Unit 1: Physical Quantities and Measurement

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

 In the nineteenth century, physical sciences were divided into five distinct disciplines;
physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology and meteorology.
 The most fundamental of these is the Physics. In Physics, we study matter, energy and
their interaction.
 The laws and principles of Physics help us to understand nature.
 The rapid progress in science during the recent years has become possible due to the
discoveries and inventions in the field of Physics.
 The technologies are the applications of scientific principles.
 Most of the technologies of our modern society throughout the world are related to
Physics.
For example, a car is made on the principles of mechanics and a refrigerator is based on
the principles of thermodynamics.
 In our daily life, we hardly find a device where Physics is not involved.
 Consider pulleys that make it easy to lift heavy loads.
 Electricity is used not only to get light and heat but also mechanical energy that drives
fans and electric motors etc.
 Consider the means of transportation such as car and aeroplanes; domestic appliances
such as air conditioners, refrigerators, vacuum-cleaners, washing machines, and
microwave ovens etc.
 Similarly the means of communication such as radio, TV, telephone and computer are
the result of applications of Physics.
 These devices have made our lives much easier, faster and more comfortable than the
past.
For example, think of what a mobile phone smaller than our palm can do? It allows us to
contact people anywhere in the world and to get latest worldwide information. We can
take and save pictures, send and receive messages of our friends.
 We can also receive radio transmission and can use it as a calculator as well.
 However, the scientific inventions have also caused harms and destruction of serious
nature.
 One of which is the environmental pollution and the other is the deadly weapons.
1.2 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
 All measurable quantities are called physical quantities such as length, mass, time and
temperature.
 A physical quantity possesses at least two characteristics in common.
 One is its numerical magnitude and the other is the unit in which it is measured.
For example, if the length of a student is 104 cm then 104 is its numerical magnitude
and centimeter is the unit of measurement.
 Similarly when a grocer says that each bag contains 5 kg sugar, he is describing its
numerical magnitude as well as the unit of measurement.
 It would be meaningless to state 5 or kg only.
 Physical quantities are divided into base quantities and derived quantities.
BASE QUANTITIES
 Base quantities are the quantities on the basis of which other quantities are expressed.
 There are seven physical quantities which form the foundation for other physical
quantities.
 These physical quantities are called the base quantities.

1
  These are length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, intensity of light and the
amount of a substance.
DERIVED QUANTITIES
 The quantities that are expressed in terms of base quantities are called derived
quantities.
 Those physical quantities which are expressed in terms of base quantities are called the
derived quantities.
 These include area, volume, speed, force, work, energy, power, electric charge, electric
potential, etc.
1.3 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
 Measuring is not simply counting.
For example, if we need milk or sugar, we must also understand how much quantity of
milk or sugar we are talking about.
 Thus, there is a need of some standard quantities for measuring/comparing unknown
quantities.
 Once a standard is set for a quantity then it can be expressed in terms of that standard
quantity. This standard quantity is called a unit.
 With the developments in the field of science and technology, the need for a commonly
acceptable system of units was seriously felt all over the world particularly to exchange
scientific and technical information.
 The eleventh General Conference on Weight and Measures held in Paris in 1960
adopted a world-wide system of measurements called International System of Units.
 The International System of Units is commonly referred as SI.
BASE UNITS
 The units that describe base quantities are called base units.
 Each base quantity has its SI unit.
Table 1.1: Base quantities, their SI units with symbols
Quantity Unit
Name Symbol Name Symbol
Length l metre m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
Electric Current I amphere A
Intensity of Light L candela cd
Temperature K kelvin K
Amount of Substance n mole mol

DERIVED UNITS
 The units used to measure derived quantities are called derived units.
 Derived units are defined in terms of base units and are obtained by multiplying or
dividing one or more base units with each other.
 The unit of area (metre)2 and the unit of volume (metre)3 are based on the unit of length,
which is metre.
 Thus the unit of length is the base unit while the unit of area and volume are derived
units.
 Speed is defined as distance covered in unit time; therefore its unit is metre per second.
 In the same way the unit of density, force, pressure, power etc can be derived using one
or more base units.

