ELEMENTS, VOL. 5, PP.

289295 OCTOBER 2009

289
1811-5209/09/0005-0289$2.50 DOI: 10.2113/gselements.5.5.289
From Source to Sinks in Auriferous
Magmatic-Hydrothermal Porphyry
and Epithermal Deposits
INTRODUCTION
Gold deposits come in many different sizes and shapes and
are found in a range of environments. Each Au-bearing
deposit type is the end result of a series of geological events
that together lead to an anomalous concentration in the Earths
crust. Of the many types of gold deposits, porphyry- and
epithermal-type deposits associated with upper-crustal
intrusions account for signicant Au production on an annual
basis. We review the salient features of these magmatic-
hydrothermal deposits, considering rst the ultimate source
of the magmatic components, then the hydrothermal
system and metal transport, and, nally, metal deposition.
MAGMA GENESIS
Most Au-bearing porphyry Cu and epithermal deposits are
associated with the emplacement of upper-crustal magma
chambers. The magma chambers are largely the product of
subduction of an oceanic plate beneath an overriding oce-
anic or continental plate, although a distinct subset of
mineralized porphyry-related magmatic complexes form
in collisional orogens long after subduction of an oceanic
plate has ceased (FIG. 1) (Seedorff et al. 2005; Richards 2009).
Magma generation begins in the mantle, most probably
through dehydration of the subducting slab at a depth of
~100 km or through depression of the lower crust and upper
mantle into a zone of melting during collisional orogenesis.
Above subducting slabs, rising aqueous uids carry incom-
patible elements (volatiles, large-ion lithophile elements,
silicon) into the overlying mantle wedge, thereby metaso-
matizing and enriching it. Melting the modied subcrustal
mantle yields basaltic melts that collect at the base of the
crust (FIG. 1A, C). There, the mantle-derived melts undergo
extensive interchange with the
mac-rich lower crust (Hildreth
and Moorbath 1988), forming
magma of intermediate composi-
tion. This magma rises to higher
crustal levels, where it assimilates
crustal material and fractionates to
more felsic compositions. Dioritic
magma is common in mac-dom-
inated crust, whereas magma of
granodioritic composition is more
common in felsic-dominated crust.
Magma composition inuences the
metal budget of an associated por-
phyry deposit (Seedorff et al. 2005).
Magma ascending into the upper crust accumulates in a
chamber (FIG. 2) that commonly measures 1015 km across
and a few kilometres in vertical extent at depths of 2 to
12 km (Hamilton and Myers 1967; Dilles et al. 2000).
Critical to the chamber construction is a high and sustained
rate of magma generation and ascent, as individual magma
chambers can solidify in a very short time, measured in
tens of thousands of years, unless continually replenished.
There is considerable uncertainty as to the duration of an
upper-crustal magma chamber as many factors are involved.
Nonetheless, it is clear that continual magma intrusion
from depth is required to form in a remarkably short time
and then sustain a convecting upper-crustal chamber (FIG. 2).
A
uriferous porphyry Cu deposits are restricted to convergent plate
settings, whereas epithermal precious metal deposits form at
extending convergent plate settings and in rifts. Both deposit types
are linked to magma carrying metals and ligands that rises to form an
upper-crustal magma chamber. Magma convection and fractionation lead
to volatile exsolution and collection in the apical parts of the chamber, from
which exsolved hydrothermal uid ascends to form either a porphyry CuAu
deposit associated with stocks and dykes generally at 25 km depth, or an
epithermal deposit associated with coeval volcanic rocks at depths of <1 km.
KEYWORDS: magma, hydrothermal evolution, porphyry Cu, epithermal precious metal
Richard M. Tosdal
1
, John H. Dilles
2
and David R. Cooke
3

