg
wt/m2=2116 lb/ft2=14.70 lb/in2=760 torr
1 joule(J)=0.2389 calories(cal)=9.481 x 10-4Btu=0.7376 ft-
lb=107ergs=6.242 x 1018eV
WORK, ENERGY,
1kcal=4816 joules=3.968 Btu=3087ft-lb
& HEAT
1eV=1.602x106 J; 1 unified amu=931.48 MeV
1kW-h=3.6x106 J=3413 Btu=860.1 Kcal=1.341 hp-h
1hp=2545Btu/h=550ft-lb/s=745.7 watts=0.1782 cal/s
POWER
1watt=2.389 x 10-4kcal/s=1.341 x 10-3hp=0.7376ft-lb/s
ELECTRIC
1 faraday=96487 coulombs(C) ; 1 electron charge-1.602 x 10-19C
CHARGE
MAGNETIC FLUX 1 weber(W)=108 maxwells=108 lines
MAGNETIC
1 tesla(T)= 1N/amp-m=1weber/m2=10000 gauss(G)=109gamma
INTENSITY

3
UNIT CONVERSIONS:
The following procedure is used in unit conversion:
1) Define each units appearing in the quantity to be converted term of the desired units.
2) For each definition, form a conversion factor that will cancel all but the desired units when
they are multiplied by the quantity to be converted.

Sample Problem
Do the following unit conversions: (a) a length of 15 meters to feet, (b) a month with 30 days to
seconds, (c) 50 miles / hr to meters/second, (d) 1.28 lb/in2 to g/cm2, (e) 19.3 ft3/h to m3/s
.

4
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
In some branches of physics we deal with either very small or very large numbers, and it is
considerable help if we can express these numbers in an abbreviated form such as the velocity of
light 30,000,000,000 cm/s, mass of electron 0.000000000000000000000000000000911 kg and
Avogadro’s number 602000000000000000000 molecules/mole.
To write these quantities in the form given is cumbersome, space consuming, and frustrating at
times. As a remedy, abbreviations in powers of ten are used according to the scheme given
below.

Number Power of 10
0.000000000001 10-12
0.000000001 10-9
0.000001 10-6
0.001 10-3
0.01 10-2
0.1 10-1
10 101
100 102
1000 103
1 000 000 106
1000 000 000 109
1000 000 000 000 1012

This method of writing numbers is known as scientific notation. Besides saving time, space, and
mental effort, this method reduces the probability of committing errors in computations.
Multiplication and division of numbers involving powers of ten is also convenient, since it
becomes a mere process of addition and subtraction. When multiplying, the exponents are added;
and when dividing, the exponent of the denominator is subtracted from that of the numerator.

5
 VECTORS

I. OBJECTIVES:

1. To be able to distinguish vector and scalar quantities:

2. To be able to add and subtract vectors (a) graphically and (b) analytically

II. KEY/CONCEPTS:

SCALARS AND VECTORS

Physical quantities may be classified into two categories: scalars and vectors. Scalars are
those quantities which are completely specified by their magnitude, expressed in some
convenient unit. Examples of scalar quantities are length, mass, area, volume, time, and density.
Scalar quantities are easy to handle since they can be manipulated by the ordinary laws of
algebra.
Vector quantities are those which require, for their complete specification, both magnitude
and direction. Examples of vector quantities are displacement, force, velocity, acceleration, and
momentum. The direction is just as important as the magnitude when we specify these quantities.
A vector quantity can be represented graphically by a vector which is a line segment with
an arrow. The length of the vector represents to scale the magnitude of the vector. The sense of
direction of the vector quantity is indicated by the arrow.
Vectors may be added either graphically or analytically. The graphical method is also
known as the geometrical method and requires no computation. Addition of vectors is equivalent
to composition of vectors, and the sum of vectors is the resultant of the vectors.
There are two graphical methods of finding the geometric sum of vectors. Polygon
method is the most useful since it can be readily applied to more than two vectors.
Parallelogram method is useful for addition of two vectors at a time.

The polygon method can be summarized as follows:

1) Choose a scale and determine the length of arrows which correspond to each vector.
2) Draw to scale an arrow representing the magnitude and direction of the first vector.
3) Draw the arrow of the second vector so that its tail is joined to the tip of the first vector.
4) Continue the process of joining tail to tip until the magnitude and direction of all vectors
have been represented.
5) Draw the resultant vector with its tails in the origin (starting point) and its tip joined to the
tip of the last vectors.
6) Measure with ruler and protractor to determine the magnitude and direction of the
resultant.

Sample problem # 1

6
 A ship travels 100 miles due north on the first day of a journey, 60 miles northeast on the
second day, and 120 miles due east on the third day. Find the resultant displacement by the
polygon method. Scale: 20 miles = 1cm

Sample problem #2
A team of surveyors marks off distances represented by the vectors: D1=80 m, 600; D2=40 m, 00,
and D3=20 m, 3300. Use the polygon method of vector addition to determine the resultant.
Scale:10 m=1 cm

7
The parallelogram method, which is useful for only two vectors at a time, consists in drawing
these vectors to scale with their tails at a common point. The two arrows then form two adjoining
sides of a parallelogram. The other two sides are constructed by drawing parallel lines of equal
length. The resultant is represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram included between the
two vector arrows.

Sample problem:
A rope is wrapped around a telephone pole, making an angle of 1200. If one end is pulled with
a force of 200 N and the other with a force of 100 N, what is the resultant force on the telephone
pole? Scale: 25 N=1 cm..

An analytical method of finding the sum of two vectors requires the application of trigonometry.

R 
R
F2
FY
 


F1

FX R2=F12+F22 - 2F1F2cos 

R= Fx2 + FY2 Sin  = Sin  = Sin 

F1 R F2
Tan  = FY/FX

Sample Problem#1
8
 A 120-N force and a 55-N force both act on the same object at point P. The 120-N force acts at
0 . The 55-N force acts 900. What is the magnitude and direction of the resultant force? Use
0

graphical and analytical methods. Scale: 1N=2mm.

Sample Problem #2
A car travels 9.0 km east and then 6.0 km 300 north of east. Find the displacement (a)
graphically. Scale: 2km=1cm, (b) analytically.

FORCE AND ITS VECTOR REPRESENTATION

9
 A push or a pull on a body is called a force. From our everyday experience with the
application of forces on objects, we also know that it has both magnitude and direction, and is
therefore a vector quantity. Probably the most familiar force is the force of gravitational
attraction exerted on everybody by the earth. This force is called the weight of the body. The SI
unit of force is Newton (N) while the English unit of force is pounds (lb).

Two of the measurable effects produce by force are:

1. Changing the dimensions or a shape of a body.
2. Changing a body's motion.
Since in the first case there is no resultant displacement of the body, the push or pull causing the
change in shape is called a static force. If a force changes the motion of a body, it is called a
dynamic force. F

Fy

Fx

_________________________ _________________________

Fy
F
Fx

RESULTANT OR VECTOR SUM:

Ordinarily, a body is acted on simultaneously by a number of forces having different
magnitudes, directions, and points of application. This section discussed the single effect
produced by two or more simultaneous forces. Coplanar forces are any forces which act in the
same plane and thus can be completely specified by two coordinates. Concurrent forces are
forces which intersect at a common point or have the same point of application. A resultant force
is a single force whose effect is the same as that of a given set of concurrent or coplanar forces.