2
 Quantity Unit
Name Symbol Name Symbol
Speed V Metre per second ms-1
Acceleration A Metre per second square ms-2
Volume V Cubic metre m3
Force F Newton N or k gm s-2
Pressure P Pascal Pa or N m-2
Density  Kilogram per cubic metre Kg m-3
Charge Q coulomb C or As

1.4 PREFIXES
 Some of the quantities are either very large or very small.
For example, 250 000 m, 0.002 W and 0.000 002 g, etc.
 SI units have the advantage that their multiples and sub-multiples can be expressed in
terms of prefixes.
 Prefixes are the words or letters added before SI units such as kilo, mega, giga and milli.
 The prefixes are useful to express very large or small quantities.
For example, divide 20,000 g by 1000 to express it into kilogramm, since kilo represents
103 or 1000.
20000
Thus 20,000g ¿ kg = 20 kg Prefix Symbol Multiplier
1000
exa E 1018
peta P 1015
Or 20,000g = 20X103g = 20 kg
tera T 1012
 However, double prefixes are not used. giga G 109
For example, no prefix is used with kilogramme mega M 106
since it already contains the prefix kilo. kilo K 103
 Let us consider few more examples: hecto H 102
(i) 200 000 ms-1 deca da 101
= 200X103 ms-1 deci d 10-1
= 200 kms-1 centi c 10-2
(ii) 4 800 000 W milli m 10-3
= 4 800x103W micro µ 10-6
=4 800 kW nano n 10-9
= 4.8x106W pico p 10-12
=4.8 MW femto f 10-15
(iii) 3 300 000 000 Hz atto a 10-18
= 3 300x106Hz
=3300 MHz Multiples and Sub multiples of
= 3.3x103 MHZ
Length
= 3.3 Ghz
(iv) 0.00002 g 1 km 103m
= 0.02x10-3g 1 cm 10-2m
1 mm 10-3m
= 20x10-6g 1 µm 10-6m
= 20 ug 1 nm 10-9m
(v) 0.000 000 0081m
= 0.0081 x10-6m
=8.1x10-9m Hubble Space Telescope
= 8.1 nm orbits around the Earth. It
provides information about
stars.
3
1.5 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 A simple but scientific way to write large or small numbers is to express them in some
power of ten.
 The Moon is 384000000 metres away from the Earth.
 Distance of the moon from the Earth can also be expressed as 3.84 x108 m.
 This form of expressing a number is called the standard form or scientific notation.
 This saves writing down or interpreting large numbers of zeros.
 Thus In scientific notation a number is expressed as some power of ten multiplied
by a number between 1 and 10.
For example, a number 62750 can be expressed as 62.75x103 or 6.275x104 or
0.6275x106.
 All these are correct. But the number that has one non-zero digit before the decimal i.e.
6.275x104 preferably be taken as the standard form.
 Similarly the standard form of 0.00045 s is 4.5x10-4s.
1.6 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
 Measuring instruments are used to measure various physical quantities such as length,
mass, time, volume, etc.
 Measuring instruments used in the past were not so reliable and accurate as we use
today.
For example, sundial, water clock and other time measuring devices used around 1300
AD were quite crude.
On the other hand, digital clocks and watches used now-a-days are highly reliable and
accurate.
 Here we shall describe some measuring instruments used in Physics laboratory.
A METRE RULE

 It is commonly used in the laboratories to measure length of an object or distance

between two points.
 It is one metre long which is equal to 100 centimetres.
 Each centimetre (cm) is divided into 10 small divisions called millimetre (mm).
 Thus one millimetre is the smallest reading that can be taken using a metre rule and is
called its least count.
 While measuring length, or distance, eye must be kept vertically above the reading point.
 The reading becomes doubtful if the eye is positioned either left or right to the reading
point.
THE MEASURING TAPE
 Measuring tapes are used to measure length in metres and centimetres.
 A measuring tape consists of a thin and long strip of cotton, metal or plastic generally 10
m, 20 m, 50 m or 100 m long.
 Measuring tapes are marked in centimetres as well as in inches.
VERNIER CALLIPERS
 The accuracy obtained in measurements using a metre rule is upto 1 mm.
 However an accuracy greater than 1 mm can be obtained by using some other
instruments such as a Vernier Callipers.
 A Vernier Callipers consists of two jaws.
 One is a fixed jaw with main scale attached to it.
 Main scale has centimetre and millimetre marks on it.

4
  The other jaw is a moveable jaw.
 It has vernier scale having 10 divisions over it such that each of its division is 0.9 mm.
 The difference between one small division on main scale division and one vernier scale
division is 0.1 mm.
 It is called least count (LC) of the Vernier Callipers.
 Least count of the Vernier Callipers can also be found as given below:

smallest reading on main scale

Least count of Vernier Caliper=
no of divisions on vernier scale
1mm
¿ =0.1 mm
10 divisions
Hence LC = 0.1mm = 0.1cm
Working of a Vernier Calipers
 First of all find the error, if any, in the measuring instrument.
 It is called the zero error of the instrument.
 Knowing the zero error, necessary correction can be made to find the correct
measurement.
 Such a correction is called zero correction of the instrument.
 Zero correction is the negative of zero error.
Zero Error and Zero Correction
 To find the zero error, close the jaws of Vernier Calipers gently.
 If zero line of the Vernier scale coincides with the zero of the main scale then the zero
error is zero
 Zero error will exist if zero line of the Vernier scale is not coinciding with the zero of main
scale.
 Zero error will be positive if zero line of Vernier scale is on the right side of the zero of
the main scale and will be negative if zero line of Vernier scale is on the left side of zero
of the main scale.
 Taking a Reading on Vernier Calipers
 Let us find the diameter of a solid cylinder using Vernier Calipers.
 Place the solid cylinder between jaws of the Vernier Calipers.
 Close the jaws till they press the opposite sides of the object gently.
 Note the complete divisions of main scale past the Vernier scale zero in a tabular form.
 Next find the Vernier scale division that is coinciding with any division on the main scale.
 Multiply it by least count of Vernier Calipers and add it in the main scale reading.
 This is equal to the diameter of the solid cylinder.
 Add zero correction (Z.C) to get correct measurement.
 Repeat the above procedure and record at least three observations with the solid cylinder
displaced or rotated each time.
SCREW GAUGE
Digital Vernier Callipers has greater
 A screw gauge is an instrument that is used to
precision than mechanical Vernier
measure small lengths with accuracy greater than a Callipers. Least count of Digital
Vernier Calliper. Vernier Callipers is 0.01 mm.
 It is also called as micrometer screw gauge.
 A simple screw gauge consists of a U-shaped metal
frame with a metal stud at its one end.
 A hollow cylinder (or sleeve) has a millimeter scale over it along a line called index line
parallel to its axis.

5
  The hollow cylinder acts as a nut.
 It is fixed at the end of U-shaped frame opposite to the stud.
 A Thimble has a threaded spindle inside it.
 As the thimble completes one rotation, the spindle moves 1 mm along the index line.
 It is because the distance between consecutive threads on the spindle is 1 mm.
 This distance is called the pitch of screw on the spindle.
 The thimble has 100 divisions around its one end.
 It is the circular scale of the screw gauge.
 As thimble completes one rotation, 100 divisions pass the index line and the thimble moves 1 mm
along the main scale.
 Thus each division of circular scale crossing the index line moves the thimble through 1/100 mm
or 0.01 mm on the main scale.
 Least count of a screw gauge can also be found as given below:
Pitch of the Screw Guage
Least count =
no of divisions on circular scale
1mm
¿ =0.01mm=0.001 cm
100
Thus least count of the screw gauge is 0.01 mm or 0.001 cm.
WORKING OF A SCREW GAUGE
The first step is to find the zero error of the screw gauge.
ZERO ERROR
 To find the zero error, close the gap between the spindle and the stud of the screw gauge by
rotating the ratchet in the clockwise direction.
 If zero of circular scale coincides with the index line, then the zero error will be zero.
 Zero error will be positive if zero of circular scale is behind the index line.
 In this case, multiply the number of divisions of the circular scale that has not crossed the index
line with the least count of screw gauge to find zero error.
 Zero error will be negative if zero of circular scale has crossed the index line.
 In this case, multiply the number of divisions of the circular scale that has crossed the index line
with the least count of screw gauge to find the negative zero error.
EXAMPLE 1.2
Find the diameter of a wire using a screw gauge.
SOLUTION
The diameter of a given wire can be found as follows:
(i) Close the gap between the spindle and the stud of the screw gauge by turning the
ratchet in the clockwise direction.
(ii) Note main scale as well as circular scale readings to find zero error and hence zero
correction of the screw gauge.
(iii) Open the gap between stud and spindle of the screw gauge by turning the ratchet in anti-
clockwise direction. Place the given wire in the gap. Turn the ratchet so that the object is
pressed gently between the studs and the spindle.
(iv) Note main scale as well as circular scale readings to find the diameter of the given wire.
(v) Apply zero correction to get the correct diameter of the wire.
(vi) Repeat steps iii, iv and v at different places of the wire to obtain its average diameter.
MASS MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
 Pots were used to measure grain in various part of the world in the ancient times.
 However, balances were also in use by Greeks and Romans.
 Beam balances are still in use at many places.
 In a beam balance, the unknown mass is placed in one pan.