1 Mineral Deposit Research Unit, University of British Columbia
Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
E-mail: rtosdal @gmail.com
2 Department of Geosciences, Oregon State University
OR 97370, USA
3 Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence
University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
FIGURE 1
Tectonic setting of porphyry Cu and epithermal depos-
its. Porphyry CuAu deposits form at the end of mag-
matic episodes during contraction, dominantly in a convergent plate
margin undergoing collision (A) or soon after collision (B). In con-
trast, epithermal deposits are associated with extension at the con-
vergent plate margin (C) or (D) in a rift zone. MASH: zone of crustal
melting and assimilation, magma storage, and homogenization.
SLM: sublithospheric mantle
porphyry
porphyry
epithermal
epithermal
EXTENSIONAL TECTONISM
CONTRACTIONAL TECTONISM
enriched SLM
enriched SLM
enriched SLM
MASH
MASH
pluton
melting zone
partial melting
hydrated mantle
partial melting
hydrated mantle subducting slab with
hydrated oceanic crust
subducting slab with
hydrated oceanic crust
partial melting of
SLM or upper mantle
oxidized magma ascent
oxidized magma ascent
oxidized magma ascent
pluton
pluton
pluton
A
D C
B
ELEMENTS OCTOBER 2009
290
A critical component of magma-related porphyry and
epi thermal deposits is an oxidized magma. An average dioritic
or granodioritic magma has sufcient metals to generate
porphyry deposits, but the magma must be oxidized and
sulfur rich such that sulfur is retained in the magma as
sulfate and not in the reduced form, which will crystallize
to form sulde minerals that sink to the bottom of the
magma chamber (Chambefort et al. 2008). Thus, magma
must ascend through tens of kilometres of crust of variable
composition (FIG. 1A, B) without signicantly changing its
oxidation state. Upon volatile saturation, the sulfur may parti-
tion into the magmatic volatile phase and be transported
to the site of deposition (Candela and Piccoli 2005).
Porphyry and epithermal deposits are inherently related
to arc magmatism. Overall, there is a common theme of
short- to long-lived magmatism (~1 to 10 million years),
evolving from early volcanism to main-stage plutonism as
the magmatic arc wanes (Sillitoe 2000). Porphyry intru-
sions directly associated with mineralization do not erupt
and commonly form relatively late during the magmatic
episode. Where a case can be made for approximately
synchronous volcanism, it is low-volume domes that appear
to be largely present. Volcanic activity results in the loss
of key volatiles in the eruption column, which can short-
circuit the porphyry-forming process and yield negative
porphyry systems (Pasteris 1996). In contrast, volcanic
activity is intimately associated with epithermal deposits
(Simmons et al. 2005), as it may enhance the ability of
hydrothermal uids to rise into the shallow crust.
Emplacement of hot magma into shallow crust typically
drives hydrothermal convection cells in the wall rocks
(FIGS. 2 AND 3) that operate over radii of many kilometres
