©2005 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 100, pp. 203–224

100th Anniversary Special Paper:

Secular Changes in Global Tectonic Processes and Their Influence on the
Temporal Distribution of Gold-Bearing Mineral Deposits
DAVID I. GROVES,†
Centre for Global Metallogeny, School of Earth and Geographical Sciences, University of Western Australia,
Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia

KENT C. CONDIE,
Department of Earth and Environmental Science, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, Soccorro, New Mexico 87801

RICHARD J. GOLDFARB,
U.S. Geological Survey, Box 25046, Mail Stop 964, Denver Federal Center, Denver, Colorado 80225-0046

JONATHAN M.A. HRONSKY,

WMC Resources Ltd., 191 Great Eastern Highway, Belmont, Western Australia 6104, Australia

AND RICHARD M. VIELREICHER

Centre for Global Metallogeny, School of Earth and Geographical Sciences, University of Western Australia,
Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia

Abstract
Mineral deposit types commonly have a distinctive temporal distribution with peaks at specific periods of
Earth history. Deposits of less redox-sensitive metals, such as gold, show long-term temporal patterns that
relate to first-order changes in an evolving Earth, as a result of progressively declining heat production and
attendant changes in global tectonic processes. Despite abundant evidence for plate tectonics in the early Pre-
cambrian, it is evident that plume events were more abundant in a hotter Earth.
Episodic growth of juvenile continental crust appears to have been related to short-lived (<100 m.y.) cata-
strophic mantle-plume events and formation of supercontinents, whereas shielding mantle-plume events cor-
related with their breakup. Different mineral deposit types are associated with this cycle of supercontinent for-
mation and breakup. Broadly synchronous with juvenile continental crust formation was the development of
subcontinental lithospheric mantle, which evolved due to progressively declining heat flow and decreasing
plume activity. Archean subcontinental lithospheric mantle has a distinct mineralogical composition and is
buoyant, whereas later lithosphere was progressively more dense. Changes in the buoyancy of both oceanic
lithosphere and subcontinental lithospheric mantle led to evolution of tectonic scenarios in which buoyant,
roughly equidimensional, early Precambrian cratons were rimmed by Proterozoic or Phanerozoic linear elon-
gate belts of neutral to negative buoyancy.
Orogenic gold deposits, which formed over at least 3.4 b.y., had the highest preservation potential of any gold
deposit type. The pattern of formation and preservation, from episodic to more cyclic, broadly mirrors that of
crustal growth. Early Precambrian (mostly ca. 2.7 and 2.0–1.8 Ga) deposits, protected from uplift and erosion
in the centers of buoyant cratons, are rare between ca. 1.7 Ga and 600 Ma due to the change to more modern-
style plate tectonic processes, with nonpreservation of deposits of this age due to uplift and erosion of more
vulnerable orogenic belts. Volcanic-hosted massive sulfide (VHMS) deposits were accreted into the convergent
margin terranes in which orogenic gold deposits were forming. Their temporal distribution, from strongly
episodic to more cyclic peaks, also supports a model of selective preservation.
The first appearance of iron-oxide copper-gold (IOCG) deposits at ~2.55 Ga closely follows development of
early Precambrian subcontinental lithosphere mantle. Their genesis involved melting of metasomatized subcon-
tinental lithosphere mantle, so they could not form until such metasomatized mantle evolved below cratons with
buoyant lithosphere. Giant Precambrian paleoplacer gold deposits probably formed by effective fluvial sorting
under extreme climatic conditions but were largely preserved due to early buoyant subcontinental lithospheric
mantle below hosting foreland basins. Unequivocal intrusion-related gold deposits are related to complex felsic
intrusions with a mixed mantle-crustal signature, which intruded deformed shelf sedimentary sequences close to
but outside craton margins. Given that post-Paleoproterozoic uplift and erosion is likely in vulnerable orogenic
belts with negatively buoyant lithosphere, this deposit type is likely to be rare in Paleozoic and older terranes.
Gold-bearing deposit types thus display distinctive temporal distributions related to change from a more
buoyant plate tectonic style in the early hotter Earth to a modern plate tectonic style typical of the
† Corresponding author: e-mail, [email protected]

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204 GROVES ET AL.

Phanerozoic. Late Archean formation of buoyant subcontinental lithospheric mantle was particularly impor-
tant in the anomalous preservation of some earlier formed deposit types located inboard of craton margins and
in providing critical conditions for the formation of others. Development of negatively buoyant subcontinental
lithospheric mantle can explain the lack of preservation of some deposit types that formed in the later Pro-
terozoic. A single fundamental concept of coupled episodic crustal growth and preservation in the Archean and
Paleoproterozoic, evolving to decoupled episodes of growth and preservation from the Mesoproterozoic on-
ward, can thus explain the temporal distribution of a number of gold-bearing mineral deposit types.

Introduction of mineral deposit formation can be ascribed to (1) the evolu-

tion of atmosphere-hydrosphere-biosphere systems (e.g.,
THE ADVENT of the theory of plate tectonics generated con- Holland, 1984), (2) the widely accepted secular decrease in
siderable interest in the relationship between mineral de- global heat flow (e.g., as indicated by the virtual restriction of
posits and their global tectonic setting (e.g., Sawkins, 1972, komatiite-associated nickel-copper-sulfide deposits to the
1990; Sillitoe, 1972; Mitchell and Garson, 1981; Brimhall, early Precambrian; Lesher, 1989), and (3) long-term changes
1987; Hutchinson, 1993; Titley, 1993; Kesler, 1997; Barley et in tectonic processes (e.g., Windley, 1984; Meyer, 1988;
al., 1998; Kerrich et al., 2000; Blundell, 2002). This has led to Veizer et al., 1989; Barley and Groves, 1992). As discussed
the realization that different mineral deposit types are related below, secular decrease in global heat flow directly affects ir-
to specific convergent, divergent, or anorogenic settings and reversible changes in tectonic processes, and both affect the
that the recognition of these settings is useful in exploration. long-term preservation potential of terranes of different age
At the same time, there has been a growing recognition that and, hence, represent important first-order controls on the
the various mineral deposit types have a heterogeneous tem- temporal distribution of mineral deposit types. Whether or
poral distribution (Fig. 1), with characteristic peaks in their not the temporal distribution of near-surface mineral de-
abundance at specific times in Earth history (e.g., Meyer, posits, particularly sediment-hosted deposits, for which metal
1981, 1988; Barley and Groves, 1992; Goldfarb et al., 2001a). transport and deposition are highly affected by redox condi-
The uneven temporal distribution can be explained by tions, is controlled by an evolving atmosphere-hydrosphere-
changes in the processes that combine to produce the mineral biosphere system is not discussed here. There is considerable
deposits and/or the preservation potential of their deposi- current controversy on whether there was a sudden appear-
tional environments. In turn, temporal changes in the process ance of an oxygenated world (e.g., Lasaga and Ohmoto, 2002)

A) B)
Ore type 3Ga 2Ga 1Ga P Ore type 3Ga 2Ga 1Ga P

Cyprus-type Uranium in
weathered profile
VHMS

Abitibi-type Kiruna-type
IOCG

Olympic Dam-type
Kuroko
Ilmenite-anorthosite

Orogenic gold Lead-zinc in

clastic sediments

Paleoplacer Lead-zinc in carbo-

SEDEX

and placer gold nates: Mississippi

Valley-type
Porphyry

Porphyry Cu
Copper in clastic
sediments
Porphyry Mo

FIG. 1. Distribution through time of the number of preserved specific mineral deposits ascribed to (A) orogenic-conver-
gent margin settings and (B) anorogenic or continental-basin settings. Peaks in abundance of anorogenic and continental-
basin metal deposits appear to correspond to (1) possible breakup, or incipient breakup, of a Paleoproterozoic superconti-
nent, (2) formation of Rodinia at about 1 Ga, and (3) formation and breakup of Gondwana and Pangea. Adapted from Barley
and Groves (1992). Peaks for deposit types in (A) are better defined and discussed in the text. Note that the temporal pat-
tern for orogenic gold deposits, in particular (see also Fig. 8), have evolved as better dating techniques have become em-
ployed. IOCG = iron-oxide copper-gold deposits, SEDEX = sedimentary-exhalative deposits, VHMS = volcanic-hosted mas-
sive sulfide deposits.

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 100th ANNIVERSARY SPECIAL PAPER: TECTONIC PROCESSES & Au DISTRIBUTION 205