6
  It is balanced by putting known masses in the other pan.
 Today people use many types of mechanical and electronic balances.
 You might have seen electronic balances in sweet and grocery shops.
 These are more precise than beam balances and are easy to handle.
PHYSICAL BALANCE
 A physical balance is used in the laboratory to measure the mass of various objects by
comparison.
 It consists of a beam resting at the center on a fulcrum.
 The beam carries scale pans over the hooks on either side.
 Unknown mass is placed on the left pan.
 Find some suitable standard masses that cause the pointer to remain at zero on raising
the beam.
 The beam carries scale pans over the hooks on either side.
 Unknown mass is placed on the left pan.
 Find some suitable standard masses that cause the pointer to remain at zero on raising
the beam.
EXAMPLE 1.3
Find the mass of a small stone by a physical balance.
SOLUTION
Follow the steps to measure the mass of a given object.
(i) Adjusting the levelling screws with the help of plumb line to level the platform of
physical balance.
(ii) Raise the beam gently by turning the arresting knob clockwise. Using balancing
screws at the ends of its beam, bring the pointer at zero position.
(iii) Turn the arresting knob to bring the beam back on its supports. Place the given
object (stone) on its left pan.
(iv) Place suitable standard masses from the weight box on the right pan. Raise the
beam. Lower the beam if its pointer is not at zero.
(v) Repeat adding or removing suitable standard masses in the right pan till the pointer
rests at zero on raising the beam.
(vi) Note the standard masses on the right pan. Their sum is the mass of the object on
the left pan.
LEVER BALANCE
 A lever balance such consists of a system of levers.
 When lever is lifted placing the object in one pan and standard masses on the other pan,
the pointer of the lever system moves.
 The pointer is brought to zero by varying standard masses.
ELECTRONIC BALANCE
 Electronic balances such come in various ranges; milligram ranges, gram ranges and
kilogramme ranges.
 Before measuring the mass of a body, it is switched ON and its reading is set to zero.
 Next place the object to be weighed.
 The reading on the balance gives you the mass of the body placed over it.
 The most Accurate Balance
 The mass of one rupee coin is done using different balances as given below:
(a) Beam Balance
 Let the balance measures coin's mass = 3.2 g
 A sensitive beam balance may be able to detect a change as small as of 0.1 g Or 100
mg.

7
(b) Physical Balance
 Let the balance measures coin's mass = 3.24 g
 Least count of the physical balance may be as small as 0.01 g or 10 mg.
 Therefore, its measurement would be more precise than a sensitive beam balance.
(c) Electronic Balance
 Let the balance measures coin's mass = 3.247 g
 Least count of an electronic balance is 0.001 g or 1 mg.
 Therefore, its measurement would be more precise than a sensitive physical balance.
 Thus electronic balance is the most sensitive balance in the above balances.
STOPWATCH
 A stopwatch is used to measure the time interval of an event.
 There are two types of stopwatches; mechanical and digital.
 A mechanical stopwatch can measure a time interval up to a minimum 0.1 second.
 Digital stopwatches commonly used in laboratories can measure a time interval as small
as 1/100 second or 0.01 second.
How to use a Stopwatch
 A mechanical stopwatch has a knob that is used to wind the spring that powers the
watch.
 It can also be used as a start-stop and reset button.
 The watch starts when the knob is pressed once.
 When pressed second time, it stops the watch while the third press brings the needle
back to zero position.
 The digital stopwatch starts to indicate the time lapsed as the start/stop button is
pressed.
 As soon as start/stop button is pressed again, it stops and indicates the time interval
recorded by it between start and stop of an event.
 A reset button restores its initial zero setting.
MEASURING CYLINDER
 A measuring cylinder is a glass or transparent plastic cylinder.
 It has a scale along its length that indicates the volume in millilitre (mL).
 Measuring cylinders have different capacities from 100 mL to 2500 mL.
 They are used to measure the volume of a liquid or powdered substance.
 It is also used to find the volume of an irregular shaped solid insoluble in a liquid by
displacement method.
 The solid is lowered into a measuring cylinder containing water/liquid.
 The level of water/liquid rises.
 The increase in the volume of water/liquid is the volume of the given solid object.
HOW TO USE A MEASURING CYLINDER
 While using a measuring cylinder, it must be kept vertical on a plane surface.
 Take a measuring cylinder.
 Place it vertically on the table.
 Pour some water into it.
 Note that the surface of water is curved.
 The meniscus of the most liquids curve downwards while the meniscus of mercury
curves upwards.
 The correct method to note the level of a liquid in the cylinder is to keep the eye at the
same level as the meniscus of the liquid.
 It is incorrect to note the liquid level keeping the eye above the level of liquid.

8
  When the eye is above the liquid level, the meniscus appears higher on the scale.
 Similarly when the eye is below the liquid level, the appears lower than actual height of
the liquid.

