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Flight Control Laws

Article Information

Category: Flight Technical

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Contents
◾ 1 Description
◾ 2 Design Philosophy
◾ 3 Airbus Flight Control Systems

◾ 3.1 Normal Law

◾ 3.2 Alternate Law
◾ 3.3 Direct Law
 ◾ 3.4 Mechanical Back Up

◾ 4 Boeing Flight Control Systems

◾ 4.1 Standard Protections and augmentations

◾ 5 Further Reading

Description
Modern large commercial transport aircraft designs rely on
sophisticated flight computers to aid and protect the aircraft in
flight. These are governed by computational laws which assign flight
control modes during flight.

Aircraft with fly-by-wire flight controls require computer controlled

flight control modes that are capable of determining the operational
mode (computational law) of the aircraft. A reduction of electronic
flight control can be caused by the failure of a computational device,
such as a flight control computer, an information providing device,
such as the Air Data Inertial Reference Unit (ADIRU) or the failure of
multiple systems (dual hydraulic failure, dual engine failure etc).
Electronic flight control systems (EFCS) also provide augmentation in
normal flight, such as increased protection of the aircraft from
overstress or providing a more comfortable flight for passengers, by
recognizing and correcting for turbulence and providing yaw
damping.

Two aircraft manufacturers produce commercial passenger aircraft

with primary flight computers that can perform under different flight
control modes (or laws). The most well-known are the Normal,
Alternate and Direct Laws plus Mechanical Backup of the Airbus
(/index.php/AIRBUS) A320-A380. Boeing (/index.php/BOEING)'s fly-by-
wire system is used in the Boeing 777. Boeing also has two other,
recently in-service, commercial aircraft, the 787 and the 747-8, which
use fly-by-wire controls. These newer generation of aircraft use the
lighter weight electronic systems to increase safety and performance
while lowering aircraft weight. Since these systems can also protect
the aircraft from overstress situations, the designers are able to
reduce "over-engineering" on various components further reducing
weight.

Design Philosophy
In older aircraft, control is achieved through the pilot's control
column, rudder pedals, trim wheel or throttles that mechanically
move cables, pulleys or hydraulic servo valves which in turn move
control surfaces or change engine settings. Many newer aircraft
replace these mechanical controls with fly-by-wire systems. These
aircraft have flight control computers which send electronic signals
to operate control surfaces or engine controls, inform the pilot and
provide performance information. In older aircraft the pilot's
mechanical controls are resisted by the forces acting on the control
surface, but nothing prevents the aircraft from stalling, over-
speeding or an excessive bank angle at high speed. Fly-by-wire
systems limit control surface movements to ensure that aircraft
limits are not exceeded.

Aircraft designers have created a set of flight control modes that

include redundant electronics to safeguard against system failures.
Failures can occur singly or in combination to render systems
inoperative. Pilots must be able to control the aircraft with any or all
of the fly by wire protections and control enhancement not
functioning. Airbus control law logic allows for a progressive
degradation of automatic protections until multiple failures result in
an unprotected, direct mode of operation. Limited mechanical
control modes are also available to allow continued aircraft control
during the reset process following a transient loss of all flight control
computers. Boeing's direct mode removes many of the
computational 'limitations'.

Another function of flight control laws is to assess the performance

of the aircraft under various conditions, such as takeoff, landing or
normal cruise when flight control computers partially or completely
fail. Designers build in the ability to by-pass the computers or for the
standby systems to operate without the computers.

Airbus Flight Control Systems

Airbus aircraft designs subsequent to the A300/A310 are almost
exclusively controlled by fly-by-wire (/index.php/Fly-By-Wire)
equipment. These newer aircraft, including the AIRBUS A-320
(/index.php/A320), A330 Family (/index.php/A330), A340 Family
(/index.php/A340), A350 and AIRBUS A-380-800 (/index.php/A380)
operate under Airbus flight control laws. There are some differences
in the electrical architecture, the number and the naming of the
flight control computers between types. As an example, the A320 has
a total of seven flight control computers - two ELACs (Elevator
Aileron Computer), three SECs (Spoilers Elevator Computer) and two
FACs (Flight Augmentation Computers) - whereas the A330 has a
total of five computers - three PRIMs (Flight Control Primary
Computer) and two SECs (Flight Control Secondary Computer). On
both aircraft, a single flight control computer is capable of providing
complete aircraft control in the most basic of Airbus control laws,
Direct Law. Mechanical Back Up is incorporated into the system
design to allow limited control of the aircraft while recovering from a
temporary total electrical failure.