or more gradual evolution to a present-day atmosphere (e.g.,

Farquhar et al., 2000) and discussion of these issues is beyond 14

Volume percent growth

the scope of this paper.
This paper examines current evidence for the evolution of 12
2.7 Ga
the continental crust, the supercontinent cycle, the nature of 10
mantle plumes and their influence on the supercontinent 1.9 Ga
cycle, and the transition from Archean- to modern-style plate 8
tectonics in order to develop a model that explains secular
variations in metallogeny in terms of changes in tectonic 6
processes and their preservational consequences. In particu-
4
lar, these consequences are examined with respect to the
global metallogeny of gold deposits. The paper deals with 2
global secular patterns of mineral deposits in terms of
changes in tectonic processes but does not deal in any detail
with the environmental consequences (e.g., Titley, 1993; 3.8 3.4 3.0 2.6 2.2 1.8 1.4 1.0 0.6 0.2
Kesler, 1997) of those tectonic processes. The best possible Age (Ga )
temporal patterns for >90 percent of the resources of each FIG. 2. Frequency distribution of juvenile continental crust based on a
deposit type are presented within the constraints on compat- total volume of continental crust of 7.177 × 109 km3. Juvenile crust ages are
ibility of resource data and uncertainties of precise timing for U/Pb zircon ages used in conjunction with Nd isotope data and lithologic as-
some deposits. The paper attempts to integrate data and con- sociations. Modified after Condie (1998, 2000).
cepts across several disciplines and focuses only on the most
recent overviews. The interested reader is referred to these
reviews for exhaustive lists of references within the different
disciplines. The review by Kerrich et al. (2000) is a particu- 1.7, 0.48, 0.28, and 0.1 Ga (Condie, 2001b). As discussed
larly complete source of references that relate to the geody- below, the pattern of these peaks and the peaks themselves
namics of world-class gold deposits. correspond broadly with those of orogenic gold provinces and
hence are an important control on global metallogeny. It is
Juvenile Continental Crust and the Supercontinent Cycle still not clear if, and how, these peaks in the rate of crustal
In order to understand the temporal evolution of mineral production relate to the supercontinent cycle, as defined, for
deposits that are preserved within continental crust, it is im- example, by Hoffman (1988) and Murphy and Nance (1992),
portant to understand the temporal evolution of that crust and to mantle overturn events (e.g., Condie, 1998). They may,
and its relationship to the configuration of continental masses or may not, correlate with the accumulation or breakup phase
through time—the supercontinent cycle. The evolution of the of supercontinents. In the last 1 b.y., the formation and
Earth is intrinsically linked to a gradual decay of heat pro- breakup of three such major supercontinents (Rodinia,
duction, lowering of mantle temperatures and viscosity, and Gondwana, and Pangea), and a possible short-lived supercon-
thickening of the subcontinental lithosphere (e.g., Pollack, tinent (Pannotia) in the latest Proterozoic, have been recog-
1986). Some authors consider this to have been more or less nized (Unrug, 1997; Condie, 2002a). Geologic data support
a continuous evolution (e.g., Pollack, 1997), but the episodic the existence of at least two earlier supercontinents, one at
distribution of radiogenic isotopic ages, first recognized by the end of the Archean and one in the Paleoproterozoic
Gastil (1960), has led to models of more episodic growth of (Hoffman, 1989; Rogers, 1996; Aspler and Chiarenzelli, 1998;
juvenile continental crust (Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Stein Pesonen et al., 2003).
and Hoffmann, 1994; Condie, 1998, 2000). The distribution Ages from Archean cratons suggest that the first supercon-
of U-Pb zircon ages, coupled with Nd and Hf isotope data, tinent (or supercontinents; Aspler and Chiarenzelli, 1998)
suggest that significant crustal growth commenced at or be- formed during frequent collisions and suturing of older con-
fore 3.0 Ga with two major peaks in juvenile crustal produc- tinental blocks and juvenile oceanic terranes (principally arcs
tion rate, one at ca. 2.7 Ga and another at ca. 1.9 Ga (Fig. 2). and oceanic plateaus) between 2750 and 2650 Ma (Fig. 2).
The global dominance of greenstone belts and granitoids that The Late Archean peak in the rate of juvenile crust produc-
formed in the interval from ca. 2.75 to 2.60 Ga, in particular, tion is also centered at 2700 ± 50 Ma (Fig. 2), further sug-
cannot be a sampling artifact, as such terranes are known gesting a correlation between supercontinent formation and
from all continents (e.g., Yilgarn craton of Australia, southern juvenile continental crust production. Major gold provinces
Superior and Slave provinces of Canada, Zimbabwe craton, developed in the southern Superior, Slave, Yilgarn, Zim-
Tanzania craton, and Sao Francisco craton of Brazil), and ro- babwe, Tanzania, and Sao Francisco cratons at about this time
bust geochronologic techniques have been employed increas- (as summarized by Goldfarb et al., 2001a).
ingly in these terranes in the past decade. In addition, al- The final breakup of the Late Archean supercontinent(s)
though it is evident that the precise timing of peaks in crustal occurred in the Paleoproterozoic between 2200 and 2100 Ma.
growth is progressively evolving as more data become avail- Subsequently, a new supercontinent formed between 1900
able (compare Condie, 1998, with Condie, 2001a), with a and 1800 Ma, with most collisions in Laurentia, Baltica, and
probable uncertainty of ±50 Ma, the relative patterns are ro- Siberia occurring ca. 1850 Ma (Condie, 2002b; Pesonen et al.,
bust. Thus, in addition to the two major peaks in crustal pro- 2003; Fig. 2). The giant Homestake gold deposit formed at
duction rate, smaller peaks may be present at ca. 2.8, 2.5, 2.1, around this time (Dahl et al., 1999).

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206 GROVES ET AL.

In the Phanerozoic, crustal growth peaks are indicated at plumes associated with mantle upwellings are responsible for
ca. 480, 280, and 100 Ma (Condie, 2001b). The first two peaks fragmenting supercontinents (Condie, 2001b). Computer
broadly correlate with the rapid growth of Pangea between models suggest that it takes 200 to 400 m.y. for shielding of a
480 and 250 Ma and the third with the growth of a new su- large supercontinent to cause a mantle upwelling beneath it
percontinent beginning at ca. 150 Ma. Importantly, these (Lowman and Jarvis, 1996). This is followed by development
peaks broadly coincide with major gold events in the Tasman of numerous mantle plumes within the upwelling and, finally,
orogen, Central Asia, and circum-Pacific (Goldfarb et al., by supercontinent breakup over a period of up to approxi-
2001a, b). Increased rates of production of juvenile crust ap- mately 200 m.y. (Fig. 4). If, in a mantle-plume event (Condie,
pear to correlate with formation and not breakup phases of 2004), the supercontinent is too small to provide sufficient
the supercontinents over the last 1,200 m.y. (Condie, 2004). mantle shielding to produce an upwelling, the small super-
continent may move laterally with the downwelling (e.g., Tru-
Mantle-Plume Events and the Supercontinent Cycle bitsyn et al., 2003) or may not completely fragment, as ap-
The following section discusses the relationship between pears to be the case with the 1.9-Ga supercontinent (Condie,
crustal growth and mantle-plume events and how the latter 2002c). Thus, there may be long-term survival of the roots of
impact on the supercontinent cycle, which, in turn, impacts relatively small cratonic blocks such as the Yilgarn and Pilbara
on the temporal distribution of mineral deposits. cratons of Western Australia (Trubitsyn et al., 2003). Al-
Major peaks in the rate of production of juvenile crust are though plume heads can have diameters of up to 2,500 km in
interpreted to be caused by mantle overturn events involving such a shielding mantle-plume event, the volume of juvenile
numerous mantle plumes in a short time interval (Condie, mafic crust associated with a given plume (e.g., estimated by
1998, 2000). Mantle plume events are short-lived episodes the volume of Phanerozoic flood basalts and mafic under-
(≤100 m.y.) during which many plumes impact on or affect plates) is probably relatively small, as is the volume of oceanic
the base of the lithosphere, and they appear to have been im- plateaus accreted to the continents, at least since the end of
portant throughout Earth history (Condie, 1998; Isley and the Archean (Condie, 2001b).
Abbott, 1999). During such events, plume activity may be There must be, therefore, something unique about the
concentrated in one or more mantle upwellings, as during the mantle-plume events associated with peaks in the production
mid-Cretaceous (ca. 100 Ma) superplume event focused in of juvenile crust at about 2.7 and 1.9 Ga. These events, called
the Pacific basin (Larson, 1991). catastrophic mantle-plume events (Condie, 2004), must be
Mantle plume events can be identified by the recognition triggered by some process other than plate shielding. They
of igneous rocks associated with mantle plumes, commonly are also short lived (less than 100 m.y.) in contrast to shield-
called plume proxies (Ernst and Buchan, 2002; Isley and Ab- ing events (>200 m.y.) and must be more intense and perhaps
bott, 2002). Using a combination of plume proxies, including more widespread. The cause of the catastrophic mantle
flood basalts, komatiites, and high MgO lavas, giant dike plumes is unclear. Peltier et al. (1997) and Condie (1998) sug-
swarms, and layered intrusions, Abbott and Isley (2002) rec- gested that the breakup of Precambrian supercontinents trig-
ognized 36 mantle-plume events in the last 3.8 b.y. (Fig. 3). A gered slab avalanches at the 660-km discontinuity in the man-
weighted time series analysis shows that most mantle-plume tle, resulting in catastrophic plume production in a (“D”)
events, regardless of age, lasted about 10 m.y., with major layer just above the core. However, this model does not ap-
Precambrian events at ca. 2.75, 2.45, 1.8, 1.75, and 1.65 Ga, pear to work for the 2.7-Ga event, since there is no evidence
and several events in the Phanerozoic. Peaks in the abun- for significant earlier supercontinent fragmentation.
dance of plume proxies at ca. 2.75, 1.8, 0.25, and 0.12 Ga are The most voluminous banded iron formations (BIF) were
close to calculated peaks in the production of juvenile crust, deposited in intracratonic, passive-margin or platform basins
although not all such events show such correlations (Condie, during stands of high sea level in the Late Archean and Pale-
2004). oproterozoic (Simonson and Hassler, 1997). The iron and sil-
There may be two types of mantle-plume events; one asso- ica enrichments in these rocks appear to have been derived
ciated with supercontinent formation and one with supercon- chiefly from hydrothermal vents on the deep sea floor (Klein
tinent breakup (Condie, 2004). It is commonly believed that and Beukes, 1992; Isley, 1995; Barley et al., 1999). Two major
peaks in BIF deposition at 2.7 and 1.9 Ga correlate well with
and can be explained by mantle-plume events at these times
1.5 (Klein and Beukes, 1992; Isley and Abbott, 1999). The en-
1.2 hanced submarine volcanism and hydrothermal venting asso-
ciated both with ocean-ridge and oceanic plateau volcanism
Height

0.9
during a mantle-plume event may be the source of iron and
0.6 silica. Also, the elevated sea level at 1.9 Ga caused by a plume
0.3 event could provide the extensive shallow marine basins along
stable continental platforms necessary to preserve BIF (cf. Ti-
4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 tley, 1993).
Age (Ga) Crustal growth associated with catastrophic mantle-plume
events is chiefly by addition of magmatic arcs directly within
FIG. 3. Distribution of mantle plume events deduced from time series
analysis of plume proxies (i.e., igneous rocks associated with mantle plumes) continental margins or by accretion of oceanic arcs to the
from Abbott and Isley (2002). Peak height depends on the number of plume edge of the continents (Rudnick, 1995; Condie, 2001b), al-
proxies and the errors of the age, the latter set at 5 m.y. though at least in the last 2.5 b.y., the latter played a relatively

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 100th ANNIVERSARY SPECIAL PAPER: TECTONIC PROCESSES & Au DISTRIBUTION 207

Super continents Superplume Events

R P
Breakup ?
Juvenile
Crust
Formation
R G P N
3 2 Age (Ga)
1 0
FIG. 4. Formation and breakup of supercontinents during the past 3.0 b.y, based on available paleogeographic
reconstructions. Also shown are times of maximum production rate of juvenile continental crust and proposed catastrophic
mantle-plume events. Data from Condie (1998, 2001b, 2002a-c). G = Gondwana, N = new supercontinent, P = Pangea, R =
Rodinia.