(Dilles et al. 2000). These ground waters range from dilute
meteoric waters which may produce propylitic alteration
dominated by hydration, carbonation and oxidation reac-
tions, forming albite, chlorite, epidote and carbonate
minerals to saline uids and brines capable of strong alkali
metasomatism producing higher-temperature sodic-calcic
alteration (Na-plagioclase, actinolite, epidote) at depth and
associated propylitic alteration at shallower crustal levels
(FIG. 4). Brines involved in such large-scale alteration can
dissolve and transport large quantities of Fe, K, Cu, Au and
other elements, and where precipitation occurs may form
iron oxidecoppergold deposits (Dilles et al. 2000).
TECTONIC SETTING OF PORPHYRY
AND EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS
Plate tectonic setting plays a critical role in determining
what type of ore deposit forms in a particular location at
a particular time. The relationship of porphyry Cu deposits
to convergent plate margins and, as recognized more
recently, to collisional orogens (FIG. 1A-B) is a long-held
tenet in the deposit model. Within these orogens, porphyry
deposits form during narrow time intervals in a particular
segment of an arc. Generally, porphyry deposits form near
the end of a magmatic episode or during a change of defor-
mation styles when the arc is undergoing limited contrac-
tion (Sillitoe 2000). The ultimate tectonic trigger for these
events is uncertain, with proposed scenarios including
changing subduction geometry, collision and subduction
of irregularities in the down-going plate.
FIGURE 2
Construction of a convecting upper-crustal magma
chamber at depths of 612 km beneath the surface
through the input of mac magma from depth. Exsolved
hydrothermal uid collects in the apical parts of the chamber and
escapes vertically into the porphyry and epithermal environment.
Mineral abbreviations: Bi, biotite; Hnbd, hornblende; Mag,
magnetite; Ol, olivine; Pl, plagioclase; Pyr, pyroxene.
Magma recharge from mantle;
provides heat, minor H
2
O, F,
Cl, S and moderate Cu, Zn, Au + Ag
Wall rock assimilation
adds: H
2
O, SiO
2
, Na,
K, S, metals (Mo, W,
As, Sb, Pb, Zn, Se, Li,
Cs, Ba, Rb)
Accumulation of immiscible
magmatic sulfides and oxides
C
ry
s
ta
llin
e
carapace
Dispersal of H
2
O, Cl, Fe, Cu
as unfocused fluids exsolved from melt
Fractional crystallization of
Pyr Ol, Plag, Mag, Hnbd, Bi
causes increase in SiO
2
, Na, K,
Fe/Mg, S, H
2
O, F, Cl,
incompatible trace elements
(REE, U, Cu, Pb, Hg, etc)
Possible leaching of
wall rocks to provide
Cl, Na, Fe, CO
2
S,
Cu, Zn, Pb, Ag, As
Dilute fluids: meteoric water, seawater
Non-magmatic
waters convect by
pluton heat
Warm saline
formation water
Loss of volatiles or entire
system if eruption
5 km
Magmatic ore fluid to porphyry:
H
2
O, Cl, Na, K, H, Fe, Cu, H
2
S
Density-stratified chamber undergoing
thermal convection
Vapour transport to lithocap followed by
Cu, Au, Ag, etc. forming quartzalunite system
Vapour transport to hydrosphere
followed by Cu, Au, Ag, etc.
forming quartzadularia system