γ
Fy R R
F2
Ө

Ө β α
Fx F1

10
R=√Fx2 + Fy2
R2=F12 + F22 - 2F1F2 cos β
R2=F1+F2 + 2F1F2 cos β
Tan Ө= Fy/Fx
Sin Ө = Sin β = Sin γ
F2 R F1
COMPONENTS OF A FORCE
In the composition of forces, we try to find a single force which is equivalent to two or more
given forces. The reverse can be done; given a force we can find two or more forces which when
added together, gives back the original force. The effective values of a force in directions other
than that of the force itself is known as components of a force

Sample problem

A force of 10 N. acts in a direction 30o above the horizontal. Find its x and y components (a)
graphically and (b) analytically. Scale: 5 N=1inch

The sign of a given component can be determined from a vector diagram.

o o
90 F 90

F
Fy
Fy
`  
F
Fx o Fxx
0
F
180o x o
360
180
Fx o

Quadrant I (between
 
o
0 to 90 )o
Quadrant
Fy II (between
F
F Fy x
Fx and Fy are bothx 90 to 180o)
o
360
180o Fx Fx is negative , Fy is
o
positive F  F
180 o  positive.
270
270
 o Fy Fyo 11
Quadrant III ( between Quadrant IV ( between
180Fo to 270o) 270o to 360o) F
F Fy are both
Fx and Fx is positive, Fy is
270
o
 270
o

VECTOR ADDITION BY COMPONENT METHOD

Whenever more than two vectors are to be added analytically, the process becomes tiresome if
we apply sine and cosine laws only. A component method is an analytical method of finding the
magnitude and direction of the resultant. The steps are as follows:
1. Draw all vectors from the origin on a set of rectangular coordinates
2. Resolve all vectors into their x and y component. (you may wish to
construct a table of component).
3. Find the x component of the resultant by adding the x components of all
vectors.
Rx = ∑Fx = Ax + Bx +Cx + ..........

Find the y component of the resultant by adding the y components of all vectors
Ry = ∑Fy = Ay + By + Cy +..........

4. Obtain the magnitude and direction of the resultant from the two perpendicular vectors Rx
and Ry.

R = √Rx2 + Ry2 Tan θ = Ry / Rx

Sample problem #1
Given:
A = 10 N, 70˚ South of East
B = 5 N, East
C = 15 N, 45˚ North of East
D = 15 N, 60˚ North of West
Required:
Magnitude and direction of resultant

12
Sample problem #2

A trainer holds five horses with reins. The forces they exert on the trainer can be represented by
the five vectors: A = 20 lbs., B = 15 lbs., 60˚, C = 16 lbs., 135˚, D = 10 lbs., 210˚, E = 14 lbs.,
270˚. In what direction and with force must a single horse pull if it is to have same effect on the
trainer?

13
VECTOR DIFFERENCE
In some cases, it may be necessary to find the vector difference of two vectors. This is a
process of subtracting one vector from another. In order to subtract vectors, we must first know
what is meant by negative vector.

B -B A

A-B B

A A
(a) (b) (c)

FB

α FA
α

-FB FA - FB

Sample problem #1

Two cars start from the same point but one travels north at 50 kph and the other east at 30 kph.
What is the vectors difference of these two velocities?

14
Sample problem #2
Given:
Two vectors P= 70 units toward the east and Q= 50 units, 60o N of E. Find the vector
difference ( P-Q).

EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES

I. OBJECTIVES:

1. To be able to state the first condition and second condition for equilibrium;
2. To be able to demonstrate equilibrium by solving problems;
3. To be able to explain (a) the causes of friction, and (b) how it is described using
coefficients of friction.
4. To be able to (a) define torque, (b) apply the conditions for equilibrium, and (c) describe
the location of the center of gravity and stability.

KEY/CONCEPTS:

EQUILIBRIUM
The state in which there is no change in the motion of a body. This condition exists when the
vector sum of the forces tending to produce translation or motion in a straight line is zero, and
when the algebraic sum of the moments tending to rotate the body is zero.
Two conditions for equilibrium:
(a) First: The algebraic sum is must be zero. If this condition is satisfied there is
no tendency toward translation.
∑Fx = 0 ∑Fy = 0 R=0
(b) Second: The algebraic sum of the moment or torques about any axis normal to the plane of
the force must be zero. With this condition satisfied there is no tendency toward
rotation.
∑Mo=0

15
 FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS
Before attempting to apply the first condition of equilibrium to the solution of physical
problem, you must be able to construct a free-body diagram or a force diagram. A free-body
diagram or a force diagram is an isolated view of a body which shows only the external
forces exerted on the body. The procedure for doing this is as follows:
1. From the given condition of a problem, draw a neat sketch representing the situation. Label it
sufficiently to indicate the all known and unknown forces.
2. Isolate each body of the system to be studied. Do this either mentally or drawing a light circle
around the point of application of the forces.
3. Construct a force diagram for each body to be studied. The forces are represented as vectors
with their tails placed at the center of a rectangular coordinates system.
4. Represent the x and y axes with dotted lines. These axes need not necessarily be drawn
horizontally and vertically.
5. Dot in rectangles corresponding to x and y components of each vector, and determine known
angles from given conditions.
6. Label all known and unknown components opposite and adjacent to known angles.

Sample problem#1

A block of weight W hangs from a cord which is knotted to two other cords, A and B fastened
to the ceiling. If cord B makes an angle of 60o with the ceiling and cord A forms a 30o angle.
Draw the free-body diagram of the knot.

Sample problem #2

45°

B
A

W
Sample problem #3

16
 370 T

Sample problem #4
60

W3
°
W2

30
°

SOLUTION OF EQUILIBRIUM PROBLEMS

17
 In the previous lesson, we discussed a procedure for finding the resultant of a number of
forces by component method. A similar procedure can be used to add forces which are in
equilibrium. In this case the first condition for equilibrium tell us that the resultant is zero, or
RX= ∑Fx=0 ; Ry = ∑Fy=0
Thus we have two equations which can be used to find unknown forces.

The following steps should be followed in solving for un known forces in equilibrium:
1. Sketch and label the conditions of the problem.
2. Draw a free-body diagram.
3. Resolve all forces into their x and y components even though they may
contain unknown factors, such as A cos 30o or B sin 45o.
4. Use the first condition for equilibrium to set up two equations in terms of the
unknown forces.
5. Solve algebraically for the unknown factors.

Sample problem #1

A 445-N ball suspended by a rope A is pulled aside by a horizontal rope B and held so that rope
A forms an angle of 30o with the vertical wall (see figure). Find the tensions in ropes A and B.

300 A

Sample problem #2

18
 A 200-N ball hangs from a cord knotted to two other cords as shown in the figure. Find the
tensions in ropes A, B, and C.

600 450

A B

FRICTION
Friction refers to the ever-present resistance to motion that occurs whenever two materials, or
media, are in contact with each other. It may be define as the contact resistance exerted by one
body upon a second body when the second body moves or tends to move fast first body. This
resistance occurs in all types of media-solids, liquids, and gases- and is characterized as the force
of friction.
Friction between solids is generally classified into three types: static, sliding (kinetic), and
rolling. Static friction includes all cases in which the frictional force is sufficient to prevent
relative motion between surfaces. Sliding friction, or kinetic friction, occurs when there is
relative (sliding) motion at the interface of the surfaces in contact. Rolling friction occurs when
one surface rotates as it moves over another surface but does not slip or slide at the point or area
of contact.
F1 F1
→ →
Fs Fk
← ←
_____________________ ____________________

(a) In static friction motion is impending (b) In kinetic friction the two surfaces
are in relative motion.