minor role. That supercontinent formation occurred nearly addition, given a hotter mantle, it is probable that plates
simultaneously with the 1.9 Ga plume event may not be coin- would move faster and, thus in the Late Archean, spreading
cidental. Perhaps breakup of the Late Archean superconti- crust may have subducted sooner, possibly in about 35 m.y.
nent at 2.2 to 2.1 Ga served as a trigger for the 1.9 Ga plume and perhaps as rapidly as 20 m.y. (Bickle, 1986). Whereas the
event, and, in this sense, a catastrophic event provided posi- time to reach neutral buoyancy in modern oceans is less than
tive feedback for crustal growth that began during a shielding the time it takes for spreading crust to reach an active trench,
plume event. A growing supercontinent also may contribute oceanic crust in the Archean may have encountered active
to the preservation of juvenile crust by trapping it in colli- subduction zones while it was still buoyant. The crossover in
sional and accretionary orogens. these two ages depends on which values are accepted for
Broadly, the mineral deposits shown in Figure 1 have tem- subduction rates but is likely to be between 2.5 and 2.0 Ga
poral distributions related, at least in part, to the superconti- (Fig. 5), the time that Archean “buoyant plate tectonics”
nent cycle (e.g., Barley et al., 1998). As shown in Figure 1A, (deWit, 1998) may have started to evolve into modern plate
both Abitibi-type volcanic-hosted massive sulfide (VHMS) tectonics.
and orogenic gold deposits correlate with a possible cata- The Archean and probably Paleoproterozoic plate tectonic
strophic mantle-plume event at 2.7 Ga, and ore types in Fig- dynamics were likely controlled by various types of plume
ure 1B may correlate with shielding-type plume events. events, the largest of which were responsible for voluminous
continental growth and accretion of buoyant oceanic lithos-
The Transition from Archean to phere. The voluminous komatiites and related basalts in the
Modern-Style Plate Tectonics
If the Earth has steadily cooled with time, as is widely ac-
cepted (e.g., Pollack, 1986), there is good reason to suspect Subduction
Neutral Buoyancy
that tectonic processes were different in the Archean (e.g., 80
or for subduction to begin (m.yr.)

Fyfe, 1978). For example, a hotter mantle in the Archean

Time to reach neutral buoyancy

would have produced more melt at ocean ridges and hence

70
thicker oceanic crust (e.g., Bickle, 1990). Model calculations
indicate that the Archean oceanic crust should have been
about 20 km thick, and perhaps even thicker in the Early 60
Archean, compared to the present thickness of about 7 km
(Sleep and Windley, 1982). It is also possible that there were 50
more numerous, but smaller, plates in the Archean (e.g., Pol-
lack, 1997; deWit, 1998) and that there was a coupled reduc- 40
tion in the number of plates and increase in the size of plates
with time, perhaps leading to a progression to larger super- 30
continents with time.
Modern oceanic lithosphere reaches neutral buoyancy in 20
about 20 m.y. (Davies, 1992), after which it becomes nega-
tively buoyant. The observed mean age of oceanic crust 10
when it begins to subduct is 60 (Parsons, 1982) to 80 m.y. 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5
(Sprague and Pollack, 1980). In the presence of a hotter Age (Ga)
mantle, it would take oceanic plates longer to become neu- FIG. 5. Effect of mantle cooling on the time needed for a plate to reach
trally buoyant, and thus, neutral buoyancy would not be neutral buoyancy and the time needed for subduction to commence. Modi-
reached until about 80 m.y. in the Late Archean (Fig. 5). In fied after Davies (1992).

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208 GROVES ET AL.

Archean and, to a lesser extent, Paleoproterozoic granitoid- the mineral deposits (e.g., PGE, diamonds, Fe oxide Cu-Au)
greenstone terranes attest to the widespread influence of that form after craton development. It is thus important from
plume tectonics (e.g., Campbell et al., 1989; Pirajno, 2000). a metallogenic viewpoint to examine the evolution of the sub-
There have been arguments against Archean plate tectonics continental lithospheric mantle (e.g., Richter, 1985; Jordan,
to produce the magmatic and deformational features of 1988) and its potential effect on the temporal distribution of
greenstone belts (e.g., Hamilton, 1998). However, the mineral deposits.
nonkomatiitic volcanic and volcano-sedimentary successions The density of the subcontinental lithospheric mantle be-
in the greenstone belts are remarkably similar in their com- neath stabilized continental crust of varying ages has been de-
positional range and geochemistry to volcanic successions in termined using data on composition, thermal state, and petro-
modern convergent settings, such as arcs, backarcs, and in- logical thickness (e.g., O’Reilly and Griffin, 1996; Poudjom
terarc rifts, with differences readily explained by contrasts Djomani et al., 2001). Data from mantle-derived peridotite
between shallow subduction of hot, old, Archean oceanic xenoliths and garnet xenocrysts provide a pattern of secular
lithosphere versus steeper subduction of colder, younger evolution of such lithosphere, with progressively less deple-
oceanic lithosphere (e.g., Barley et al., 1998). This implicates tion in Al and Ca and lower Mg no. and Fe/Al from the
the existence of Archean-Paleoproterozoic plume-influ- Archean to the Phanerozoic. Thermobarometric data from
enced, modified plate tectonics. This is strongly supported the xenolith and xenocryst suites show that paleogeotherms
by the recognition of fossil subduction zones in the Abitibi were lower in Archean than in Phanerozoic subcontinental
belt of Canada during the LITHOPROBE project (e.g., Lud- lithospheric mantle and that the typical thickness of the
den and Hynes, 2000). The similarity in structures and lithosphere, defined as a chemical boundary layer, was greater
chronology of deformation events in the Precambrian green- in the Archean (250–180 km) than in the Proterozoic
stone belts and modern convergent margins and the abun- (180–150 km) and Phanerozoic (140–60 km). From these
dance in both of orogenic gold deposits (Groves et al., 1998) data, and data on mineral end members that constitute the
and VHMS deposits (e.g., Franklin et al., 1981) is discussed subcontinental lithospheric mantle, Poudjom Djomani et al.
further below. (2001) calculate mean densities (at 20°C) for Archean sub-
continental lithospheric mantle of 3.31 ± 0.016 Mg/m3 com-
Evolution of the Subcontinental Lithospheric Mantle pared to Proterozoic and Phanerozoic equivalents of 3.35 ±
The higher heat flow and greater plume activity in the early 0.02 and 3.36 ± 0.02 Mg/m3, respectively. Thus, not only are
Earth should also be reflected in the mantle lithosphere there significant variations in the compositions of subconti-
below the continental crust. There is evidence for this in the nental lithospheric mantle with time (Fig. 6), but these trans-
unusual, broadly equidimensional (~1,000–1,500-km diam) late, in an analogous way to oceanic lithosphere discussed
shapes of the Archean and Paleoproterozoic cratons and the above, into temporal variations in density, and hence buoy-
anomalously high abundance of granitoids that make these ancy, of the subcontinental lithospheric mantle (Fig. 7). This
cratons readily identifiable in maps or remote sensing images secular evolution of the subcontinental lithospheric mantle
at the regional scale. Although individual greenstone belts are implies broadly synchronous formation of crust and its lithos-
elongate in a pattern similar to that of modern orogenic belts, pheric root and their linkage through their subsequent history
the largely granitic cratons in which they are encased are (Griffin et al., 2003; Sleep, 2003). This elegantly explains the
equidimensional. Each craton (i.e., granitoid-greenstone ter- individual metallogenic signatures of Precambrian cratons
rane) has its own volcanic history and specific substrate, and (deWit and Thiart, 2003), as each craton may have a lithos-
its own distinctive metallogenic associations. For example, pheric root of different depth extent and composition, de-
only the Yilgarn craton contains both giant gold and nickel de- pendent on degree of mantle melt extraction, mantle incom-
posits such as those of the Eastern Goldfields province, and patible-element metasomatism, and degree of modification
only the Abitibi belt of the Superior craton contains both along craton margins. Griffin et al. (2003) also argue that the
world-class gold and VHMS deposits, each hosted in ca. 2.72 unique Archean subcontinental lithospheric mantle roots rep-
to 2.65 Ga greenstone belts. The different metallogeny of resent residues and/or cumulates from deep high-degree
these cratons may partly reflect the smaller size of Archean melting related to the unique abundance of major mantle-
plates and certainly relates to the nature of the crust (and plume events of varying type, as discussed above. The exact
lithosphere) in the various provinces at the time of mineral- processes by which subcontinental lithospheric mantle
ization. For example, the VHMS deposits of the Abitibi belt formed and was coupled to the crust are beyond the scope of
were mostly formed on primitive crust (Ayer et al., 2002), this paper, but various models are discussed by Arndt et al.
whereas the komatiite-hosted nickel deposits in the Yilgarn (2002), and a schematic model of lithosphere accretion in-
craton formed on rifted continental crust (Krapez et al., volving plume-arc interaction is presented in Kerrich et al.
2000), as also shown by the predominance of granitoids and (2000). Whatever the process, massive melting events in the
tonalites in the Abitibi belt compared with monzogranites in mantle, and subsequently in the lower and middle crust to
the Yilgarn craton (Champion and Sheraton, 1997). DeWit produce many of the voluminous granitoids that typify the
and Thiart (2003) further demonstrate that individual cratons overlying terranes (e.g., Champion and Sheraton, 1997),
at a global scale have their own distinctive metallogenic asso- probably were the crustal-scale cause of the broadly equidi-
ciations regardless of the timing of mineralization (pre-, syn-, mensional surface expressions of early Precambrian cratons.
or postcratonization). The postcratonization example suggests There are major implications from these studies in terms of
not only that each craton is unique but also that it has unique tectonics and metallogeny. As summarized by Poudjom
subcontinental lithospheric mantle reflected by the nature of Djomani et al. (2001), Archean subcontinental lithospheric

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 100th ANNIVERSARY SPECIAL PAPER: TECTONIC PROCESSES & Au DISTRIBUTION 209

Archean Proterozoic Phanerozoic

Kaapvaal Siberia Slave craton NE Siberia E China
50 > 90 Ma Canada 50 50
Pr ojected Depth (km )

100 100 100

LAB
Depleted
Harzburgite
Depleted
150 150 Lherzolite
150
LAB Fertile
Lherzolite
Lherzolite (LRE E
metasomatized)
200 200 200 Peridotite (Melt-
LAB
LAB metasomatized)

0 50 0 50 0 50 100 0 50 100 0 50 100

Cumulative % of each rock type
FIG. 6. Depth and depth variation in composition of Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic lithospheric sections, in-
cluding changes in the composition of subcontinental lithospheric mantle with time. Profiles for each age of lithosphere show
estimated proportions of components (see legend) at various depths in the lithosphere. LAB = lithosphere-asthenosphere
boundary. From Griffin et al. (2003).