ELEMENTS OCTOBER 2009
291
In contrast, the geological setting of epithermal deposits
is more variable, including volcanic dome elds, peripheral
areas of volcanoes and rift zones. Most deposits form in
extending arcs or rifts (FIG. 1C, D), contemporaneous with
shallow-level magmatism and thermally driven hydro-
thermal circulation (Sillitoe and Hedenquist 2003). Few
epithermal deposits form during contraction, and those
known formed in localized extensional settings (Cooke
and Simmons 2000).
GOLD-BEARING PORPHYRY Cu DEPOSITS
Porphyry Cu deposits with average Au contents of >0.4
gram (g)/metric ton (t) are dened as gold rich (Sillitoe
2000). In general, Au contents are <1 g/t although in some
deposits, such as Grasberg (Indonesia) and Ridgeway
(Australia), they are higher. What makes porphyry deposits
major sources of Au is their sheer size, with deposits
containing from 50 Mt to 4500 Mt of ore. (There are very
few Au-only porphyry deposits. Most deposits become
mines based on their Cu content, which pays for the devel-
opment; Au is recovered as a by-product). The deposits are
associated with low-K calc-alkaline diorite to tonalite,
high-K calc-alkaline quartz monzonite, and alkaline
monzonite and syenite, some of which are silica under-
saturated and compose a class of alkalic porphyry systems
(Jensen and Barton 2000; Sillitoe 2000).
Porphyry-type systems are spatially and genetically associ-
ated with porphyritic intrusions. The stocks are of calc-
alkaline to alkaline composition and oxidized. The stocks
are characterized by hydrous phenocryst phases, such as
amphibole and biotite, whose stability requires at least
4 wt% H
2
O in the melt (Burnham 1979). Convecting
magma reaches saturation in the lower-pressure parts of
the magma chamber, so that the apical parts of the magma
chamber become water saturated, forming a bubble-rich
froth (FIGS. 2 AND 3). Ascent of such uids hydrofractures
the overlying rock, allowing magma to ascend as narrow
dykes and plugs. Magma ascent is accompanied by a pres-
sure drop, vapour loss and pressure-quenching, thus
forming the characteristic aplitic groundmass of the
porphyry intrusions. Massive hydrofracturing of wall rocks
and stocks forms the pathways for ascent of magmatic
uids from the cupola.
The exsolved, water-rich volatile phase concentrated at the
top of the magma chamber contains a range of water-
soluble volatile components, such as Cl and S species.
Magmatic-hydrothermal uid commonly separates from
the magma as a single-phase uid (>1.4 kb or 5 km depth)
of relatively low density, with ~5 wt% dissolved solids,
dominated by salts. The ascending and depressurizing
parent uid intersects the broad eld of uid immiscibility
between 750C and the critical point of a dilute salty uid
water at 374C, leading to the separation of a small quantity
of high-density brine from a larger volume of low-density
vapour (Williams-Jones and Heinrich 2005).
Gold, being dominantly transported as a chloride complex
at high temperature (Williams-Jones et al. 2009 this issue),
is precipitated along with CuFe suldes in the porphyry
environment at around 400C as a result of decreasing
solubility, during cooling, of metal chloride complexes in
the presence of H
2
S (Hemley and Hunt 1992). Precipitation
of Au and other metals is enhanced by uidrock reaction,
changes in pH and uid speciation, brinevapour unmixing
(so-called boiling) and, in a few cases, potentially by local
uid mixing (Beane and Titley 1981; Seedorff et al. 2005).
With cooling to ~400C, most SO
2
in the hydrothermal
uid disproportionates via reaction with water in the rising
uid to form H
2
SO
4
and H
2
S, which promotes sulde precip-
itation. Brine and vapour, due to their large density
contrast, may physically separate, with chloride and chlo-
ride-complexed species (for example, Cu, Pb, Zn, K, and
some Au) concentrated in the brine and H
2
S and bisulde-
complexed species (potentially Au, Cu and As) concentrated
in the vapour.
In the porphyry environment, the high-temperature uid
alters the rock to mineral assemblages consisting of quartz,
K-feldspar, biotite, anhydrite and magnetite the potassic
alteration assemblage (FIGS. 4A AND 5A, B) (Gustafson and
Hunt 1975). In alkalic porphyry systems, the Ca-bearing
minerals garnet, diopside and actinolite are reported in
equilibrium with the typical potassic alteration assemblage
in the high-temperature core of the system (Lang et al.
1995). In other porphyry deposits, Na-Ca alteration
minerals in the core represent the inux of external non-
magmatic uids into the magma-derived hydrothermal
systems (Dilles et al. 1995).
Gold-bearing sulde minerals are deposited with the
potassic alteration assemblages in association with chalco-
pyrite and bornite as disseminations in wavy or ductilely
deformed, straight-walled, quartz-rich or sulde-only veins.
Much of the Au is originally deposited as trace components