Fs = μsN Fk = µkN

where: Fs = forces of static friction where: Fk= force of kinetic friction or

sliding
µs = proportionality constant µk = proportionality constant
(coefficient of static friction) (coefficient of kinetic friction)
19
 N = normal force N = normal force

Problems involving friction are solved like other problems, except that the following points
should be considered:

1. Frictional force are parallel to the surfaces and directly oppose motion of the surfaces
across each other.
2. The force of static friction is larger than the force of kinetic friction for the same
materials.
3. In drawing free body diagrams, it is usually more expedient to choose the x axis
along the plane of motion and the y axis normal to the plane of motion..
4. The first condition for equilibrium can be applied to set up two equations representing
forces along the plane of motion and normal to it.
5. The relations Fs= µsN and Fk=µkN can be applied to solve for the desired quantity.

Sample problem #1
A 200-N block rests on a horizontal surface. A horizontal pull of 40-N is required to just start
the block moving. After motion is started, only a 20-N force is required to move the block with a
constant speed. Find the coefficients of static and kinetic friction.

Nf Nf
↑ ↑

F← → 40 N F ← → 20 N
_________________ ___________________
↓ ↓
200 N 200 N

20
Sample problem #2
What force T at an angle of 300 above the horizontal is required to drag a 180-N block to the
right at constant speed if µK=0.2?

Sample problem #3
A 445-N block rests on a 300 inclined plane. If µK=0.1, what push P parallel to the plane and
directed up the plane will cause the block to move (a) up the plane with constant speed and (b)
down the plane with constant speed?

MOMENT OF FORCE OR TORQUE

21
 Moment of force or torque is defined as the tendency to produce a change in rotational
motion. Rotational motion is determined by both the magnitude of a force and its moment arm.
Moment arm is the perpendicular distance to the line of action of the force. The units of
torque are the units of force times the distance, for example, Newton-meter (N.m) and pound-
feet ( lb.ft)

Torque = Force x Moment Arm

F
M=Fxr

- + α
O
O r

F r line of action of force

(a)
(b)
line of action
+
O F

r
+
line of action
(c) (d)

Sample problem #1
Compute the moment of the 890-N force about point P in figure as shown:

890 N

3m 600
P

22
Sample problem #2
A force of 20 N is exerted on a cable wrapped around a drum 0.12 m in diameter. What is the
torque produced at the center of the drum?

20 N
d=0.12m
d=0.12m
D=0.12

Sample problem #3
What is the resultant torque about the center of the pulley in figure as shown if the diameter of
the outer pulley is 1.20 m and diameter of the inner pulley is 0.60 m?

0.3 m 0.3 m
0.3 m 0.3 m

50 N
70 N

SECOND CONDITION FOR EQUILIBRIUM

23
 The algebraic sum of the moments or torques of the vertical and horizontal components of the
forces about any axis normal to the plane must be zero.

∑Mo = 0

Sample problem #1
A uniform bar 20 meters long and weighing 200N is supported by a fulcrum 6 meter from the
right end. if a 400 N weight is hung from the right end. (a) What downward force must be
exerted at the left end to hold the bar in equilibrium? (b) What is the forced exerted by the
fulcrum on the bar?

10 m 6m 4m

F 200 N 400 N
R

24
 Sample problem #2
A uniform bar weighing 225 N, and 4 meters long leans against a smooth wall with its lower
end 2 meters away from the wall. What are the reactions of the ground and of the wall at the
points of contact?

F1
2m

2m

225 N

Fh

2m

F
F22 Fv
Fv

Sample problem # 3
A uniform bar 2 meters long is held by ropes at the ends making angles 600 and 300,
respectively, with the horizontal as shown. A weight of 300 N is hung 0.25 meter from the left
end where the 600 rope is attached. Find the tensions in the ropes and the weight of the bar.

F2 F1
0
60
300

0..25 0.75m 1.0 m

300 N W

25
CENTER OF GRAVITY
Every particle on the earth has at least one force in common with every other particle; its
weight. Regardless of the shape and size of the body, there exists a point at which the weight of
the body may be considered to be concentrated. This point is called the center of gravity of the
body.

Sample problem #1

Compute the center of gravity of the two spheres as shown if they are connected by a 60
cm.rod of negligible weight.

r2
r1
W1=70 N W2=35 N

26
Sample problem # 2
Compute the center of gravity of the hatchet as shown if the mental head weighs 53 N and the
46 cm. supporting handle weighs 9 N. Assume that the handle is of uniform weight and
construction.
46 cm

r1 r2 23 cm
c.g.

W2=9 N

W1=35 N

27
 RECTILINEAR MOTION

I. OBJECTIVES

1. To be able to define and calculate speed and velocity.

2. To be able to (a) explain the relationship between velocity and acceleration.
3. To be able (a) to explain kinematic equations, and (b) apply them to physical situations.

II. KEY/CONCEPT

RECTILINEAR MOTION
An important part of the science of mechanics is the study of motion of objects. Motion
denotes the change of position of a body with respect to some fixed point or reference point. In
this chapter motion of objects will be studied without considering the outside factors which cause
these motions: this branch of mechanics is known as kinematics. The simplest type of motion is
that an object moving along a straight line: this is known as rectilinear motion.

SPEED AND VELOCITY

The two words speed and velocity are often erroneously interchanged with each other. The
word speed is the distance which a body traverses per unit time without regard to the direction of
motion. On the other hand, velocity is a vector quantity and is the displacement of a body per
unit time.

Distance D
Speed (v) = ------------------- = ---------
Time t

Displacement S
Velocity (v) = --------------------- = ----------
Time t

ACCELERATION
When the velocity of a particle is changing, its motion is said to be accelerated. Acceleration
is defined as the time rate of change of velocity.

Change in Velocity Vf - Vi
a= ------------------------------- a= ---------------
Time t
where: t - time
Vf -final velocity
Vi - initial velocity

28
UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION
The simplest kind of acceleration is motion in a straight line in which the velocity changes at
constant rate. This special kind of motion is generally referred to as uniformly accelerated
motion or constant acceleration. Because of the importance of this type of motion, we are going
to devote time deriving formulas which are considered as very useful.

Equation of Motion Uniformly Accelerated motion:

S =v t ------- (1)
If acceleration is constant,
Vi + Vf
V= -------------- -------(2)
2
substitute(1) and (2)
Vi + Vf
S = [-------------------] t -----------(3)
2
Vf + Vi
a = ----------------- ; Vf = V i + at ---------(4)
t
Substitute (4) in (3)
Vi + Vf
S = [-------------------] t
2
Vi + Vi + at
S = [ ---------------------- ] t
2
2Vi t + at2
S = ---------------------- ; S=Vi t + 1/2at2
2
Solving for t in equation (4) and (3)
Vf - Vi
t = -------------
a
Vi + Vf Vf - Vi
S = [ -----------------] [ --------------- ]
2 a
Vf + Vi ( Vf - Vi )
= -----------------------
2a
Vf - Vi2
2

S= ------------------- ; Vf2 – Vi2 = 2aS

2a

29
Sample problem #1
1. A car starts from rest and is given a uniform acceleration of 2 m/s2. Find (a) its velocity
after 5 s and (b) the distance traveled during the time.