mantle would have been buoyant relative to asthenosphere in 180-km-thick subcontinental lithospheric mantle was likely
any reasonable geologic scenario. As this buoyancy reduces moderately buoyant nonetheless, and thus also unlikely to
stress and viscosity, Archean subcontinental lithospheric man- have been delaminated. As in Archean cratons, Paleoprotero-
tle could not have been delaminated solely by gravitational zoic mineral deposits that formed late in the cratonization
processes and would have been preserved unless disrupted by process should still have had relatively high preservation po-
rifting and replacement by more fertile asthenosphere. Thus, tential.
mineral deposits formed late in Archean craton evolution, or In contrast, the commonly <100-km-thick Phanerozoic
in anorogenic settings after Archean cratonization, should subcontinental lithospheric mantle should be negatively
have enhanced preservation potential. buoyant and readily delaminated, allowing the generation of
The calculations by Poujom Djomani et al. (2001) indicate wide, gravitationally unstable, orogenic belts. Thus, preserva-
that Proterozoic subcontinental lithospheric mantle was tion of mineral deposits formed above such lithosphere is less
denser than the Archean equivalent, but that typical 150- to likely than for those above Precambrian lithosphere, and

A) Crust B) Crust
50 Upper Mantle 50 Upper Mantle
Phanerozoic
Proterozoic (50mW/m2)
Depth (km)

LAB
Depth (km)

100 (40mW/m2) 100

Archean
(35mW/m2) LAB Southeastern
150 150 Australia

LAB
200 200

250 250
3.26 3.30 3.34 3.38 3.42 3.26 3.30 3.34 3.38 3.42
Cumulative density (g/cm 3)
FIG. 7. Density profiles and average heat flow for (A) Archean and Proterozoic and (B) Phanerozoic subcontinental lithos-
pheric mantle and for the asthenosphere. LAB = lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary. Adapted from Poudjom Djomani et
al. (2001). The stars show where the isotherms for each lithosphere cross the LAB.

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210 GROVES ET AL.

older Phanerozoic and Neoproterozoic deposits are least evolution and secular changes in metallogeny. VHMS de-
likely to have been preserved. posits, which formed over at least 3.25 b.y. of Earth history
The temporal evolution of subcontinental lithospheric (e.g., Barrie and Hannington, 1999), are the only other de-
mantle, which directly reflects the secular change from posit type to show such a long-lived distribution. They formed
strongly plume-influenced Archean tectonics to Phanerozoic- in deep marine basins and were preserved beneath subse-
style plate tectonics, must be considered a major factor influ- quent, rapidly erupted volcanic or rapidly deposited sedi-
encing secular variations in both mineral deposit types and mentary sequences. They were either accreted into the same
the present abundance of specific deposit styles. convergent margin settings in which orogenic gold deposits
were forming (e.g., Titley, 1993) or were actually formed
Tectonic Evolution and Secular Change in there (e.g., Solomon and Quesada, 2003). A brief discussion
Metallogeny: Useful Markers of their secular distribution, plus that of intrusion-related
To determine links between secular tectonic and metallo- gold, IOCG and paleoplacer gold, follows the discussion of
genic evolution, it is imperative to consider mineral deposit orogenic gold deposits.
styles that are at least only mildly affected by other evolution-
ary changes. Thus, it is important to avoid deposits of strongly Tectonic Evolution and Secular Change in
redox-sensitive metals (e.g., sediment-hosted deposits), the Metallogeny: Messages from Orogenic Gold Deposits
temporal evolution of which may be linked to any temporal As discussed by Goldfarb et al. (2001a, b), most Mesozoic
change in the atmosphere-hydrosphere-biosphere system as to Tertiary orogenic gold deposits coincide with external
well as tectonic environment. ocean margins, where accretion of juvenile crust took place in
Epigenetic gold deposits are potentially useful for testing environments in which large thermal anomalies were associ-
secular changes in tectonic processes because most such de- ated with thrust-related thickening of radiogenic crust (e.g.,
posits formed below the influence of surficial processes and, Jamieson et al., 1998) or upwelling of asthenosphere due to
hence, were unlikely to have been influenced by any secular ridge subduction (e.g., Haeussler et al., 1995), subduction
variation in atmosphere-hydrosphere-biosphere systems. Por- rollback (Landefeld, 1988), or lithospheric delamination or
phyry Cu-Au deposits, some of which are significant gold de- erosion (e.g., Griffin et al., 1998). Precambrian deposits ap-
posits in their own right (e.g., Kesler et al., 2002) and ep- pear to have formed also in similar tectonic settings of anom-
ithermal Au-Ag ± Cu–type deposits have a strong tectonic alously high thermal energy (e.g., Kerrich and Cassidy, 1994;
control in convergent margin settings (e.g., Sillitoe, 1997), Qiu and Groves, 1999; Wyman et al., 1999). Thus, orogenic
particularly in tectonic settings with anomalous, high K mag- gold deposits of all ages record orogen-wide fluxes of deeply
matism (e.g., Barley et al., 2002). However, they form at shal- sourced heat and fluid as part of the orogenic process in con-
low crustal levels (<3 and <1 km, respectively) in arc and vergent margins (e.g., Fyfe and Kerrich, 1985), almost cer-
backarc environments with high to extremely high uplift tainly in response to global-scale tectonic events.
rates. Thus, epithermal Au-Ag ± Cu deposits are mostly Ter- Figure 8 shows a comparison of the timing of orogenic gold
tiary or younger, with some examples of Mesozoic and fewer deposit formation (Goldfarb et al., 2001a) and periods of
examples of Paleozoic age. Porphyry Cu-Au deposits are crustal growth (Condie, 2000). It must be noted that not all
mostly younger than Mesozoic, although significant Paleozoic orogenic gold provinces are well dated using robust
examples are increasingly being recognized in Central Asia, geochronology and that their temporal distribution in Figure
Mongolia, and China (e.g., Perello et al., 2001; Yakubchuk et 8 is a best current estimate only. Similarly, as discussed above,
al., 2002), with older examples apparently selectively pre- the interpretation of ages of crustal growth is evolving and
served by accretion or collision of hosting arcs with continen- displayed ages have an uncertainty of ±50 Ma. The earliest
tal blocks. The virtual absence of porphyry Cu-Au and Mo de- orogenic gold deposits formed in the Middle Archean in the
posits from the mid-Paleozoic to the Late Paleoproterozoic, Pilbara and Kaapvaal cratons, from about 3.4 Ga (e.g., Zegers
but their appearance there and in the Archean (Fig. 1A), is an et al., 2002), with the economically most important Barberton
interesting temporal pattern that must be related to preserva- deposits having formed at around 3.1 Ga (e.g., de Ronde et
tion rather than formation processes, as there were suitable al., 1991). The earliest orogenic gold deposits in the Pilbara
arc environments throughout Earth history. craton broadly correspond to the earliest significant growth of
In contrast to the porphyry and epithermal deposits, oro- continental crust, and the Barberton deposits correspond to
genic gold deposits, although formed in similar convergent the start of a broad peak in crust formation (Figs. 2, 8). If the
margin settings, were deposited in a wide range of crustal en- Witwatersrand deposits are of paleoplacer origin (Kirk et al.,
vironments from a 3- to 20-km depth (as summarized by 2001) and derived from the erosion of a large source area fol-
Groves, 1993, from previous literature, particularly Hodgson lowing the collision of relatively small Archean crustal blocks
and MacGeehan, 1982, and Colvine et al., 1984) during the (Frimmel et al., 2005), then potentially both Middle Archean
late compressional to transpressional deformation that stabi- juvenile crust and orogenic gold abundance would have been
lized their host orogens (e.g., as summarized by Kerrich and significantly greater than currently exposed.
Cassidy, 1994; Groves et al., 1998). Orogenic deposits formed The formation ages of subsequent orogenic gold deposits
over more than 3.4 b.y. of Earth history (e.g., Goldfarb et al., define two major Precambrian peaks at 2.75 to 2.55 Ga (cen-
2001a, b) are abundant and geographically widespread and tered at about 2.65 Ga) and 2.1 to 1.75 Ga (probably two
hence are potentially sensitive tracers of temporal changes in peaks centered approximately at 2.0 and 1.8 Ga). There is a
tectonic processes. For this reason, they are used here as the marked lack of deposits between 1.7 Ga and 600 Ma and a
primary example to test the correlation between tectonic cyclic distribution from about 600 to 50 Ma (Fig. 8A). The

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 100th ANNIVERSARY SPECIAL PAPER: TECTONIC PROCESSES & Au DISTRIBUTION 211

Urals
A)

Victoria
200

Russia - East China

Superior
Gold Resource (Moz)

Central Asia - Tien Shan

100

Yilgarn

West Africa

Mother Lode
50

Baikal
Arabian - Nubian Shield
Quadrilatero Ferrifero

Amazonian

Homestake
Barberton
30

SW Siberia
Kolar
10

B)
14
2.7 Ga
Volume per cent growth

12

10
50 %

1.9 Ga
8
25 %

3 2 1 0.5
Age (Ga)
FIG. 8. Timing of orogenic gold deposits vs. periods of crustal growth. A. Distribution of major orogenic gold provinces
with time. Adapted from Goldfarb et al. (2001a). See Groves et al. (2003) for updated version. B. Temporal evolution of con-
tinental crustal growth. Note, y-axis shows relative crustal growth. Adapted from Condie (2000). Variable bar width in (A)
due to varying uncertainties in age of mineralization, and in (B) to better illustrate major periods of crustal growth. The an-
notations 50 and 25 percent refer to approximate percentages of recorded crustal growth in the Late Archean and mid to
late Paleoproterozoic, respectively.