in solid solution within CuFe suldes, which upon cooling
undergo exsolution to form native Au grains within the
sulde host (Kesler et al. 2002). The CuFe sulde and Au
veins are cut, and accompanied, by successively younger
intra-mineral to post-mineral intrusions (FIG. 5C), with less
and less Cu and Au being precipitated with each successive
intrusion (Garwin 2002).
Superposed on the high-temperature alteration assemblages
in the upper parts of the porphyry system are alteration
assemblages that reect progressive cooling and changing
physicochemical conditions (FIGS. 3 AND 4A). One assem-
blage, less common in Au-rich porphyry Cu deposits, is
FIGURE 3
Distribution of alteration assemblages in a simplied
porphyry CuAu deposit. Volatiles collect in the apical
carapace of the magma chamber and follow the porphyry intrusion
to shallow depths. Alteration assemblages reecting the gradual
cooling of the exsolved magmatic-hydrothermal plume are stacked
vertically; mineral assemblages also depend on physicochemical
changes in the uid during the buoyant rise to shallow depths. Circu-
lating ground waters driven by thermal energy from the underlying
pluton form the propylitic alteration assemblage.
k
m
0
1
2
3
4
5
Quartz-sericite-pyrite
(phyllic)
K-silicate alteration
Cu-bearing
Advanced argillic
(lithocap)
Epithermal
Propylitic
Na-Ca fluid
Intermediate
argillic
(late overprint)
Fluid-saturated carapace
Upward flow of magma-derived
hydrothermal fluid
Thermally
driven
circulation
of external
fluid
ELEMENTS OCTOBER 2009
292
dominated by quartz, sericite (ne-grained white mica:
either muscovite, phengite or, in rare cases, paragonite)
and pyrite, and is known as phyllic or sericitic alteration
(FIGS. 3 AND 4A). Where the rocks are Mg and Fe rich, chlorite
will form part of the assemblage. The quartzsericite
chlorite assemblage forms through cooling of the uid as
it rises buoyantly. As previously mentioned, sulfur origi-
nally dissolved as SO
2
reacts with water and disproportion-
ates to form H
2
S and sulfuric acid, which extensively alters
the host rocks to acid-stable minerals (Burnham 1979). The
phyllic alteration may be accompanied by the partial to
almost complete destruction of rock texture and by some
CuFe sulde precipitation or be associated with the loss or
redistribution of Cu and Au (Sillitoe 2000; Seedorff et al.
2005). Associated veins (Gustafson and Hunt 1975) are coarse
grained and sharply dened, with strong alteration haloes;
they consist of sulde minerals (abundant pyrite, variable
but generally lesser proportions of CuFe sulde minerals,
sulfosalt minerals, sphalerite and galena), anhydrite and
minor quartz. In most porphyry Cu deposits, pervasive
clays represent a low-temperature (<250C) intermediate
argillic alteration assemblage formed during the cooling
and collapse of the hydrothermal system (FIGS. 3 AND 4A).
Separation of the uid phase into brine and vapour leads
to the formation of a low-density vapour plume rich in
acidic volatiles such as SO
2
, HF, H
2
S and CO
2
. If the vapour
separates from the brine, it may rise buoyantly into the
epithermal environment. As it cools and condenses during
interaction with ground water at shallow depths, it causes
intense acid leaching, thus forming the advanced argillic
alteration (Williams-Jones and Heinrich 2005); this altera-
tion may or may not be associated with an epithermal
deposit (FIGS. 3 AND 4A). Advanced argillic alteration is char-
acterized by the total destruction of primary minerals,
leaving an insoluble residue of quartz, clays (kaolinite or
pyrophyllite), aluminium hydroxides (diaspore) and
alunite. This assemblage is referred to as the leached cap
(FIG. 5D). Such porous and permeable alteration zones are
rarely exposed in porphyry systems due to erosion, so
whether they overlie all porphyry deposits is unknown.
Breccias
Hydrothermal breccias are common in Au-rich porphyry
Cu deposits (Sillitoe 2000). Brecciation occurs as a result
of the large mechanical energy available from ascending,
depressurizing, water-rich magmatic-hydrothermal uids,
which form initially under lithostatic pressure and move
to hydrostatic pressure conditions. Accompanying massive
hydrofracturing destroys and displaces downward the
brittleductile transition zone separating the deeper litho-
static from the overlying hydrostatic environment
(Burnham 1985). The result is a breccia that expands
upwards, generally forming a cone of fragmented rock
whose geometry will depend upon the host rock and the
extant structural fabric. Depending upon the timing, early
breccia can host signicant metal grade, whereas late
Epithermal environment
(<300C)
Porphyry CuAu
(700 to 100C)
Fluid
buffered
Rock
buffered
Potential initial fluid compositions
K-feldspar
Muscovite
Illite
Smectite
Kaolinite
Dickite kaolinite
Dickite pyrophyllite
Pyrophyllite
Andalusite
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
T