Sample problem #2
A train traveling at 30 kph is slowed by a "distant" signal at A, and uniformly decelerated until
its stops at B, 300 m from A. After 1 minute at rest, the train accelerates uniformly to C, 500 m
from B. Its velocity at C is found to be 30 kph. Calculate the total time lost due to signals.

30
Sample problem #3
A car starts from rest and acquires a velocity of 70 kph in 20 minutes. Find (a) the acceleration,
(b) the distance traveled in the first 20 minutes, (c) the distance traveled in the next 20 more
minutes.

Sample problem #4

An automobile starting from rest speed up to 50 mps with a constant acceleration of 5 mps2,
then runs at this speed for a time, and finally comes to rest with a deceleration of 8 mps2. If the
total distance traveled is 1 km. Find the total time required.

31
Sample problem #5
A truck passes a parked police car 50 kph. The police car immediately accelerates at 5 mps2 to
60 kph and chases the truck at that speed until they come abreast. What is the distance covered
by the police car.

Sample problem #6
An automobile moving at a constant velocity of 13.72 mps passes a gasoline station. Two
seconds later, another automobile leaves the gasoline station and accelerates at a constant rate of
1.83 mps2. How soon will the second automobile overtake the first automobile?

FREE FALLING BODIES

32
I. OBJECTIVES:

1. To be able to analyze free fall using the kinematic equations

2. To be able to understand the equations of free fall and used them in solving
problems

II.KEY/CONCEPTS:

FREE FALLING BODIES

A good example of uniformly accelerated motion is that of a body falling toward the earth
under the action of the earth’s pull only. If air resistance is neglected, it is found that all bodies,
regardless of weight, size, or shape, fall with the same acceleration toward the earth’s surface.
Such motion is called free fall. The acceleration due to gravity (g) has an approximate
magnitude of 9.80 m/s2 or 980 cm/s2 and directed downward (toward the center of the earth). In
British units, the value of g is 32 f/s2

Vf – Vi = gt
Vf2 – Vi2= 2gS
S = Vi t + ½ gt2

Sample problem #1
A boy on a bridge throws a stone vertically downward toward the river below with an initial
velocity of 14.7 m/s. If the stone hits the water 2.0 s later, what is the height of the bridge above
the water?

Sample problem #2

33
 A stone is thrown vertically upward from the ground with a velocity of 49 mps. (a) What will be
its maximum height? (b) After how many seconds will it return to the ground?

Sample problem #3
A stone is thrown vertically into the air from a tower 30.5 m, at the same instant that a second
stone is thrown upward from the ground. The initial velocity of the first stone is 15 mps and that
of the second stone is 23 mps. When and where will the stones be at the same height from the
ground?

Sample problem #4

34
A ball is dropped from the top of a tower 25 m high, at the same instant that a second ball is
thrown upward from the ground with an initial velocity of 12 mps. When and where do they
pass?

Sample problem #5
A stone dropped from captive balloon at an elevation of 305 m. Two seconds later, another stone
is projected vertically upward from the ground with a velocity of 75.6 mps. When and where will
the stones pass each other?

PROJECTILES

35
I. OBJECTIVES:

1. To be able to analyze projectile motion to find (a) position, (b) time of flight, and (c)
range.

II. KEY/CONCEPTS

PROJECTILE
A projectile is a body which is given an initial velocity and then allowed to move under the
influence of gravity only. The motion of projectiles is really complicated if air resistance and the
variation of g with altitude are considered, but we shall neglect these factors for time being and
consider g as constant in our problems. Anybody which is thrown with a certain initial velocity
can be considered as a projectile. Examples are shells fired from a cannon, a bullet shot from a
gun, a golf ball hit by a club, a basketball thrown into the ring, a bomb released from an aircraft.
The simplest type of projectile motion is one in which the body is thrown with an initial
velocity Vi in a horizontal direction. An object thrown horizontally from the top of a building
would be a good example.

Vy = 0
Vi Vx =Vi

Sy S Vy

H Sx Vx=Vi

Vy

To find the velocity of the projectile after a time:

Vx = Vi
Vy = Vyi + gt
_________
V = √ Vx + Vy

Vy
Tan Ө = ----------
Vx

To find the displacement of the projectile after a time:

Sx = Vxt = Vit

36
Sy = Vyi t + 1/2 gt2
Syi = 0 (initial vertical velocity)
Sy = 1/2 gt2
________
S = √ Sx2 +Sy2
Sy
tan Ө = -----
Sx

To find the maximum horizontal displacement (R):

R = Vx T = Vi T

H - Vertical displacement:
_____
H = 1/2 gT : T = √ 2H/g where: T - time of flight

Sample problem#1
A cannonball is projected horizontally with an initial velocity of 120 mps from the top of a cliff
250 m above lake, as shown (a) in what time will it strike the water at the foot of the cliff? (b)
What is the horizontal distance from the foot of the cliff to the point of the impact in the lake? (c)
What are the horizontal and vertical components of its final velocity?

Vx
H=250 m
Vy

Sample problem #2

37
 A warplane is in level flight at a velocity of 560 kph and an altitude of 1850 m when it drops a
bomb. (a) How long does the bomb take to reach the ground? (b) What will the bomb’s velocity
be upon the impact? (c) What is the horizontal displacement or range of the bomb?

The more general case of the projectile motion is one in which the body is projected with an
initial velocity Vi at an angle Ө with the horizontal.

Vy=0
Vx=Vxi
V

Vx=Vxi
Vy

Vx=Vxi Vy
H V

Vyi
Vx=Vxi
Vy
Vxi
R
V

The following procedure is useful in solving most projectiles problems:

1. Resolve the initial velocity (Vi) into the x and y components

Vxi = Vi cos Ө (initial horizontal velocity)

Vyi = Vi sin Ө (initial vertical velocity)

2. The horizontal and vertical components is position at any instant are given by:

38
 Sx = Vxi t
Sy = Vyi + 1/2 gt

For maximum height : H = Vyi t + 1/2 gt

3. The horizontal and vertical components of its velocity at any instant are given
by:

Vx = Vxi
Vy = Vyi

4. The final position and velocity can be obtained from their components

________ _________
S = √ Sx2 + Sy2 : V = √ Vx2 + Vy2

tan Ө = Sy tan Ө = Vy
Sx Vx

R = Vxi T

Where: T - Total time = 2t ; t - time to reach the maximum height.

Vy-Vyi = gt; Vy=0 (at maximum height)
t = - Vyi = - Vi cos Ө
g g
R =Vxi T
= Vi cos Ө[2 {-Vi sin Ө}] = - Vi2[2sinӨcosӨ] ; cos Ө sin Ө = ½ sin 2Ө;
g g 2cosӨsinӨ = sin 2Ө

R = - Vi2sin 2Ө
g

Sample problem 1

A bullet is fired at an angle of 300 above the horizontal with a velocity of 600 m/s. Find the (a)
range, (b) time before it returns to the same level, and (c) position and the velocity of the bullet
40 seconds after it was fired.