The flight controls on Airbus fly-by-wire aircraft are all electronically

controlled and hydraulically activated. Some surfaces, such as the
rudder and the horizontal stabilizer, can also be mechanically
controlled. While in normal flight the computers act to prevent
excessive forces in the pitch and roll axes. The following discussion
is based on the A330 but much of the information also applies to
other Airbus types.

Information from numerous sources including pilot sidesticks and

rudder pedals, the Air Data Inertial Reference Units (ADIRUs), the
Landing Gear Control Interface Units (LGCIU), the Slat Flap Control
Computers (SFCC), the Flight Management Guidance Computers
(FMGC) and the accelerometer is sent to the five flight control
computers. There, dependent upon the active control law, the
aircraft speed, altitude, configuration, attitude, phase of flight and
numerous other parameters, the sidestick and rudder pedal or
autopilot commands are interpreted and the appropriate control
deflection signals are sent to the control actuators. Two Flight
Control Data Concentrators (FCDC) also acquire data from the
Primary and Secondary Flight Control Computers and send it to the
Electronic Instrument System (EIS) to feed pilot displays and to the
Central Maintenence Computer (CMC).
There are three primary flight control laws - Normal Law, Alternate
Law and Direct Law. Alternate Law is further subdivided into
Alternate Law 1 and Alternate Law 2. The degradation to one or the
other of the Alternate Law options is dependent upon the type of
failure. Each of the three laws has different sub modes inclusive of
ground mode, flight mode and flare mode. Mechanical Back Up is
designed to allow the pilots to maintain control of the aircraft while
restoring flight control computers after a complete power
interuption.

Normal Law
Flight control Normal Law provides three axis control, flight envelope
protection and manoeuver load alleviaiton. Normal Law operates in
differenct modes depending on the stage of flight. These modes
include:

◾ Ground Mode
◾ Flight Mode
◾ Flare Mode

Ground mode

Ground mode is active whilst the aircraft is on the ground. The

autotrim feature is turned off and there is a direct relationship
between sidestick deflection and elevator response. The horizontal
stabilizer is automatically set to 4° up but manual settings (e.g. for
center of gravity) override this setting. Immediately after the wheels
leave the ground, flight mode progressively takes over from ground
mode. The reverse occurs after touch down during the landing
phanse.

Flight Mode
The flight mode of Normal Law provides five types of protection:
pitch attitude, load factor limitations, high speed, high-AOA and bank
angle. In addition, Low Speed Protection is available in certain
phases of flight. Normal Law flight mode is operational from take-off
and remains active until 100 feet above the ground during the landing
phase. Failure of certain systems or multiple failures will result in
degradation of Normal Law to Alternate Law (ALT 1 or ALT2).

Unlike conventional controls, in Normal Law flight mode the sidestick

provides a load factor proportional to stick deflection which is
independent of aircraft speed. When the sidestick is neutral in
manual flight, the system will maintain a 1g load factor and the
aircraft will remain in level flight with no requirement for the pilot to
change the elevator trim, even during a speed or configuration
change. For manual turns up to 33° bank, no sidestick back pressure
is required as the system automatically trims the aircraft to maintain
level flight. The system freezes the auto-trim when the angle of
attack becomes excessive, the load factor exceeds 1.3g or when the
bank angle exceeds 33°. If these situations occur as the result of a
deliberate manoeuvre, the pilot must apply back pressure on the
sidestick to maintain the selected attitude. In all cases, Load Factor
Protection automatically limits the control inputs so that the aircraft
remains within AOM (/index.php/Operations_Manual) "g" limitations
and Pitch Attitude Protection limits the aircraft attitude to a
maximum of 30° nose up or 15° nose down.

High Angle of Attack Protection, which protects against stalling and

the effects of windshear has priority over all other protection
functions. The protection engages when the angle of attack is
between α-Prot and α-Max and limits the angle of attack
commanded by the pilot's sidestick to α-Max even with full sidestick
deflection. If the autopilot is engaged, it is automatically disengaged
with activation of High Angle of Attack Protection. α-Floor (automatic
application of TOGA thrust) may be activated by the autothrust
system if engagement parameters are met.