Late Archean and Paleoproterozoic peaks broadly reflect the prior to cratonization for some of the larger Archean gold
major periods of episodic growth of Precambrian continental provinces (e.g., Abitibi belt and Kalgoorlie terrane; Groves et
crust, centered at ca. 2.7 and 1.9 Ga (Fig. 8B), although al., 2003) and Paleoproterozoic gold provinces (e.g., Ashanti
peaks in the formation of orogenic gold deposits clearly flank belt; Pigois et al., 2003), suggests that crustal-scale thermal
the latter peak in crustal growth. Similarly, the Phanerozoic input may have played a critical role in the formation of giant
orogenic gold deposits broadly mimic the more continuous, orogenic gold provinces in the youngest and most juvenile
shorter wavelength distribution of Phanerozoic Cordilleran- crust preserved.
type orogenic events and associated periods of crustal Despite the strong Mesoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic
growth, although accurate correlations are limited by uncer- record of crustal growth from 1.8 to 1.2 Ga (Fig. 8B), in part
tainties, particularly in the ages of some gold provinces. De- correlating with the formation of Rodinia at ca 1.3 to 1.0 Ga
spite these uncertainties, the secular evolution of orogenic through a number of continental collisions (e.g., Dalziel,
gold deposits clearly reflects the proposed evolutionary trend 1991; Hoffman, 1991), there is a lack of gold deposits be-
from strongly episodic, plume-influenced plate tectonics in tween about 1.7 Ga and 600 Ma (Fig. 8A). The Olympiada
the Archean to more cyclic modern-style plate tectonics. deposit of southwestern Siberia (ca. 820 Ma; Safonov, 1997),
Archean and, to a lesser extent, Paleoproterozoic orogenic as shown in Figure 8A, may be an important exception
gold provinces related to the catastrophic mantle-plume although it could be as young as 600 Ma (Konstantinov et al.,
events of Condie (2004) have equivalent gold production 1999). This suggests that an additional factor, other than just
(Fig. 8A), despite their age, deep erosion, and common deep the growth of juvenile crust, was important in determining
regolith cover. This, combined with evidence for relatively the temporal distribution of orogenic gold deposits preserved
thin lithosphere at the time of gold deposit formation and in the geologic record. Clues to the nature of this factor lie in

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212 GROVES ET AL.

the contrasting regional-scale shapes of the major gold later orogeny could cause uplift and erosion. In contrast,
provinces of different age. Archean and Paleoproterozoic oro- modern-style, highly elongate, metasedimentary and
genic gold deposits are distributed along elongate metavolcanic rock-dominated accretionary belts along the
supracrustal belts, but these are hosted within and commonly margins of the cratons, with their negatively buoyant sub-
in the central part of (cf. fig. 5.2 of Solomon and Groves, continent lithospheric mantle, would be much more prone to
1994) roughly equidimensional cratons as noted above. In uplift and erosion. Thus, it is likely that Mesoproterozoic to
contrast, Phanerozoic deposits are distributed in elongate Neoproterozoic orogenic gold deposits did form during
belts along the margins of these cratons or along the margins major continental crust-forming events in the period from
of older, marginal Phanerozoic belts (fig. 5 of Goldfarb et al., ca. 1.7 Ga to 600 Ma, but most were removed by long-lived
2001a). The time of transition between these styles of oro- erosion of the narrow continental margin orogens down to
genic belts is unclear, but reconstructions of Rodinia (Fig. 9) their high metamorphic grade root zones; such zones are
suggest that modern-style orogenic belts were in existence below the crustal depths that typically would contain oro-
prior to 1.0 Ga. These observations, combined with evidence genic deposits (Groves et al., 1998). The reappearance of
for timing of changes in buoyancy of the oceanic lithosphere abundant orogenic gold deposits at ca. 600 Ma suggests that
(Fig. 5) and subcontinental lithospheric mantle (Figs. 6–7), this is an approximate threshold for preservation, or lack of
suggest that an important time in the transition from plume- complete destruction, of deposits in modern-style orogenic
influenced to modern-style plate tectonics was somewhere belts. The abundance of gold placers spatially associated with
near the end of the Archean to early Paleoproterozoic. many Phanerozoic orogenic gold provinces attests to their
The unusual lack of Mesoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic progressive erosion such that, within 500 to 600 m.y. of ini-
orogenic gold deposits (Fig. 8A) can be explained largely in tial unroofing, an orogenic gold province and associated plac-
terms of the preservation potential of the hosting terranes. ers may be totally lost from the geologic record under condi-
Deposits embedded in Archean and Paleoproterozoic cra- tions of Cordilleran-style plate tectonics. Similarly, the lack
tons would be underlain by relatively buoyant subcontinent of any economically significant orogenic gold provinces in
lithospheric mantle, which would be difficult to delaminate. rocks younger than ca. 50 Ma suggests that 50 m.y. may be
Hence, there would be a very high chance of preservation ex- the minimum period to uplift and expose a productive
cept adjacent to craton margins or in relatively small cratonic province (Goldfarb et al., 2001a). Uplift rates were lower
blocks, as probably existed in the Middle Archean, where than those for the arc-related porphyry and epithermal

Tibet
Madagascar INDI A Rodinia
Orogens
1.3 - 0.9 Ga Juvenile Crust

Malaysia
S China N China
S Australia
Kalahari
N Australia
SIBERIA
LAURENTIA
Mawson
Berentsia
AMAZONIA
La Plata

West BALTICA
Africa

FIG. 9. Schematic representation of Rodinia, a supercontinent formed between 1.3 and 0.9 Ga and fragmented between
750 and 600 Ma. The Kalahari, La Plata (Rio de La Plata) and West Africa cratons were probably never part of Rodinia. Re-
construction modified after Tohver et al. (2002) and Pisarevsky et al. (2003). Note the location of the linear, elongate, Meso-
proterozoic cratonic belts (orogens; shaded medium gray) around relatively equidimensional Archean-Paleoproterozoic cra-
tonic blocks.

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provinces of the present-day circum-Pacific, perhaps be- through time has been examined by Meyer (1981), Titley
cause the orogenic gold deposits formed largely during trans- (1993), and Barrie and Hannington (1999), among others.
pressional, rather than compressional, tectonics (e.g., Gold- Production data for many deposits, particularly those in the
farb et al., 2001a). former Soviet Union and other Asian and Eastern Block
Thus, it appears that orogenic gold deposits are inherent countries, are incomplete or contradictory, as, importantly,
products of crust-forming events throughout Earth history. are accurate ages for some deposits. Modern VHMS systems
The processes responsible for the formation of this gold de- are present at sea-floor spreading ridges, such as the East Pa-
posit type were broadly similar through time, reflecting mod- cific Rise, and also in backarc basins, such as the Lau basin.
erate- to high-temperature tectonic events superimposed for Where the former eventually reach the continental margin,
the first time on growing, volatile-rich (i.e., H2O, CO2, H2S) they may be incorporated into the accreting margin in tec-
juvenile continental crust. However, the change from a tonic environments similar to those in which younger oro-
plume-influenced plate tectonic style in the latest Archean to genic gold deposits were generated (e.g., Goldfarb, 1997).
early Paleoproterozoic to a modern tectonic style affected the Solomon and Quesada (2003) point out that some deposits
preservation potential of terranes of different age. Hence, the such as those of the Iberian pyrite belt may form in terranes
temporal distribution of the deposits (Fig. 8A) reflects a com- after their accretion to a margin. Where VHMS deposits and
bination of processes of formation and preservation rather orogenic gold deposits occur in the same terrane, the former
than a fundamental change due to secular changes in tecton- are always older (e.g., Spooner and Barrie, 1993), possibly
ics. In the Archean and Paleoproterozoic, crustal growth and leading to overprinting of VHMS deposits by orogenic gold
preservation processes worked together to produce the abun- mineralization, as summarized by Groves et al. (2003), al-
dant deposits in those time periods, whereas preservation was though this appears to be rare (e.g., Hannington et al., 1999).
not favored during the critical tectonic transition in the The VHMS deposits (Fig. 10) show a preservation history
Mesoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic; that is, crustal growth that is broadly similar to that of orogenic gold deposits, with
and associated metallogenesis and preservation were coupled episodic development in the early Precambrian and a more
in the Archean and Paleoproterozoic but largely decoupled cyclic pattern in the Paleozoic. The oldest, but noneconomic
thereafter. VHMS deposits in the east Pilbara and Barberton terranes, at
ca. 3.5 to 3.25 Ga (e.g., Vearncombe et al., 1995), correspond
Examples of Tectonically Induced Selective Preservation broadly with the oldest orogenic gold events globally (e.g.,
Other mineral deposit types that are little influenced by Zegers et al., 2002) and with the earliest record of formation
near-surface redox conditions are examined below. Most of significant continental crust (Fig. 2). VHMS deposits are
show temporal patterns that relate to preservation processes not uniformly distributed in greenstone belts globally, with
(e.g., VHMS, paleoplacer gold), whereas the distribution of most belts being devoid of major deposits. The economically
others can be related to the development of Archean or Pale- significant ca. 2.7 Ga VHMS deposits are mainly from the
oproterozoic subcontinental lithospheric mantle (e.g., IOCG, Abitibi belt. The ca. 1.85 Ga VHMS deposits are in the Flin
intrusion-related gold). Flon district, Manitoba, Canada (Syme and Bailes, 1993) and
Wisconsin. These occurrences broadly coincide with hypoth-
Volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposits esized mantle-plume events at 2.7 and 1.9 Ga, respectively
VHMS deposits, many of which are gold rich (Huston, (Fig. 8B). Both regions are composed of terranes displaying
2000), although commonly subdivided into subtypes based on evidence for thin, dominantly oceanic lithosphere at the time
geographic settings (e.g., Meyer, 1981; Fig. 1A) or metal ra- of VHMS mineralization (e.g., Stern et al., 1999; Ayer et al.,
tios (e.g., Large, 1992), are a coherent class of deposits 2002; Hart et al., 2004). Similarly, VHMS deposits appear to
formed at or below the sea floor by circulating hot seawater have formed and been incorporated into continental crust al-
(e.g., Barrie and Hannington, 1999). Their distribution most continuously since the latest Neoproterozoic, although

3000
Kazakhstan (Maikain)

NW British Columbia
Mt (ore)

Urals (Gai)

Japan (Hokuroko)
Manitoba (Flin Flon)

(Windy Craggy)
Abitibi (Kidd Creek)

2000
Turkey (Murgal)
Iberia (Rio Tinto)

1000
W Tasmania
(Mt Lyell)

3 2 1 0.5 0
Age (Ga)
FIG. 10. Temporal distribution of volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposits. Data derived from Barrie and Hannington
(1999)—examples of specific deposits given in parentheses. Due to some uncertainties in age, deposits are grouped in places
into broad time groups rather than absolute time periods. Note expanded time scale from 0 to 0.5 Ga.