39
Sample problem #2

A rocket was launched to hit the terrorists’ hideout at a velocity of 250 m/s at a target 5 km
away. (a) At what angle must it be fired to hit the target? (b) How long after it is fired will target
be hit? (c) If the terrorists discovered the plot to eliminate them 1/6 minute after the rocket was
launched, will they escape alive?

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

I.OBJECTIVES:

40
 1. To be able state and explain Newton's laws of motion
2. To be able to distinguish clearly between the concepts of weight and mass
3. To be able to apply Newton’s 2nd law to physical situations

II. KEY/CONCEPT

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

In the previous lesson, we studied motion of bodies without inquiring what causes the changes
in these motions. Now we will study the factors responsible for generating motion and the
general effect of these factors on the motion of the bodied
The foundation of Newtonian mechanics was laid by Sir Isaac Newton, an English physicist
and mathematician, who is considered by many to possess the greatest mind that ever lived. He
made a lot of original contributions in philosophy, mathematics, optics, and astronomy, but he is
best remembered for his work on gravitation and in mechanics.
Newton’s theory of motion is summarized by his famous three laws of motion, known as the
first, second, and third law of motion.

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW:

"A body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion remains in uniform motion in a straight
line unless acted on by an external unbalanced force"
This law is the principle of inertia and applies to two different situations: (a) When a body is
at rest and (b) when a body is in motion. Inertia is the property of a particle that allows it to
maintain a constant state of motion or rest.

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW:

"Whenever an unbalanced force acts on a body, it produces in the direction of the force an
acceleration that is directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of
the body"

ka = F/m where: k – proportionality constant and it will depend upon the units in which
F= kma force, mass and acceleration are measured. The most convenient
F= ma units are those which makes k equal to unity.

In order to make k = 1, two fundamental units and device the third unit from these two:
1. The fundamental SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg), and the acceleration unit is meter per
sq. second (m/s).the force units derived to these units is called the Newton (N), which is the
resultant force required to five a 1 kg mass an acceleration of 1 mps2. Thus the consistent units
are:
F(N) = m(kg) a (m/s2)

kg. m
----------- = N
s2

41
2. In the BGS, the mass units is derived from the chosen units of pound (lb) for force and the feet
per second squared (ft/s2) for acceleration. This derived mass unit, called the slug, is defined as
the mass to which a force of 1 pound will give an acceleration of 1fps2. The consistent units in
this system are:

F(lb) = m (slug) a (fps2)

Newton's second law is usually written as a vector equation because F and a are not necessarily
along the x or y axis. It follows that the two component equations,

Fx = max and Fy = may, can be applied to any single force.

If more than one force is acting on a body, each force can be expressd in components and
summed as follows:

∑Fx = max and ∑Fy = may

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MASS AND WEIGHT

Before considering sample problems using Newton’s second law, we must have a clear
understanding between the weight of a body and its mass. Mass is a universal constant equal to
the ratio of a body's weight to the gravitational acceleration due to its weight. Weight is the force
of gravitational attraction and is very much dependent upon the acceleration gravity.
Therefore mass of a body is only a measure of its inertia and is not in any way dependent upon
gravity
W
W = mg or m = ---
G
SI: W(N) = m (kg) x g (9.8 m/s2)
BGS: W(lb) = m (slug ) x g (32 f/s2)

Sample problem #1
Find the mass of a person who weight 150 lb.

Sample problem #2
Find the weight of an 18 kg block.

42
Sample problem #3
Find the mass of a body whose weight is 100 N.

APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S SECOND LAW TO SINGLE-BODY PROBLEMS

The primary difference between the problems that will be discuss in this chapter and the earlier
problems is that a net, unbalanced force is acting to produce an acceleration. Thus, after
constructing the free-body diagrams which describe the situation, the first step is to determine
the unbalanced force and set it equal to the product of mass and acceleration. The desired
quantity can be determined from the relation,
Resultant force = mass x acceleration
F(resultant) = ma

Sample problem #1
What acceleration will a force of 20 N impart to a 10 kg-body?

Sample problem #2
What resultant force will give a 32-lb. body an acceleration of 5 fps2?

43
Sample problem #3
What mass has a body if a force of 60 N will give it an acceleration of 4 mps2?

According to Newton’s second law, a resultant force always produces acceleration in the
direction of the resultant force. This means that the net force and the acceleration it causes are of
the same algebraic sign and each have the same line of action.

+a +a

Fk m
mm P P m Fk

(a) net force: P - Fk (right) (b) net for: P - Fk (left)

∑Fx = max ∑Fy = may

where:
∑Fx and ax are taken positive and along the line of motion
∑Fy and ay are taken normal to the line of motion

Sample problem #1

A force of 45 N pulls a 30 kg block horizontally across the floor. If µk = 0.1,

find the acceleration of the block.

η
44
Fk
45 N

30
kg

Sample problem #2
A 30 kg block is supported by a cable. Find the tension T in the cable if the block is accelerating
(a) upward at 1.5 mps2 and (b) downward at 1.5 mps2.

(a) T (b) T

a = 1.5 mps22
2
a=1.5mps

30 kg
30 kg
30 kg

APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S SECOND LAW FOR SYSTEMS OF BODIES

Problems which involve the motion of more than one body connected in some way to each
other can beat be approached in two steps:
1. Determine the net or resultant force acting on the entire system.
2. Set the resultant force equal to the product of the total mass of the entire system and the

45
 acceleration of the system.

Sample problem #1
A cord passing over a light frictionless pulley has a mass m1 attached to the left end and another
mass m2 attached to the other end. What will the acceleration of the system and the tension T in
the cord be when the system is released?

T T

m1=8 kg m2=10 kg

Sample problem #2
A 30-kg block rests on a frictionless table top. A rope attached to it passes over a light
frictionless pulley and is attached to a weight W, as shown. (a) What must the value of W be to
give the system an acceleration of 5 mps2? (b) What is the tension in the rope?

46
Sample problem #3
Consider the masses m1= 20 kg and m2= 18 kg in the system represented in the figure as shown.
If the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.1 and the inclination angle Ө is 300, find (a) the
acceleration of the system and (b) the tension in the cord joining the two masses.

+a

20 kg

18 kg

W1
Ө
W2

Sample problem #4
Three blocks are pulled along a frictionless surface by a horizontal force as shown in the figure.
(a) What is the acceleration of the system? (b) What are the tension forces in the light strings?
47
 m1 m2
m3
T1 T1 T2 T2
F=20 N

2 kg 3 kg 4 kg

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

When one body exerts a force on another body, the latter also exerts a force on the first, that is,
forces always occur in pairs. This the essence of Newton’s third law of motion, also referred to as
the law of interaction. Another phraseology of the third law: “To every action, there is always an
equal and opposite reaction”

WORK, ENERGY, & POWER

I. OBJECTIVES:

48
 1. To be able to (a) define mechanical work and (b) compute the work done in various
situations.
2. To be able to (a) define energy, (b) explain the work-energy theorem and (c) apply it in
solving problems,
3. To be able to (a) define power, (b) describe mechanical efficiency.