(

C
)
0 6 5 4 3 2 1
log (m
KCl+K
+ / m
HCl+H
+)
System K
2
OAl
2
O
3
SiO
2
HClH
2
O
at1kb, quartz present P
O
T
A
S
S
I
C
(
K
-
f
e
ld
s
p
a
r

B
io
t
it
e
)
S
e
r
i
c
i
t
i
c

(
p
h
y
l
l
i
c
)
Intermediate
argillic
Propylitic
A
d
v
a
n
c
e
d

A
r
g
i
l
l
i
c
k
a
o
l
i
n
i
t
e
s
m
e
c
t
i
t
e
i
n
t
e
r
l
a
y
e
r
e
d

c
l
a
y
i
l
l
i
t
e
e
p
i
d
o
t
e
b
i
o
t
i
t
e
0
500
1000
100 200 300
D
e
p
t
h
(
m
)
T (C)
B
o
i
l
i
n
g

p
o
i
n
t

f
o
r

d
e
p
t
h

c
u
r
v
e

(
p
u
r
e

w
a
t
e
r
)
FIGURE 4
(A) Phase diagram for the system K
2
OAl
2
O
3
SiO
2

H
2
OKClHCl at P
H2O
= 1 kbar, showing possible paths
of uid evolution (dashed lines) depending upon starting uid
composition. The diagram is shown in terms of temperature and the
molal (m) composition of the uid. The path at left represents a
uid-dominant alteration sequence, whereas the other two illustrate
rock-buffered alterations. Different paths demonstrate the
importance of the starting uid composition on the sequence of
alteration, which is in part due to different magma compositions.
Late inux of external uid into the porphyry environment forms the
widespread rock-buffered intermediate argillic alteration. MODIFIED
FROM SEEDORFF ET AL. (2005) (B) Boiling point for depth curve for
epithermal deposits showing the vertical distribution of minerals
in a boiling upow zone. REDRAFTED FROM SIMMONS ET AL. (2005)
A
B
ELEMENTS OCTOBER 2009
293
breccia forming at the end of the hydrothermal system
may be weakly mineralized or essentially remove and dilute
signicant portions of an orebody.
EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS
Epithermal deposits form in the uppermost crust at depths
ranging from ~50 m to as much as 1500 m below the water
table. They form primarily from subaerial hydrothermal
systems driven by magmatic heat and, less commonly, by
deeply circulating ground water rising along basin-
bounding faults (Lindgren 1933; Simmons et al. 2005). The
deposits are principally linked to magmatism, either close
to and above the intrusion or at some distance from it,
where the magmatic input is entrained in and diluted by
a structurally controlled or topographically driven large-
scale geothermal system (FIG. 2). Unlike the high- to low-
temperature uid history of a porphyry CuAu deposit,
epithermal deposits form at temperatures ranging from 150
to 300C, and metal content is controlled by the composition
of the hydrothermal solution, reecting differing origins
and geological environments (Simmons et al. 2005).
Although numerous classications of epithermal systems
have been proposed, they essentially can be dened by
two end member types based on the characteristic hypo-
gene mineral assemblages: (1) quartz calcite adularia
illite (FIGS. 4B AND 6A) and (2) quartz + alunite pyrophyllite
dickite kaolinite (FIG. 6B) (Simmons et al. 2005). The
rst mineral assemblage forms in neutral pH environments
and encompasses the low-suldation and intermediate-
suldation deposits (Sillitoe and Hedenquist 2003), whereas
the second forms in acidic environments and is equivalent
to high-suldation deposits (White and Hedenquist 1995).
Quartz Calcite Adularia Illite Assemblage
Epithermal deposits composed of this assemblage form in
geothermal systems in volcanic arcs and rifts and result
from the deep circulation of meteoric water driven princi-
pally by a shallow intrusion. At depth, the chloride-domi-
nated waters are near neutral and contain reduced S species
FIGURE 5
Examples of characteristic rocks in porphyry and
epithermal deposits. (A) Hematite-stained K-silicate
alteration and quartzCu-Fe sulde veins at the Ridgeway alkalic
porphyry AuCu deposit (New South Wales, Australia). (B) Intense
multi-generational quartz vein mesh in early porphyry at the Reko
Diq porphyry CuAu deposit (Pakistan). The pink halo on the quartz
veins is K-feldpar. (C) Intra-mineral, hornblendebiotite diorite
porphyry containing xenoliths of biotite hornfels cut by a quartz vein
mesh and of older, sugary high-temperature quartz veins at the Reko
Diq porphyry CuAu deposit (Pakistan). (D) Advanced argillic
altered lithocap (bold outcrops with white, quartz-rich talus on slope)
located above the Cerro Casale porphyry CuAu deposit (Chile).
(E) Banded quartzadulariaillite vein containing dark bands of
pyrargarite from the Maria vein, Manantial Espejo Mine (southern