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214 GROVES ET AL.

there are distinct peaks in the early to middle Paleozoic and preserved by subsequent Himalayan continent-continent col-
in the Mesozoic (e.g., Titley, 1993), as there are for orogenic lision. In addition, some significant gold placers formed in
gold deposits. Similarly, although VHMS deposits are recog- permafrost regions (e.g., Eastern Russia, Siberia) or in areas
nized between ca. 1.7 Ga (e.g., Jerome; McCandless et al., of deep tropical weathering of Precambrian orogenic gold de-
1999) and 600 Ma (e.g., Barrie and Hannington, 1999), they posits, as for example in the Ashanti belt of Ghana and the
too are markedly under-represented in this age range. Again, Tapajos region of the Amazon (e.g., Santos et al., 2001). Most
it appears most likely that the VHMS deposits were largely placer deposits were mined from Recent river systems and
lost from the geologic record because the linear belts in beaches, although some Tertiary paleoplacers were preserved
which they formed occur above less buoyant subcontinental by overlying volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks (e.g., Ballarat
lithospheric mantle and were uplifted and deeply eroded to and Bendigo, Victoria, Australia). The fact that most world-
their roots. The youngest exposed VHMS deposits and/or class placers are associated with source lodes older than ca.
prospects are of Tertiary age, for example Ufuo in PNG (Cor- 100 Ma (i.e., Fairbanks, Nome, Eastern Russia) suggests that
lett and Akiro, 1999), deposits in Prince William Sound of ~50 m.y. is an approximate threshold between unroofing of a
southern Alaska (Goldfarb, 1997), and deposits in Ecuador gold province in a Cordilleran-style orogen and loss of a sig-
(Chiaradia and Fontboté, 2001), corresponding broadly to the nificant percentage of gold to the secondary environment.
age of the youngest exposed, orogenic gold deposits. Paleoplacer gold deposits are rare in the geologic record
The most logical conclusion is that, although VHMS de- before the Tertiary (Fig. 11), yet the giant Late Archean Wit-
posits formed throughout Earth history, their temporal distri- watersrand deposits represent the largest gold province on
bution, as for orogenic gold deposits, largely represents a pat- Earth. Their origin has been controversial, with both modi-
tern of preservation due to changes in the lithosphere caused fied placer (e.g., Minter et al., 1993) and hydrothermal (e.g.,
by changing global tectonic processes. Phillips and Myers, 1989; Barnicoat et al., 1997) models being
proposed. However, a variety of recent evidence, particularly
Placer and paleoplacer gold from Re-Os dating of both gold and associated rounded
Most giant placer gold deposits were deposited in foreland pyrites, which yields ca. 3.0 Ga ages, which are presedimen-
(commonly retroarc) basins in Mesozoic-Cenozoic conver- tation of the host conglomerates (e.g., Kirk et al., 2001, 2002),
gent margins of the circum-Pacific (e.g., New Zealand, Cali- suggests that the Witwatersrand gold ores are modified pale-
fornia, Alaska) through the erosion of Paleozoic to Mesozoic oplacers, as summarized by Frimmel et al. (2005).
orogenic gold deposits (e.g., Henley and Adams, 1979; Ed- Significantly, the Witwatersrand gold was deposited in the
wards and Atkinson, 1986; Goldfarb et al., 1998). Similar Central Rand Group in a retroarc foreland basin setting
Paleozoic margins were the source for additional large placer (Kositcin and Krapez, 2004) that is similar to many modern
fields in Victoria (Hughes et al., 2004) and the Eastern depositional settings of placer gold. Extreme environmental
Cordillera of South America (e.g., Haeberlin et al., 2003), al- conditions, specific to the early Earth, including a potentially
though much of the central Asian Paleo-Tethyan margin was more acidic and chemically aggressive atmosphere (Holland,

100,000 3000

Witwatersrand
10,000 300

500 15
Moz (Au)
t (Au)

Tarkwa “Modern Placers”

400

300

200

100 2
Jacobina and Roraima

3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0

Age (Ga)
FIG. 11. Temporal distribution of placer and paleoplacer gold deposits. Main sources of data are Boyle (1979), Bache
(1987), Goldfarb et al. (1998), Milesi et al. (2002), and Frimmel et al. (2005). The Tertiary-Recent placer total production is
a minimum as a significant proportion of placer gold production by small-scale miners may have been unrecorded in official
production records. The total production is given for Tertiary to Recent placers as a single bar as there are considerable un-
certainties in the age of some placers.

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1984), the lack of vegetation and other organisms, and hence time, as also indicated by the occurrence of detrital diamonds
the predominance of braided stream environments and po- in the Witwatersrand rocks. The detrital gold was presumably
tential for effective wind erosion and sorting (e.g., Minter, derived from the upthrusted margins of relatively small con-
1999), can potentially explain the giant size of the Witwater- tinental blocks to the north and west, which would have been
srand deposits. Some present-day placers are derived from susceptible to destruction despite potentially buoyant sub-
adjacent orogenic gold deposits (e.g., Hughes et al., 2004). continental lithospheric mantle. The Central Rand Group of
However, many modern placers are not derived from unusu- the Witwatersrand basin was probably deposited in the fore-
ally large primary orogenic deposits (i.e., Nome, Alaska; land of a collision between the amalgamated Witwatersrand
Klondike, Yukon) but owe their origin to tectonic, erosional, block to the south (Schmitz et al., 2004) and the Pietersburg
and sedimentary processes that combine to produce ex- block to the north and was not related to the major interac-
tremely effective sorting and detrital gold concentration. The tion between the larger Zimbabwe and Kaapvaal cratons dur-
source of the Witwatersrand gold is unclear. Frimmel et al. ing Limpopo orogeny, more than 100 m.y. after Witwater-
(2005) suggest that the Witwatersrand gold, with anomalously srand Supergroup sedimentation (Frimmel et al., 2005, and
high Re and Os concentrations and 187Os/188Os of 0.108, references therein). The involvement of relatively small Mid-
equivalent to the Os isotope composition of the 3.0 Ga man- dle Archean crustal blocks, rather than large cratons, can ex-
tle (e.g., Kirk et al., 2002), was likely derived from dispersed plain the widespread uplift and erosion of the now eroded
magmatic phases in mantle-derived mafic and/or ultramafic terranes that are the suggested source of Witwatersrand gold.
rocks of now eroded granitoid-greenstone terranes in the hin- There are also clearly regional-scale processes that assisted
terland to the Central Rand basin. A source region with a bulk preservation. The most important was the outpouring of the
concentration between about 0.5 and 7 ppb Au, in agreement Klipriversberg Group basaltic lavas over the Witwatersrand sed-
with a value of 4 ppb Au for Barberton-type granitoid-green- imentary basin, but there was also the possible formation of a
stone crust (Robb and Meyer, 1990), is all that is required to resistant veneer of impact melt over at least part of the basin as
form the Witwatersrand deposits (Loen, 1992), provided that a result of the Vredefort meteorite impact in the center of the
concentration mechanisms were very effective (Frimmel et Witwatersrand basin, as summarized by Frimmel et al. (2005).
al., 2005). High background gold values in the early Archean The other significant gold paleoplacer provinces are Paleo-
komatiites may have correlated with mantle plumes derived proterozoic in age (Fig. 11), with Tarkwa in Ghana at ca. 2.1
from the mantle boundary with the gold-rich core (Kerrich, Ga (Pigois et al., 2003) being the largest, and Jacobina (ca. 2.0
1999). Alternatively, the gold could have been derived from ± 0.1 Ga) and Roraima (ca. 1.96 Ga) representing smaller
gold deposits equivalent in age to, or slightly younger than, provinces (Frimmel et al., 2005). The gold production from
the orogenic Barberton gold deposits, in the proposed hinter- these probable foreland basin settings is two orders of magni-
land of the Witwatersrand basin, for example in the Amalia- tude lower than for the Witwatersrand (Fig. 11). These de-
Kraaipan, Murchison, Pietersburg and Giyani belts, but the posits are 100 to 200 m.y. older than the 1.9-Ga peak in crust
age of this gold is poorly defined (e.g., Barton, 1984; Beattie production and presumably formed from unroofing and ex-
and Barton, 1992). A source of some gold from epithermal or posure of early orogenic gold source provinces (see above). In
epizonal orogenic gold deposits is also reasonable because Ghana, at least, some orogenic gold deposits overprint preex-
some of the gold has low fineness and high mercury contents isting Tarkwa-type paleoplacers (Pigois et al., 2003). As sug-
(Feather and Koen, 1975). Interestingly, orogenic deposits in gested for the Witwatersrand, it is, thus, most likely that the
the Murchison greenstone belt of the potential hinterland paleoplacer deposits owe their preservation to the buoyancy
also have gold with high mercury contents (cf. Poujol et al., of the underlying Paleoproterozoic subcontinental lithos-
1996). As stated above, the precise source or sources of the pheric mantle, developed during the protracted orogenic
gold are currently unclear, but mass-balance arguments events in which the primary gold deposits formed.
(Frimmel et al., 2005) clearly show that there was sufficient It is suggested that placers and paleoplacers, like orogenic
gold in the hinterland of the Witwatersrand basin to produce gold and VHMS deposits, display a temporal pattern largely
the recorded gold concentrations. dictated by preservation. Presumably, they formed through-
The question remains as to why these giant Witwatersrand out Earth history whenever orogenic gold provinces were up-
deposits are preserved. On a larger scale, the Witwatersrand lifted and eroded, particularly after 1.7 Ga, but deposits
ores almost certainly owe their preservation to their location formed before the Tertiary only survived where regional-scale
in old subcontinental lithospheric mantle (e.g., Shirey et al., processes assisted their preservation above buoyant subconti-
2003), where buoyancy protected them from subsequent de- nental lithospheric mantle.
struction. Whereas the host Kaapvaal craton is not unique in
terms of the antiquity of its subcontinental lithospheric man- Examples of Tectonically Induced Selective
tle (e.g., Richardson et al., 2004), the age of its earliest well Formation and Preservation
preserved basins (ca. 3.0–2.8 Ga) and the remarkable preser-
vation of its sedimentary and volcanic basins from ca. 3.5 Ga Iron-oxide copper-gold (IOCG) deposits
to the Mesoproterozoic attests to its long-term stability and The IOCG deposit type (e.g., Hitzman et al., 1992) has been
high preservation potential. Importantly, the Re-Os age of the expanded to include many different styles of iron-oxide–rich
detrital gold and pyrite in the Witwatersrand paleoplacers is mineralization that formed in a variety of tectonic settings (cf.
ca. 3.0 Ga, 300 m.y. earlier than the first significant crust- Hitzman, 2000), but only those deposits with significant cop-
forming event at 2.7 Ga (Figs. 2, 8B), so that early subconti- per- and iron-bearing sulfides and gold resources are consid-
nental lithospheric mantle could have been in place at this ered here. As summarized by Groves and Vielreicher (2001),

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216 GROVES ET AL.