II. KEY/CONCEPT

WORK
The word work is commonly used in variety of ways. We go to work; we work on projects; we
work at our desks and computers; we work problems. Mechanically work involves force and
displacement, and we use this word to describe quantitatively what is accomplished when a force
moves an object through a distance.
The work done by a constant force in moving an object is equal to the product of the
magnitudes of the displacement and the component of the force parallel to the displacement.
For a constant force acting in the same direction as the displacement,

W = Fd

In general, work is done when a force moves an object through a distance and some component
of the force is along the line of motion. That is, if the force at an angle Ө to the object’s
displacement,
W= (F cos Ө) d = Fd cos Ө

The SI unit of work is N.m= joule (J), while in British system foot-pound (ft.lb).
Sample problem #1
A student holds her physics textbook, which has a mass of 1.5 kg out of a second storey
dormitory window until her arm is tired, and then releases it. (a) How much work is done on the
book by the student in simply holding it out the window? (b) How much work will have been
done by the force of gravity during the time in which the book falls 3.0 m?

Sample problem #2
A medical student pulls a 50-kg cadaver 3000 cm along a level floor with a force of Fms=100 N.
which acts at a 350 angle above the horizontal. The floor exerts a frictional force, Ff=50 N,

49
Determine (a) the work done by (a) each force acting on the cadaver, and (b) the net work done
on the cadaver.

ENERGY
Energy is a measure of the change imparted to a system. It is given to an object when a force
does work on the object. The amount of energy transferred to the object equals the work done.
Further, when an object does work, it loses an amount of energy equal to the work it goes.
Energy and work have the same units, joules. Energy, like work is a scalar quantity. An object
that is capable of doing work possesses energy.
In mechanics we shall be concerned with two kinds of energy:
Kinetic energy (K.E.): Energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion. It is defined
mathematically as one-half of the product of the mass and the square of the instantaneous speed
of a moving object.
KE = 1/2 mv2

THE WORK-ENERGY THEOREM

KEi =1/2 mv2 KEf = ½ mv2

Vi Vf

F F

S
When we perform work on a body, what becomes on it? Consider a body with an initial speed
Vi on which a steady force F acts through a distance S. If the body has a mass m, Newton’s
second law of motion tells us that it will gain speed, or accelerate, at a rate given by

a=F/m equation #1

until it reaches a final speed vf,

Vf2 – Vi2 =2aS ; a= Vf2 - Vi2 equation #2

50
 2S

Substituting equation 1 in equation 2

F = Vf2 – Vi2
m 2S

FS= W = ½mVf2 – ½mVi2 = KEf –KEi= ΔK

The important result can be stated as follows:

The work of a resultant external force on a body is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the
body.

Note: The quantity on the left side of the equation represents the work done on mass m while the
quantity on the right side must be the change in kinetic energy as a result of this work.
An increase in kinetic energy (Vf >Vi ) will result from positive work whereas a decrease
in kinetic energy (Vf < Vi) will result from negative work.

Sample problem #1
Compute the kinetic energy of a 900-g baseball traveling at a speed 6 m/s.

Sample problem #2

51
 What average force F is necessary to stop a 16-g bullet travelling at 260 m/s as it penetrates into
the wood a distance of 12 cm?

Potential energy (P.E.): Energy possessed by a system by virtue of its position or condition.
Since energy expresses itself in the form of work, potential energy implies that there must be a
potential for doing work.

P.E. = W h = mgh where:

W- weight
h- height
m- mass
g- acceleration due to gravity

Sample problem #1
A 0.25-kg block is held 20 cm above a desk which is 1 m high. Compute the potential energy
relative to (a) the desk (b) the floor.

Sample problem #2

52
 A 20-kg block is hoisted to a height of 600 cm above the ground. Compute the potential energy
relative to the ground.

Sample problem #3
A 0.50 kg ball is thrown vertically upward with an initial velocity of 10 m/s(see figure). (a)
What is the change in the ball’s kinetic energy between the starting point and its maximum
height? (b) What is the change in the ball’s potential energy between its maximum height and the
launch point? (Neglect air resistance)

V=0

ΔE

Vi
Launch point

Ground

POWER

53
 Power is the rate at which work is performed. In Bgs units, the unit of power is foot-pounds per
second (ft-lb/s) while in SI unit J/s or watt (W). For most industrial purposes these units of power
are inconveniently small therefore the kilowatt (kW) and the horsepower (hp) are used.
1 kW = 1000W
1 hp = 550 ft-lb/min =33000ft-lb/s =746 W=0.746kW

P = Work done by a force (W) =W

Time taken to do this work(t) t

Since work is frequently done in a continuous fashion, another expression for power, which
involves velocity,

P = Work = FS ; since v = S
t t t

P = F v , where v is the velocity of the body and F is the parallel force applied.

Sample problem #1
A 40-kg load is raised to a height of 25 m. If the operation requires 1 minute, (a) find the power
required. (b) What is the power in units of horsepower?

Sample problem #2
54
 A 60-hp motor provides power for the elevator of a hotel. If the weight of the elevator is 2000
pounds, how much time is required to lift the elevator 120 feet?

Sample problem #3
The motors of two vacuum cleaners have net power outputs of 1.0 hp and 0.500 hp. (a) How
much work in joules can each motor do in 3.0 minutes? (b) How long does it take for each motor
to do 97.0 kJ of work?

55
EFFICIENCY
Machines and motors are quite common, and we often talk about their efficiency. Efficiency
involves work, energy, and /or power. Simple and complex machines that do work have
mechanical parts that move, so many energy is always lost because of friction or some other
cause. Thus, not all of the input energy goes into doing useful work.
Mechanical efficiency is essentially a measure of what you get for what you put in, the useful
work output for the energy input.

Efficiency (Є ) = work output x (100%) = Wout x(100%)

Energy input Ein

In terms of power,
Є = Pout x(100%)
Pin

Sample problem #1
The motor of an electric drill with an efficiency of 80% has a power input of 600 W. How
much work is done by the drill in a time of 30 s?

56
 SOUND

I. OBJECTIVES:

1. To be able to (a) define sound, and (b) explain the sound frequency spectrum.
2. To be able to (a) tell how the speed of sound differs in different media, and (b) describe
the temperature dependence of the speed of sound in air.
3. To be able to (a) sound intensity and explain how it varies with distance from a point
source.
4. To be able to explain sound reflection, refraction, and diffraction.
5. To be able to (a) describe and explain the Doppler’s effect, and give some examples of its
occurrences and applications.

II. KEY/CONCEPT

SOUND
Sound is a longitudinal wave that is created by vibrating objects and propagated through a
medium from one location to another. Sound is a series of compression waves that moves
through air and other materials. The waves are detected when they cause a detector to vibrate.
Your eardrum vibrates from sound waves to allow you to sense them. The human ear can only
perceive sound waves with frequencies between 20 Hz to 20 kHz. These are the audible
frequencies of the sound frequency spectrum. Frequencies lower than 20 Hz are in the infrasonic
region. The longitudinal waves generated by earthquakes have infrasonic frequencies. Above 20
kHz are called ultrasonic frequencies. High frequency vibrations in crystals can generate
ultrasonic waves. Ultrasonic waves or ultra sound cannot be detected by humans but can be by
other animals.
Sound is a waveform that travels through matter. Although it is commonly associated in air,
sound will readily travel through many materials such as water and steel. Some insulating
materials absorb much of the sound waves, preventing the waves from penetrating the material.
Sound can travel through any medium, but it cannot travel through a vacuum. There is no sound
in outer space. When you see movies or TV show’s about battles in outer space, you should only
be able to see an explosion but not hear it. The sounds are added for dramatic effect.
The back to forth vibration of an object create the compression waves of sound. The motion of a
loudspeaker cone, drumhead and guitar string are good examples of vibration that cause
compression waves. This is different than the up and down or transverse motion of a water wave.