High Speed Protection will engage to automatically recover from high

speed upset. There are two speed limitations for high altitude
aircraft, VMO (Velocity Maximum Operational) and MMO (Mach
Maximum Operational). The two speeds are the same at
approximately 31,000 feet, below which overspeed is determined by
VMO and above 31,000 feet by MMO. Activation of High Speed
Protection results in reducing the positive spiral static stability of the
aircraft from its normal 33° to 0° which means that if the pilot
releases the sidestick, the aircraft will roll to a wings level attitutde.
It also reduces the sidestick nose down authority and applies a
permanent nose up order to help reduce speed and recovery to
normal flight. Activation of High Speed Protection results in
automatic autopilot disengagement. Once the speed has decreased
below VMO/MMO, Normal Law is restored and the autopilot can be
re-engaged.

Bank Angle Protection limits the maximum bank angle of the aircraft.
Within the normal flight envelope, if the sidestick is released when
bank angle is above 33°, the bank angle is automatically reduced to
33°. With full sidestick deflection, the maximum acheiveable bank
angle is 67°. If either Angle of Attack or High Speed Protection are
active, full sidestick deflection will result in a maximum bank angle
of 45°. With High Speed Protection active, release of the sidestick
will cause the aircraft to return to a wings level (0° bank)attitude.

Low Energy Protection is also available while in Normal Law when

the aircraft is between 100' and 2000' with flaps set at config 2 or
greater. The low energy warning is computed by the PRIMs using
parameters of configuration, airspeed deceleration rate and flight
path angle. The aural warning "Speed Speed Speed" indicates to the
pilot that aircraft energy has become too low and that power must
be added to recover a positive flight path angle. α-Floor protection is
available and will engage if pilot actions are inappropriate or
insufficient.

Flare mode

This mode is automatically engaged when the radar altimeter

indicates 100 feet above ground and provides for a direct sidestick to
elevator relationship. At 50 feet the aircraft trims the nose slightly
down requiring the pilot to progressively move the sidestick rearward
emulating a conventional control input for landing.

Alternate Law
There are three basic reconfiguration modes for the Airbus fly-by-
wire aircraft, Alternate Law, Direct Law and Mechanical Back Up.
Alternate Law is subdivided into two somewhat different
configurations dependent upon the specific failure(s). The ground
mode and flare modes for Alternate Law are identical to those
modes for Normal Law.

Alternate Law 1 (ALT1) combines Normal Law lateral mode with

Alternate Law pitch modes. Low Energy Protection is replaced by
Low Speed Stability meaning that the aircraft no longer has
automatic stall protection. At low speed, a nose down demand is
introduced based on IAS (instead of AOA) and Alternate Law changes
to Direct Law. In addition, an audio "STALL" warning is introduced. α-
Floor protection is not available so conventional pilot stall recovery
action is required.

Load Factor and Bank Angle Protections are retained. High Speed and
High Angle of Attack Protections enter Alternate Law mode. Pitch
Attitude Protection is lost.
ALT1 control law degradation will result from some faults in the
horizontal stabilizer, a single elevator fault, loss of a yaw-damper
actuator, loss of slat or flap position sensors or a single air data
reference fault. Dependent upon the failure, autopilot may not be
available.

In Alternate Law 2 (ALT2), Normal Law lateral mode is lost and is

replaced by roll Direct Law and yaw Alternate Law. Pitch mode is in
Alternate Law. Load factor protection is retained. In addition to those
protections lost in ALT1 (Pitch Attitude and Low Energy Protection),
Bank Angle Protection is also lost. In some failure cases, High Angle
of Attack and High Speed Protections will also be lost.

As is the case with ALT1, some failure cases that result in ALT2 will
also cause the autopilot to disconnecnt. ALT2 is entered when both
engines flame out, with faults in two inertial or two air-data
reference units, with faults to all spoilers, certain aileron faults or
with a pedal transducers fault.

Direct Law
In Direct Law (DIR), lateral modes are the same as ALT2; that is roll
Direct Law and yaw Alternate Law. Pitch control degrades to Direct
Law and automatic trim is inoperative requiring stab trim to be
adjusted manually by the pilot. Control surface motion is directly
related to the sidestick motion. ALL protections are lost.
In Direct Law, autopilot function is always lost. DIR is entered if there
is failure of all three inertial reference units or all three primary flight
computers, faults in both elevators or flame out of both engines
concurrent with loss of PRIM 1.

Mechanical Back Up
In the Mechanical Back Up mode, pitch is controlled by the
mechanical horizontal stab trim system and lateral direction is
controlled by the rudder pedals operating the rudder mechanically.
This mode is intended to allow the pilots to maintain level flight
while resetting flight control computers after a temporary total loss
of power.