their origin is equivocal. However, there is a clear connection IOCG deposits could also have formed in the Pilbara and
to alkaline magmatism, particularly if the giant Palabora Fe- Kaapvaal cratons in the Late Archean if alkaline magmatism
P-REE-Cu-Au-PGE deposit of South Africa is included. had occurred at that time. The Olympic Dam deposit formed
Neodymium isotope data for the giant Olympic Dam deposit, at ca. 1.59 Ga, very soon after amalgamation of Archean and
South Australia, combined with gravity and magnetic data, Paleoproterozoic blocks to form proto-Australia at ca. 1.75 to
also implicate a mafic alkaline body at depth (e.g., Campbell 1.70 Ga (e.g., Betts et al., 2002), in association with outpour-
et al., 1998) that could be the feeder to lamprophyre dikes in ing of the Gawler lavas and associated intrusions of alkaline
the deposit. Dating of the giant Salobo (Requia et al., 2003) affinity. In each case, some form of anorogenic tectonism and
and Igarapé Bahia (Tallarico et al., 2005) deposits at Carajás, alkaline magmatism is implied.
Brazil, also suggests a temporal association with A-type The association of the giant Precambrian IOCG deposits
granitic magmatism, as does the presence of smaller, younger with alkaline magmatism and their location near craton mar-
IOCG (Bi ± Sn ± W) and Au-PGE deposits associated with gins suggests that the magmas were derived by small degrees
two subsequent events of alkaline magmatism in the same re- of post-tectonic partial melting of subcontinental lithos-
gion (Groves et al., 2004). Importantly, all significant Pre- pheric mantle previously metasomatized (K, U, Th, Au,
cambrian IOCG deposits are sited within about 100 km of the LREE) during and after the events related to cratonization.
margins of Archean cratons (e.g., Palabora, Carajás, Olympic This could explain the offset between the ca. >2.6 Ga ages of
Dam) or close to the boundary of Archean and Paleoprotero- crustal growth and/or cratonization and the younger periods
zoic lithosphere as interpreted from remote sensing geophys- of alkaline magmatism and associated IOCG mineralization.
ical data (e.g., Cloncurry, Queensland, Australia). Thus, there is a major tectonic control on the formation of
The temporal distribution of economically significant Pre- large Precambrian IOCG deposits close to the margins of
cambrian IOCG deposits (Fig. 12) shows major peaks in the preexisting cratons during periods of magmatism of alkaline
latest Archean (ca. 2.57 Ga; e.g., Carajás deposits), Paleopro- affinity. However, the temporal distribution of IOCG de-
terozoic (ca. 2.05 Ga; e.g., Palabora), and Mesoproterozoic posits (Fig. 12) also reflects preservation, with giant and
(ca. 1.59 Ga; e.g., Olympic Dam) that are significantly offset world-class Precambrian examples of the deposit type selec-
from the main periods of crustal growth at ca. 2.7 and 1.9 Ga tively formed and preserved in buoyant subcontinental
(Fig. 2). The oldest Carajás deposits are sited in a region of lithospheric mantle.
Late Archean postcratonization platformal sequences of sim- There are Neoproterozoic deposits of IOCG affinity at
ilar age to those in the Pilbara and Kaapvaal cratons, rather Khetri in India (probably ca. 850 Ma in age; Knight et al.,
than greenstone sequences (e.g., Grainger et al, 2002). The 2002) and in the Lufilian intracratonic rift basin of Zambia, al-
IOCG deposits formed in the Amazon craton, however, at ap- though large examples of the latter have low copper grades
proximately the same time as late-orogenic gold deposits in (<0.9% Cu) and very low gold (<0.1g/t Au) and some contain
the eastern Dharwar block of the Indian Shield (Hamilton insignificant iron oxides (e.g., Nisbet et al., 2000; Hitzman,
and Hodgson, 1986; Balakrishnan et al., 1999), emphasizing 2001). There are no significant economic examples of the de-
the diachroneity of Archean cratonization despite the major posit type until the Mesozoic when the Candelaria deposit
peak in crustal growth at about 2.7 Ga. Presumably, large (ca. 115 Ma) was formed (Mathur et al., 2002). The deposit

2800 Carajás Province

Olympic Dam
Mt (ore)

2000

1200 Palabora
Lufilian Arc
Candelaria

400
Khetri

3 2 1 0
Age (Ga)
FIG. 12. Temporal distribution of economically significant, unequivocal IOCG deposits through time. Data from Williams
and Skirrow (2000), Haynes (2002), and references therein.

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 100th ANNIVERSARY SPECIAL PAPER: TECTONIC PROCESSES & Au DISTRIBUTION 217

shows gross similarities to the Precambrian deposits, although rather than in the turbiditic or mafic volcanic rock sequences
the sulfide assemblage is more sulfur rich, zinc and silver con- in commonly forearc settings that characterize orogenic gold
centrations are anomalous, and the REE concentrations, de- deposits. This also explains their spatial association with
spite similar LREE enrichment, are more erratic. Candelaria broadly contemporaneous tin and tungsten deposits, which
clearly formed in a different tectonic setting, being related to also form adjacent to older continental crust well inboard
transpression and basin inversion in a long-lived, arc-parallel from subduction zones (e.g., Solomon and Groves, 1994). The
strike-slip fault system linked to subduction in the coastal suites of felsic intrusions associated with intrusion-related
batholith of Chile, outboard from the South American Shield gold systems are unusual. Lang and Baker (2001) mention co-
(e.g., Marschik and Fontboté, 2001). The ore-forming fluid is eval intrusions of alkalic, metaluminous calc-alkalic, and per-
considered to have been magmatic, and spatially related sub- aluminous compositions. Mair et al. (2003) show that, in the
alkaline to alkaline granitoids have Sr, Nd, and Pb isotope ra- Tombstone belt of the Yukon, the intrusion-related gold de-
tios that indicate derivation of the parent magmas from a sub- posit–associated intrusions have mixed mantle and crustal sig-
duction-modified mantle source (Marschik et al., 2003a, b), natures. They show that the complex array of intrusions is
as in Precambrian analogues. The shape of the orebody is likely due to mantle-derived mafic alkaline magmas imping-
mantolike and grossly conformable to layering, rather than ing at the base of the crust, consequent melting of the crust
pipelike, as for the Precambrian examples (Marschik and to produce felsic magmas, and contamination of these mag-
Fontboté, 2001). This suggests emplacement of the ore into mas by the basement and shelf sequences they intrude. These
more permeable horizons rather than brecciation under high factors may combine to produce fertile magmas with suitable
fluid pressures and may indicate a different genetic process. redox switchovers for the concentration of gold and its subse-
quent release in relatively reducing magmatic-hydrothermal
Intrusion-related gold deposits fluids.
During the past decade, there has been an emphasis on the The conjunction of anomalous granitic magmas and un-
diversity in gold deposit types within metamorphic belts (e.g., usual inboard tectonic setting for their generation is likely to
Robert and Poulsen, 1997), with increasing interest in a group have been rare in geologic history. Such settings would have
of deposits termed intrusion-related gold deposits (e.g., Silli- been extremely rare, or absent, in the early Precambrian
toe and Thompson, 1998). The original definition of this de- when the earliest cratons formed, as also shown by the lack of
posit type included a large number of different styles of de- tin and tungsten deposits related to fractionated granites in
posits with different metal associations (e.g., Sillitoe, 1991), similar settings. The formation of the deposits in crust above
but only the intrusion-related gold systems in the sense of younger subcontinental lithospheric mantle near the margins
Lang and Baker (2001) are considered here. According to of cratons also would have limited their preservation. Thus
Thompson et al. (1999) and Lang and Baker (2001), they are their rarity and the restriction of undoubted examples to the
characterized by (1) spatial association with relatively reduced late Phanerozoic (Timbarra, Permo-Triassic; Tombstone de-
granitoids, (2) carbonic hydrothermal fluids, (3) gold as the posits, Late Cretaceous) are expected.
dominant economic element, but with anomalous Bi, W, Mo,
Te, and/or Sb, (4) a low sulfide content, with no iron oxides, Synthesis
(5) spatially restricted and weak hydrothermal alteration in Based on the synthesis of observations presented above, it
mesozonal examples, (6) a tectonic setting well inboard of appears that Archean, and probably Paleoproterozoic, tec-
recognized convergent plate boundaries, with complex gran- tonic processes were dominated by relatively buoyant oceanic
ite petrogenesis, and (7) an association with tungsten and tin lithosphere and plume events, with the largest, short-lived,
provinces. There may also be regional metal zoning, with catastrophic events being responsible for voluminous conti-
more silver and/or base metal-rich deposits distal to the in- nental growth. Plume-influenced to -dominated plate tecton-
trusion-related gold systems (e.g., Lang et al., 2000). As sum- ics operated rather than a modern-style of plate tectonics.
marized by Groves et al. (2003), there is general acceptance The progressive decline of heat flow and decrease in plume
that the Fort Knox deposit in Alaska, various small and as yet activity also affected the nature of the subcontinental lithos-
uneconomic deposits in the eastern part of the Tintina gold pheric mantle, which records a distinctive temporal evolution
province of Yukon, Canada, and disseminated gold prospects (e.g., Poudjom Djomani et al., 2001; Griffin et al., 2003)
at Timbarra, NSW, Australia, are intrusion-related gold de- linked to the synchronous formation of crust and its lithos-
posits. A notable difference compared to orogenic-type gold pheric root. Archean subcontinental lithospheric mantle, rep-
deposits is the order of magnitude lower gold grades. All resenting residues and/or cumulates from deep high-degree
other large deposits that are sometimes classified as intrusion- melting related to the early abundance of mantle-plume
related gold deposits by different authors are of uncertain ori- events, had a relatively low density and hence was buoyant.
gin and have many characteristics more akin to orogenic gold The more or less similarly sized, broadly equidimensional
deposits (Groves et al., 2003). Hence, no temporal pattern is early Precambrian cratons were probably a result of these
presented here. processes and consequent melting of the lower and middle
An important difference between deposit types is the tec- crust. Subsequent Proterozoic lithosphere was more dense
tonic setting of the undoubted intrusion-related gold deposits and had positive to neutral buoyancy, whereas Phanerozoic
that occur well inboard from the convergent margins and lithosphere was even more dense and negatively buoyant
orogenic gold deposits that form in the margins. The intru- (Poudjom Djomani et al., 2001). These changes in buoyancy
sion-related gold deposits are located in deformed and meta- produced global tectonic patterns in which post-Mesopro-
morphosed shelf sequences adjacent to cratonic margins, terozoic orogenic belts surrounded early Precambrian nuclei.

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218 GROVES ET AL.