Transverse Wave (water wave)

57
Compression waves

58
PROPERTIES OF SOUND
A sound wave has characteristics just like any other type of wave, including amplitude,
velocity, wavelength and frequency.

1. Amplitude
Amplitude is the measurement of the energy carried by any wave. It is the furthest distance that
the particles move from the wave’s undisturbed position, or when the wave is flat, due to the
energy passing through it. The greater the amplitude of the wave, the higher is the level of energy
that is carried by the wave. With a sound wave, this means that the sound will be louder. With
light, the bigger the amplitude means the light will be brighter. In water, the bigger the amplitude
of the waves, the higher they will be.

The amplitude of a sound wave is the same thing as its loudness. Since sound is a compression
wave, its loudness or amplitude would correspond to how the wave is compressed. It is
sometimes called pressure amplitude.

Sound Intensity
Sound intensity is defined as the sound power per unit area. The usual context is the
measurement of sound intensity in the air at a listener's location. The basic units are watts/m2 or
watts/cm2. Many sound intensity measurements are made relative to a standard threshold of
hearing intensity I0:
Io=10-12 W/m2 = 10-16W/cm2
Intensity (I) = Energy/time =power
area area

The Sound Intensity Level ( β) of a sound correspond roughly to the sensation of loudness
expressed using logarithmic scale in order to compare the large range of sound intensities in
decibel (dB)
β= 10 log I + 120

or β = 10 log I
Io
where: I - sound intensity W/m2 Io- threshold of hearing

59
 Human hearing is extremely versatile, being able to hear very soft sounds from 10-12 W/m2 to
very loud sounds at 1 W/m2 where the sound starts to become painful. The loudest sound we can
hear is about 1,000,000,000 times louder than the softest sound we can hear.
Since the range of hearing is so large, scientists invented a logarithmic scale which is based on
multiples of 10. The decibel scale defines the threshold of hearing at 0 decibels and the
threshold of pain at 130 decibels. Here's a list of common activities with an estimated
sound intensity level. Each 10 dB is 10 times more amplitude. So a noise that is 30 db
louder is 1000 times as loud.

Intensity Number of Times

Intensity Level Greater than the
Source
W/m2 Threshold of
dB Hearing
Threshold of Hearing
1x10-12 0 100
(TOH)
Rustling Leaves 1x10-11 10 101
Whisper 1x10-10 20 102
Normal Conversation 1x10-6 60 106
Busy Street Traffic 1x10-5 70 107
Vacuum Cleaner 1x10-4 80 108
Walkman at Maximum
1x10-2 100 1010
Level
Front Rows of Rock
1x10-1 110 1011
Concert
Threshold of Pain 1x101 130 1013
Military Jet Takeoff 1x102 140 1014
Instant Perforation of
1x104
Eardrum

Sample problem #1
The sound intensity at a gasoline station averages 10-3W/m2. The owner decides to collect this
energy and convert it to thermal energy for heating his building. If his conversion is 100%
efficient, what is the length of the side of a square sound collector that is needed to provide
thermal energy at a rate of 600W?

Sample problem #2

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 What is the intensity level of the noise created by the children playing in the playground? The
sound intensity of the noise is 10˜⁵ W/m².

2. Speed or Velocity of Sound

The speed at which the disturbance moves through a medium depends on the elasticity of
the medium and its density. Solids are generally more elastic than liquids, which in turn more
elastic than gases. In a highly elastic material, the restoring forces between the atoms or
molecules cause a disturbance to propagate faster. Thus, the speed of sound is generally about 2-
4 times faster in solids than in liquids and about 10-15 times in solids than in gases such as in air.

The speed of sound in various media (typical values)

Medium Speed or
Velocity(m/s)
Solids
Aluminum 5100
Copper 3500
Iron 4500
Glass 5200
Polystyrene 1850
Liquids
Alcohol, Ethyl 1125
Mercury 1400
Water 1500
Gases
Air(00C) 331
Air(1000C) 387
0
Helium(0 C) 965
Hydrogen(00C) 1284
Oxygen(00C) 316

(a) Speed of sound in simple solid like rod or wire:

61
 γ
V= -----------
ρ

where: γ = Young’s modulus of the medium, MPa

ρ= density of the medium, kg/m3
1 Pa=1 N/m2

Elastic constant for various materials in SI units

Material Young’s Modulus Y, MPa
Aluminum 68,900
Brass 89,600
Copper 117,000
Iron 89,600
Steel 207,000

Sample problem
Compute the speed of sound in an aluminum rod.

(b) Speed of sound in large volume of fluid:

β
V= -----------
ρ

where: β = bulk modulus of the fluid, MPa

ρ= density of the fluid, kg/m3

Sample problem

62
 A sound wave is sent from a ship to the ocean floor, where it is reflected and returned. If the
round trip takes 0.6 s, how deep is the ocean floor? Consider the bulk modulus for seawater to be
2.1 x 109 N/m2 and its density 1.03g/cm3.

(c) Speed of sound in ideal gas:

γP γ RT
V= ------ = ----------
M M

where:
P = the pressure of gas, N/m²
ρ= density of gas, kg/m³
γ= adiabatic constant which is related to the nature of gas (γ=1.4 for air and
diatomic gases)
M= Molecular weight g/mol
R= universal gas constant = 8.317 J/mol.K
T= absolute temperature of gas, K

Sample problem #1
Compute the speed of sound in helium gas at 700⁰C. (Molecular Weight of He = 4.00 g/mol,
γ = 1.67)

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Sample problem #2
Compute the speed of sound in air on a day when the temperature is 270C. The molecular mass
of air is 29.0 g/mole.

(d) Speed of sound in air:

The speed of sound also depends on the temperature of the medium. In air, the velocity of
sound is 331meters per second, 1086 feet per second, or about 741 miles per hour at a
temperature of 00C.The speed varies with the temperature of air, such that sound travels slower at
higher altitudes or on cold days. For normal environmental temperatures, the speed of sound in
air increases by about 0.6 m/s for each degree Celsius above 00C.

V= 331m/s + 0.6 m/s (T)

0
C
where : T = temperature, ⁰C

Sample problem#1
On a day when the temperature is 27⁰C, a stone is dropped down a mine shaft, 200 m deep.
How much later will the impact at the bottom be heard?

64
Sample problem #2
The thunder was heard by an observer 6 seconds after she sees the flash. If the temperature was
270C, what is the approximate distance to the lightning strike in (a) km, and (b) miles?

3. Wavelength
Wavelength is defined as the distance from a particular height on the wave to the next spot
on the wave where it is at the same height and going in the same direction. It is usually
measured in meters, just like any length. There isn’t a special spot you have to start on a

65
 wave to measure wavelength, just make sure you are back to the same height going in the
same direction. Most people do like to measure from one crest to the next crest (or trough to
trough), just because they are easy to spot. Any of the parts of the wave that are pointing up
like mountains are called crests. Any part that is sloping down like a valley is a trough.