MEASURING VOLUME OF AN IRREGULAR SHAPED SOLID

 Measuring cylinder can be used to find the volume of a small irregular shaped solid that sinks in
water.
 Let us find the volume of a small stone.
 Take some water in a graduated measuring cylinder.
 Note the volume Vi of water in the cylinder.
 Tie the solid with an thread. Lower the solid into the cylinder till it is fully immersed in water.
Note the volume Vf of water and the solid.
 Volume of the solid will be Vf – Vi.
1.7 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
 The value of a physical quantity is expressed by a number followed by some suitable unit.
 Every measurement of a quantity is an attempt to find its true value.
 The accuracy in measuring a physical quantity depends upon various factors:
+ the quality of the measuring instrument
+ the skill of the observer
+ the number of observations made
 For example, a student measures the length of a book as 18 cm using a measuring tape.
 The numbers of significant figures in his/her measured value are two.
 The left digit 1 is the accurately known digit.
 While the digit 8 is the doubtful digit for which the student may not be sure.
 Another student measures the same book using a ruler and claims its length to be 18.4
cm.
 In this case all the three figures are significant.
 The two left digits 1 and 8 are accurately known digits.
 Next digit 4 is the doubtful digit for which the student may not be sure.
 A third student records the length of the book as 18.425 cm.
 Interestingly, the measurement is made using the same ruler.
 The numbers of significant figures is again three; consisting of two accurately known
digits 1, 8 and the first doubtful digit 4.
 The digits 2 and 5 are not significant.
 It is because the reading of these last digits cannot be justified using a ruler.
 Measurement up to third or even second decimal place is beyond the limit of the
measuring instrument.
 An improvement in the quality of measurement by using better instrument increases the
significant figures in the measured result.
 The significant figures are all the digits that are known accurately and the one estimated
digit.
 More significant figure means greater precision.
 The following rules are helpful in identifying significant figure:
(i) Non-zero digits are always significant.
(ii) Zeros between two significant figures are also significant.
(iii) Final or ending zeros on the right in decimal fraction are significant.
(iv) Zeros written on the left side of the decimal point for the purpose of spacing the
decimal point are not significant.

9
 (v) In whole numbers that end in one or more zeros without a decimal point. These zeros
may or may not be significant.
In such cases, it is not clear which zeros serve to locate the position value and which are
actually parts of the measurement. In such a case, express the quantity using scientific notation
to find the significant zero.
EXAMPLE 1.4
Find the number of significant figures in each of the following values. Also express them in
scientific notations.
(a) 100.8 s (b) 0.00580 km (c) 210.0 g
SOLUTION
(a) All the four digits are significant. The zeros between the two significant figures 1 and 8 are
significant.
To write the quantity in scientific notation, we move the decimal point two places to the left, thus
100.8 s = 1.008 x102 s
(b) The first two zeros are not significant. They are used to space the decimal point. The digit
5,8 and the final zero are significant. Thus there are three significant figures. In scientific
notation, it can be written as 5.80x10-3 km.
(c) The final zero is significant since it comes after the decimal point.
The zero between last zero and 1 is also significant because it comes between the significant
figures. Thus the number of significant figures in this case is four. In scientific notation, it can be
written as 210.0 g = 2.100 x 102g.

10
 SHORT QUESTIONS
Q1: Why do we study physics?
Ans: We study physics because Physics is the branch of science which deals with the matter,
energy and their interaction. Most of the technologies of our modern society throughout the
world are related to physics.

BRANCHES OF PHYSICS
Mechanics:
It is the study of motion of objects, its causes and effects.
Heat:
It deals with the nature of heat, modes of transfer and effects of heat.
Sound:
It deals with the physical aspects of sound waves, their production, properties and applications.
Light (Optics):
It is the study of physical aspects of light, its properties, working and use of optical instruments.
Electricity and Magnetism:
It is the study of the charges at rest and in motion, their effects and their relationship with magnetism.
Atomic Physics:
It is the study of the structure and properties of atoms.
Nuclear Physics:
It deals with the properties and behavior of nuclei and the particles within the nuclei.
Plasma Physics:
It is the study of production, properties of the ionic state of matter - the fourth state of matter.
Geophysics:
It is the study of the internal structure of the Earth.

Q2: Name any five branches of physics?

Q3: How can you differentiate between base and derived quantities?
Ans: Difference between the base and derived quantities:
 
Base Quantities Derived Quantities
i.    Base quantities are the quantities i. The quantities that are expressed in
based on which other quantities are terms of base quantities are called
expressed. derived quantities
ii. Length, mass, time, electric current, ii. Area, volume, speed, force, work,
temperature, the intensity of light | and energy, power, electric charge, electric
the amount of a substance. potential, etc.

11
QUESTION AND ANSWERS

12