Argentina). (F) Unoxidized and brecciated, grey quartz alunite
altered volcanic rock with inll covellite (blue mineral) and Au
precipitated in breccia voids, at Yanacocha (Peru).
B
C
D
E F
A
ELEMENTS OCTOBER 2009
294
and dissolved CO
2
. The H
2
S provides an important ligand
for the transport of Au as a bisulde complex (Seward and
Barnes 1997; Williams-Jones et al. 2009 this issue). These
waters contain small amounts of magmatic uid, which is
considered to be the source of metal precipitated in the
epithermal deposits. The uid is generally in equilibrium
with the host rocks and is thus rock buffered. Boiling in
the central upowing uid, the primary mechanism for
sulde deposition, is controlled by the ambient near-hydro-
static pressure and temperature conditions, and quartz,
adularia and platey calcite are deposited (FIGS. 4B, 5E, AND
6A). The chloride-dominated uid may rise to the surface
and discharge, depositing sinter, or be dispersed laterally
through an outow zone, producing extensive zones of
alteration and replacement. During boiling of the ascending
uid, dissolved CO
2
and H
2
S are partitioned into the
vapour, which rises to the surface and condenses into the
local cool ground water, forming CO
2
-rich or H
2
S-rich
steam-heated water. The CO
2
-rich ground water is concen-
trated along the shallow margins of the upow zones,
where a carbonate mineralrich assemblage forms. The
H
2
S-rich ground water enters the vadose (unsaturated)
zone, and H
2
S reacts with the atmosphere and is oxidized
to H
2
SO
4
. This results in steam-heated zones of alteration,
in which a low-pH (<2) uid high in dissolved sulfate alters
the rocks to an advanced argillic mineral assemblage
consisting of opal (cristobalite), alunite, kaolinite and pyrite
as the uid becomes neutralized near the water table.
Quartz + Alunite Pyrophyllite Dickite
Kaolinite Assemblage
Epithermal deposits of this type are associated with near-
surface magmatic-hydrothermal systems that are acidic (FIG.
6B) and have the potential to transport large quantities of
precious and base metals (Williams-Jones and Heinrich
2005). The upow zones are dominated by magmatic
vapours containing HCl, SO
2
and HF, which condense into
shallow ground water and form the extremely acidic envi-
ronments seen in some modern systems, such as crater
lakes in degassing volcanoes. Fluidrock reactions leach
cations, neutralize the acidic uid and lead to the precipita-
tion of alunite, pyrophyllite, dickite, quartz, anhydrite,
diaspore, topaz, kaolinite and illite, which is an assemblage
characteristic of uid-dominated conditions and advanced
argillic alteration (FIG. 4A). Steam-heated acid-sulfate waters
also form in the vadose zone, but silica sinters do not,
because the acid conditions inhibit deposition of amor-
phous silica (Fournier 1985). In many magmatic-hydro-
thermal systems, metal-bearing uids may not ascend to
the shallow epithermal environment, leading to a barren
leached zone characterized by advanced argillic mineral
assemblages; these lithocaps are exposed in a few shallow
porphyry Cu deposits, where they represent the uppermost
part of the porphyry Cu magma-derived hydrothermal
plume (FIG. 5D). Where metal-bearing uid reaches the
epithermal environment, it generally post-dates intense
leaching of wall rocks (FIG. 5F). The metalliferous oxidized
uid may cause minimal wall rock interaction and, upon
cooling, precipitate high-suldation-state minerals or, with
greater waterrock interaction, more intermediate-sulda-
tion-state minerals (Einaudi et al. 2003).
HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE TO FORM
A DEPOSIT?
Available geochronological and geological data suggest that
a porphyry or epithermal deposit can form in what is a
geological instant, on the order of a few thousand to a few
hundred thousand years (Arribas et al. 1995; Garwin 2002).
In fact, the process of metal introduction and deposition
may be so efcient that, for example, the 42 million ounces
of Au in the Ladolam epithermal deposit in Papua New
Guinea could have been precipitated in as little as 55,000
years (Simmons and Brown 2006). However, it is also
important to recognize that a magmatic-hydrothermal
system, particularly a porphyry deposit, is an integral part
FIGURE 6
(A) Idealized cross section of a quartzadularia epithermal