Boeing Flight Control Systems

The principles of the Boeing approach to fly-by-wire electronic flight
control systems were established with the Boeing 777. The design
principle adopted is to provide a system that responds similarly to a
mechanically controlled flight control system. Because the B777
system is controlled electronically, it is also able to provide flight
envelope protection. The electronic system operates on two levels -
there are 4 Actuator Control Electronics (ACE) units and 3 Primary
Flight Computers (PFC). The ACEs control actuators (from those on
pilot controls to control surface controls and the PFC) and the PFC
determines the applicable control laws and provide feedback forces,
pilot information and warnings.

Standard Protections and augmentations

The 777 flight control system is designed to restrict control authority
beyond certain range by increasing the back pressure once the
desired limit is reached. This is done via electronically controlled
backdrive actuators (controlled by the ACE). The protections and
augmentations are: bank angle protection, turn compensation, stall
protection, over-speed protection, pitch control, stability
augmentation and thrust asymmetry compensation. The design
philosophy is: "to inform the pilot that the command being given
would put the aircraft outside of its normal operating envelope, but
the ability to do so is not precluded." In other words, the flight
envelope protection system provides crew awareness of envelope
margins and limitations by means of tactile, visual and aural cues
and warnings. However, the protection functions of the system do
not reduce or limit pilot control authority.

Normal mode In Normal mode during manual flight, the ACEs receive
pilot control inputs and send these signals to the three PFCs. The
PFCs verify these signals and utilise information from other airplane
systems in order to compute control surface commands. These
commandas are then sent back to the ACEs which then send the
enhanced signals to the flight control surface actuatos which convert
them into analog servo commands. Full functionality is provided
including all enhanced performance, envelope protection and ride
quality features.

When the auropilot is engaged, the autopilot system sends

commands to the PFCs. The PFCs generate control surface
commandas which are sent to the ACEs in the same manner as pilot
control inputs. The autopilot commands move the flightdeck controls
to provide autopilot feedback to the pilots. If a pilot overrides the
autopilot with control inputs, the PFCs will disengage the autopilot
and utilise the pilot control inputs. Note that the autopilot is not
available should reversion to Secondary or Direct mode occur.

Secondary mode Boeing Secondary mode is somewhat similar to the

Airbus Alternate Law. When the PFCs can not support Normal mode
operation due to internal faults or to loss of information from other
aircraft systems, they automatically revert to Secondary mode.
Reversion to Secondary mode results in the loss of the autopilot and
the pilots must control the aircraft manually. The ACEs still receive
pilot control inputs and send the appropriate signals to the PFCs.
However, due to the degraded mode of operation, the PFCs use
"simplified" computations to generate the flight control surface
commands. These commands are sent back to the ACEs from where
they are sent to the flight control surfaces in the same manner as
during Normal mode operations.

Aircraft handling qualities are affected by the simplified

computations or PFC control laws that are utilised in Secondary
mode. While all flight control surfaces remain operative, the elevator
and rudder are more sensitive at some airspeeds. The following
functions are inoperative or degraded during Secondary mode
operations:

◾ autopilot
◾ auto speedbrakes
◾ envelope protection
◾ gust suppression
◾ tail strike protection
◾ thrust asymmetry compensation
◾ yaw damping

Direct mode The ACEs automatically revert to Direct mode when they
detect the failure of all three PFCs or when they are unable to
communicate with the PFCs. Direct mode can also be manually
selected by selecting the DISC position on the Primary Flight
Computers Disconnect switch. In Direct mode, the PFCs no longer
generate control surface commands. Pilot inputs are received by the
ACEs and sent directly to the flight control surface actuators.
Direct mode allows for full aircraft control while in flight and during
the landing phase. Aircraft handling characteristics are very similar to
those encountered while in Secondary mode. In addition to those
functions lost during Secondary mode operations (as listed
previously) the manual rudder trim cancel switch is inoperative.

Mechanical Backup In the event of a complete electrical system

shutdown, cables from the flight deck controls to the stabiliser and
selected roll spoilers allow the pilots to maintain straight and level
flight until the electrical system can be restored.

Further Reading
◾ Fly-By-Wire (/index.php/Fly-By-Wire)
◾ Electronic Flight Instrument System (/index.php/EFIS)
◾ Autopilot (/index.php/Autopilot)
◾ Airbus fly-by-wire: a process toward total dependability (http://
www.skybrary.aero/bookshelf/books/2313.pdf) by Taverse,
Lacaze and Souyris - Paper presented to ICAS in 2006

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