Gold-bearing deposits that form at shallow crustal depths in sedimentary sequences to provide the correct mantle and
convergent margins (e.g., porphyry-skarn-epithermal Cu-Mo- crustal ingredients for generation of the causitive granites.
Au-Ag systems) are highly susceptible to tectonic uplift and Such settings were unlikely in the early Precambrian, and
erosion and are only sporadically and selectively preserved younger intrusion-related gold deposits that formed near the
from times older than the Mesozoic by accretion or collision margins of cratons would have had only limited chances of
of their host arcs with continental blocks. In contrast, oro- preservation.
genic gold deposits formed over a much larger range of A summary diagram (Fig. 13) shows the relative locations
crustal depths in deforming convergent margins undergoing of deposit types discussed in the text in terms of their tec-
deformation for a period of at least 3.4 b.y. (Goldfarb et al., tonic setting at the time of formation and where they might
2001a, b). They have a temporal distribution that broadly mir- have been preserved in the context of underlying subconti-
rors that of juvenile crustal growth, particularly the change nental lithospheric mantle. It is concluded that the major
from episodic to more cyclic growth with time, although they factor affecting the temporal distribution of many gold-
are rare between 1.7 Ga and 600 Ma. The exceptional en- bearing deposits, in terms of evolution of tectonic processes,
dowment of Archean and Paleoproterozoic provinces, despite is the nature of subcontinental lithospheric mantle formed
their age, suggests that plume-influenced plate tectonics pro- at different times in Earth history. Archean (and/or Paleo-
duced large gold deposits due to associated high thermal flux. proterozoic)-style lithosphere favored the formation of
They were incorporated into crust above buoyant subconti- IOCG deposits and hence their temporal distribution. The
nental lithospheric mantle and preserved, particularly in the switchover from plume-influenced buoyant plate tectonics
centers of cratons. In the Mesoproterozoic, plume activity de- to modern-style plate tectonics, with the shift from buoyant
clined, tectonics akin to modern plate tectonics evolved, and to negatively buoyant subcontinental lithospheric mantle,
the subcontinental lithospheric mantle became negatively strongly influenced the patterns of preservation of other de-
buoyant. It appears that uplift and erosion in these newly posits, for example, orogenic gold and VHMS deposits, ex-
formed orogenic belts along the margins of early Precambrian amples of which started to form before the widespread oc-
cratons destroyed the majority of any orogenic gold deposits currence of Archean cratons. The intrusion-related gold
that formed between 1.7 Ga and 600 Ma. From 600 until deposits may represent a special case in that they require
about 50 Ma, the temporal distribution of the deposits grossly near-craton settings, but form outside the cratons in nega-
represents that of the cycle of orogenesis and crustal growth. tively buoyant lithosphere, and hence are rare and largely
Thus, formation of the orogenic gold deposits was broadly restricted to the Phanerozoic.
controlled by the timing and intensity of crust-forming The temporal distribution of most gold-bearing deposits
events, but their temporal distribution was strongly affected discussed here reflects the first-order evolution from mantle-
by the buoyancy of the subcontinental lithospheric mantle plume–influenced plate tectonics to a modern style of plate
below their host terranes. VHMS deposits, which have a sim- tectonics in a cooling Earth. Coupled crustal growth and
ilar, almost 3.5-b.y. history of formation, have a very similar preservation in the Archean and Paleoproterozoic evolved to
temporal distribution, particularly their contrasting Precam- decoupled episodes of growth and preservation from the
brian and Phanerozoic patterns, suggesting that preservation Mesoproterozoic onward as a result of irreversible changes to
was a dominant factor in their present distribution. High the subcontinental lithospheric mantle with time.
thermal flux related to plume-influenced plate tectonics pro-
duced highly endowed Archean and Paleoproterozoic VHMS Future Research and Exploration Significance
provinces, as for orogenic gold. In the past few years, the global mining and exploration in-
Gold placers have probably formed by erosion of orogenic dustry has changed dramatically, with amalgamation into
gold deposits since the Middle Archean, but paleoplacers and larger global companies and consequent loss of exploration-
placers display a highly anomalous temporal distribution with focused medium-sized companies. The large companies have
peaks in the early Precambrian and in the Tertiary to Recent. become more risk averse at the very time when near-surface
The giant, extraordinarily gold rich palaeoplacers of the Wit- targets in relatively well exposed terranes are nearing exhaus-
watersrand probably owe their formation to effective fluvial tion, particularly in mature mineral provinces. Future signifi-
sorting under extreme climatic conditions and their preserva- cant discoveries will have to be made at depth in covered ter-
tion to generation of early buoyant subcontinental lithos- ranes, perhaps in remote locations, posing a daunting
pheric mantle under the Kaapvaal craton. It is also possible challenge to the industry. Clearly, conceptual targeting will be
that greenstone source rocks in the hinterland to the host required and, in turn, will necessitate even greater integration
foreland basin were enriched in gold due to mantle-plume ac- of theoretical and empirical geoscience into mineral explo-
tivity in the early Earth. Giant Precambrian IOCG deposits ration (e.g., McCuaig and Hronsky, 2000). In a risk-averse en-
also appear to have required the preexistence of buoyant vironment, relatively small, but potentially highly productive,
Archean (and/or Paleoproterozoic) subcontinental lithos- segments of the globe will have to be selected for intensive
pheric mantle for their formation and subsequent preserva- conceptually based exploration, rather than continuation of
tion. A concentration of deposits in the Late Archean and late the presently less focused exploration effort, often highly re-
Paleoproterozoic to early Mesoproterozoic appears to have liant on near-surface geochemical anomalies, particularly in
formed near craton margins during alkaline magmatism de- the case of gold exploration.
rived from previously metasomatized mantle lithosphere. Over the past few decades, economic geology research has
The intrusion-related gold deposits are rare because they become very deposit centric and forensic, with much of the
require the conjunction of near-craton setting and shelf research seeking to understand ore genesis through the use of

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 100th ANNIVERSARY SPECIAL PAPER: TECTONIC PROCESSES & Au DISTRIBUTION 219

A) BACK ARC CONTINENTAL CRATO N

ACCRETED ARC MARGI N
OCEANIC ARC TERRANES BACK-ARC
VHMS Epithermal
CONTINENT Epithermal Orogenic Au x Carlin-style Au
Au-Ag
Cu-Au * Au Porphyry Cu-Au-
Porphyry Cu-Au Mo (±skarns ) Intrusion-
(±skarns) related Au
FORELAND BASIN
Paleoplacer Au
(Witwatersrand)
*
* x x
* *
* *
*

Accretionary wedge Continental crust Older craton Extensional fault

Granitoids Oceanic crust Subcrustal Compressional

lithosphere fault/thrust
Asthenosphere Deformed shelf sequence

B) Old negatively
Young negatively buoyant SCLM
buoyant SCLM - major uplift
- 20 Buoyant SCLM Moderately buoyant
- moderate uplift - minor uplift SCLM - minor uplift
- 10 Minor
VHM S OGD IRGD OGD IOCG OGD IOCG VHM S OGD

10
Witwatersrand - type
20 Paleoplacer
CONTINENTAL CRUST
30
NEOPROTEROZOIC
LITHOSPHERE PALEOPROTEROZOIC
km PHANEROZOIC LITHOSPHERE
LITHOSPHERE ARCHEAN
LITHOSPHERE
100

150 Shelf sequences Volcanic rocks

Conglomerates Metamorphic belts
200
Sedimentary rocks Fold belts
FIG. 13. Schematic lithosphere-scale sections showing (A) the formational environments of gold-bearing deposit types dis-
cussed in the text (modified from Groves et al., 1998, with palaeoplacer, intrusion-related, and Carlin-style gold deposits
added), and (B) the environments of preservation of the same deposit types. Note that only the spatial positions of the envi-
ronments are shown, whereas it is evident that the deposit types formed and/or were preserved in those environments at dif-
ferent times in the evolutionary history of the hosting terranes. Both sections are of necessity generalized and simplified to
include all environments and deposit types. IOCG = iron-oxide copper-gold deposits, IRGD = intrusion-related gold
deposits, OGD = orogenic gold deposits, VHMS = volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposits.

sophisticated mineralogical, geochemical, isotopic, and fluid deposit (the “where”). Thus, very few of the researched para-
inclusion techniques. This has resulted in a much better meters can be used directly to select specific terranes within
knowledge of ore fluids and their sources, metal transport and specific segments of the Earth that can be intensively
deposition, and deposit-forming processes. However, these explored for world-class to giant mineral deposits. This is con-
studies mostly help understand the mechanism of ore deposit firmed by research studies which demonstrate that giant hy-
formation (the “how”) but not the specific location of the drothermal deposits form essentially from the same fluids and

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220 GROVES ET AL.

by similar processes as smaller deposits (see, e.g., papers in scale of economic geology research with a shift to integrate
Whiting et al., 1993, and Cooke and Pongratz, 2002). It ap- current deposit-centric and forensic research into more mul-
pears much more likely that it is the conjunction of province- tidisciplinary studies that emphasize global tectonics and
scale characteristics of a terrane, rather than deposit-scale pa- metallogeny. This should bring attendant advances in concep-
rameters, that dictate whether a giant deposit will be present tual targeting that will lead to world-class to giant discoveries
or not, as summarized, for example, by Groves et al. (2003) to satisfy the resource demands of the next generation.
for gold deposits in metamorphic belts and noted by Richards
(2003) for porphyry Cu deposits. Acknowledgments
In order to understand these province-scale controls on This paper was inspired by the pioneering academic con-
world-class to giant deposits, and utilize this in predictive cepts of “Chuck” Meyer and the global exploration vision of
mineral discovery under cover, it will be necessary to under- Roy Woodall. We are grateful to colleagues at the Centre
stand the four-dimensional evolution of potentially prospec- for Global Metallogeny, University of Western Australia,
tive terranes globally. To achieve this will not only require particularly Noreen Vielreicher, the U.S. Geological Sur-
government or multiclient state of the art remote sensing and vey, and Centre for Ore Deposit and Exploration Studies
airborne geophysical databases, such have become routinely (CODES), University of Tasmania, particularly Mike
available in many mature exploration terranes globally (e.g., Solomon, for useful discussions on this topic. The paper
Australia, Canada, southern Africa, southwestern United was improved by the useful reviews of Dallas Abbott, Phil
States), but integrated research at the global to province Brown, Rob Kerrich, Steve Kesler, and Henry Pollack, and
scale. For example, there needs to be more research on the incisive editorial comments by Steve Kesler and Mark Han-
specific tectonic settings of mineral deposits. This includes nington. This paper is a contribution to the Centre for
knowledge of the evolution of the geometries of plates, sub- Global Metallogeny and Tectonics Special Research Centre
duction slabs and transform faults in convergent margin set- publication 304.
tings, and their structural and petrogenetic signals in the rock August 30, October 25, 2004
record of ancient terranes. The role that mantle plumes play REFERENCES
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Abbott, D.H., and Isley, A.E., 2002, The intensity, occurrence and duration
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may have been the dominant control. There is also a need to Arndt, N.T., Lewin, E., and Albarède, F., 2002, Strange partners: Formation
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