On a longitudinal wave, the wavelength is measured as the distance between the middles of two
compressions, or the middles of two expansions.

The wave pattern travels with a constant speed v and advances of one period T. So the wave
speed v is given by v = λ / T or because f = 1/T. Hence;

v=λf

where: λ (lambda)= wavelength, m

v= velocity, m/s
f= frequency, Hz

Sample problem #1
Sound waves are longitudinal waves in air. The speed of sound depends on temperature at
20⁰C it is 344 m/s. what is the wavelength of a sound wave in air at 20⁰C if the frequency is f=
262 Hz (the approximate frequency of middle C on a piano)?

66
Sample problem #2
A wave is measured to have a frequency of 60Hz. If its wavelength is 24cm, determine how
fast it is moving.

Sample problem #3
The speed of light is always 3.00 x 108 m/s. Determine the frequency of red light which has a
wavelength of 700nm.

4. Frequency
Frequency of sound is the rate at which the wave passes a given point. It is also the rate at
which a guitar string or a loud speaker vibrates. Frequency is also called the pitch of a sound.
It is called the note in musical sound. It is number of times the wavelength occurs in one

67
 second. Hertz is the unit of frequency, and just means how many cycles per second. It is
named after Heinrich Hertz, one member of the Hertz family that made many important
contributions to physics.

The faster the sound source vibrates, the higher the frequency. Higher frequencies are
interpreted as a higher pitch. For example, when you sing interpreted as a high-pitched voice
you are forcing your vocal chords to vibrate quickly.

Since frequency and period are exact inverses of each other, there is a very basic pair of
formulas you can use to calculate one if you know the other…

Sample problem
The period of a pendulum is 4.5s. Determine the frequency of this pendulum.

SOUND PHENOMENA

Reflection

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 A sound wave can be reflected. An echo is a familiar example of sound reflection. We usually
hear our echo when we stand between parallel walls or cliffs. Sometimes, when sound reflects,
the reflecting surfaces are to reflective and the sound becomes distorted due to multiple or
repeated reflections known as the reverberation.
Refraction
Sound waves are refracted when their speed changes due to uneven winds or uneven
temperature. Sound waves are more clearly heard on a cool evening than during a warm day, the
air layer below is warmer than the air layer above it so sound waves are bent upward. The
opposite occurs on a cool day or at night. This is the reason why theaters are air-conditioned.

Diffraction

69
 Sound waves are diffracted or bent around the obstacles. They spread out they come through
open doors. This is why you can hear a neighbor’s radio even if houses separate your house from
the source of sound.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
Sound s may be generally characterized by pitch, loudness, and quality. Sound “quality” or
“timbre” describes those characteristics of sound which allow the ear to distinguish sounds
which have the same pitch and loudness .Timbre is then a general term for the distinguishable
characteristics of a tone.
Loudness
This is associated with the energy of the wave. A sound may be louder when the amplitude of
the wave is greater. A wave with greater amplitude carries more energy. The loudness of a sound
depends on the intensity of the sound stimulus.
A dynamite explosion is louder than that of pistol because of the greater amount of air
molecules the dynamite is capable displacing. Loudness become meaningful only if we are able
to compare it with something, the sound of a gunshot may deafening in a small room, but
actually go unnoticed if fired in a subway station when a train is roaring past.
Equal Loudness

70
 Humans are most sensitive to frequencies in the midrange (250Hz – 5000Hz). When two
sounds, a bass sound and a middle range are played at the same decibel, the listener perceives the
middle range sound to be louder. This is why a clap of thunder in a horror movie may contain
something so unweatherlike as a woman’s scream.
Pitch
The pitch or note of a sound that we experience is determined by its wavelength or its
frequency. The shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency becomes, and the higher the
pitch that we hear. Pitch is defined therefore as the highness or lowness of a sound.
Frequencies are grouped as…
 low (bass) – sound of thunder and gunshots
 midrange – a telephone ringing
 high(treble) – small bells and cymbals
 low frequencies make the sound powerful and warm
 Midrange frequencies gives sound its energy. Humans are most sensitive to midrange
frequencies.
 High frequencies give a sound its ‘presence’ and life like quality. Presence of a sound
enables us to hear it clearly are gives us the feeling that we are close to its origin.

Quality
The quality of sound varies from person to person. This is the reason why we can identify the
person producing the characteristics of a sound even if we do not see him or her. The quality
depends on the number of overtones present in the sound and their relative amplitude.

DOPPLER EFFECT
You hear the high pitch of the siren of the approaching ambulance, and notice that its pitch
drops suddenly as the ambulance passes you. That is called Doppler effect. The Doppler effect
refers to the apparent change in frequency of a source of sound when there is relative motion of
the source and the listener.
When a vehicle with a siren passes you, a noticeable drop in the pitch of the sound of the
siren will be observed as the vehicle passes. This is an example of the Doppler effect. An
approaching source moves closer during period of the sound wave do the effective wavelength is
shortened, giving a higher pitch since the velocity of the wave is unchanged. Similarly the pitch
the pitch the pitch of a receding sound source will be lowered.

The relationship describing the Doppler shift for a moving source is given by:

71
 fo = fs [__V___]
[ V + Vs ]

where: fo= apparent or observed frequency

. fs= actual frequency emitted by the source
. V = speed of sound in the medium
Vs= speed of the source through the medium (the negative sign is used if the
source of sound is moving toward the observer).

The relationship describing the Doppler shift for a moving observer or listener is given by:

fo = fs [ V+ VL]
-----------
V
where: fo = observed or apparent frequency
. fs = frequency emitted by the source
. V = speed of sound in the medium
. VL= speed of the observer (it is taken to be negative if the observer is receding .
from the source).

The above stated relationships describing the Doppler shift can be combined as:
(If both the observer and the source are moving)

fo = fs [V + VL ]
----------
[ V VS]

Where the variables are as defined previously. The upper set sign applies if the source/ observer
are approaching, and the lower set of sign are used if they are receding.
The Doppler Effect explains the apparent in pitch of a passing automobile.

Sample problem #1
A train whistle emits sound at a frequency of 400 Hz. (a) What is the pitch of the sound heard
when the train is moving toward a stationary observer at a speed of 20 m/s? (b) What is the pitch
heard when the train is moving away from the observer at this speed? Assume the speed of sound
is 340 m/s.

Sample problem #2

72
 A stationary source of sound has a frequency of 500 Hz on a day when the temperature is 20oC.
What pitch is heard by a person who is moving (a) toward the source of sound at a speed of 30
m/s, (b) moving away at the same speed?

Sample problem #3
(a)With what speed is a boy moving away from a school bell if the observed frequency of the
bell is lowered by 10 %, the speed of sound being 335 m/s? (b) With what speed is a boy
approaching the school bell if the observed frequency is increased by 12%?

Sample problem #4

73
 Two cars approach each other, one at a speed of 20 m/s and the other with a speed of 13 m/s. If
the horn of one car is blown and emits sound of 750 Hz, what is the apparent frequency of the
sound to a passenger in the other car?

74
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QUIAMBAO, Raquel D. & FLORESTA, Jose C. Physics Worktext. Quezon City: C & E
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REBOLLOS, et.al. College Physics. Philippines: National Books Store Inc. 1986

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