deposit showing distribution of alteration assemblages.
(B) Idealized cross section of a quartzalunite epithermal deposit.
MODIFIED FROM WHITE AND HEDENQUIST (1995) AND HEDENQUIST ET AL. (2000)
Dissem.
ore
Steam-heated
(kaolinite + alunite +
native S + opaline silica)
Sinter Chalcedony
Hot spring
Chlorite + calcite
epidote
Sericite or illite
adularia
Smectite +
mixed layer clay
chlorite
Water
table
Vein
ore
metres
50100
50100 0
Quartzadularia epithermal deposit
Fluid flow
Permeable
strata
metres
50100
50100 0
Fluid flow
permeable
horizon
hydrothermal breccia
quartz +
alunite
quartz + kaolinite +
alunite
kaolinite +
montmorillonite +
illite
milled breccia
electrum + pyrite
enargite-luzonite
Quartzalunite epithermal deposit
A
B
ELEMENTS OCTOBER 2009
295
REFERENCES
Arribas AA Jr, Hedenquist JW, Itaya T,
Okada T, Concepcin RA, Garcia JS Jr
(1995) Contemporaneous formation of
adjacent porphyry and epithermal Cu-Au
deposits over 300 ka in northern Luzon,
Philippines. Geology 23: 337-340
Beane RE, Titley SR (1981) Porphyry copper
deposits. Part II. Hydrothermal alteration
and mineralization. Economic Geology
75
th
Anniversary Volume, pp. 235-263
Burnham CW (1979) Magmas and hydro-
thermal uids. In: Barnes HL (ed)
Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore
Deposits, 2
nd
edition. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, pp 71-136
Burnham CW (1985) Energy release in
subvolcanic environments: Implications
for breccia formation. Economic Geology
80: 1515-1522
Candela PA, Piccoli PM (2005) Magmatic
processes in the development of porphyry-
type ore systems. Economic Geology
100
th
Anniversary Volume, pp 25-37
Chambefort I, Dilles JH, Kent AJR (2008)
Anhydrite-bearing andesite and dacite
as a source for sulfur in magmatic-
hydrothermal mineral deposits. Geology
36: 719-722
Cooke DR, Simmons SF (2000) Characteristics
and genesis of epithermal gold deposits.
Reviews in Economic Geology 13: 221-244
Dilles JH, Farmer GL, Field CW (1995)
Sodium-calcium alteration by non-magmatic
saline uids in porphyry copper deposits:
Results from Yerington, Nevada.
Mineralogical Association of Canada
Short Course Volume 23: 309-338
Dilles JH, Einaudi MT, Proffett JM, Barton
MD (2000) Overview of the Yerington
porphyry copper district: Magmatic to
non magmatic sources of hydrothermal
uids: Their ow paths and alteration
effects on rocks and Cu-Mo-Fe-Au ores.
Society of Economic Geologists
Guidebook 32: 55-66
Einaudi MT, Hedenquist JW, Inan EE (2003)
Suldation state of uids in active and
extinct hydrothermal systems: Transitions
from porphyry to epithermal environments.
Society of Economic Geologists Special
Publication 10: 285-313
Fournier RO (1985) The behaviour of silica
in hydrothermal solutions. Reviews in
Economic Geology 2: 45-72
Garwin S (2002) The geological setting of
intrusion-related hydrothermal systems
near the Batu Hijau porphyry copper-gold
deposit, Sumbawa, Indonesia. Society of
Economic Geologists Special Publication
9: 333-366
Gustafson LB, Hunt JP (1975) The porphyry
copper deposit at El Salvador, Chile.
Economic Geology 70: 857-912
Hamilton WB, Myers WB (1967) The Nature
of Batholiths. U.S. Geological Survey
Professional Paper 554-C, 30 pp
Hedenquist JW, Arribas A, Gonzalez-Urien
E (2000) Exploration for epithermal
gold deposits. Reviews in Economic
Geology 23: 245-278
Hemley JJ, Hunt JP (1992) Hydrothermal
ore-forming processes in the light of
studies in rock-buffered systems: II.
Some general geologic applications.
Economic Geology 87: 23-43
Hildreth W, Moorbath S (1988) Crustal
contributions to arc magmatism in the
Andes of central Chile. Contributions to
Mineralogy and Petrology 98: 455-489
Jensen EP, Barton MD (2000) Gold deposits
related to alkaline magmatism. Reviews
in Economic Geology 13: 279-314
Kesler SE, Chryssoulis SL, Simon G (2002)
Gold in porphyry copper deposits: its
abundance and fate. Ore Geology Reviews
21: 103-124
Lang JR, Stanley CR, Thompson JFH, Dunne
KPE (1995) Na-K-Ca magmatic-hydro-
thermal alteration in alkalic porphyry
Cu-Au deposits, British Columbia.
Mineralogical Association of Canada
Short Course Volume 23: 339-366
Lindgren W (1933) Mineral Deposits, 4
th

edition. McGraw-Hill, New York, 883 pp
Pasteris JD (1996) Mount Pinatubo volcano
and negative porphyry copper deposits.
Geology 24: 1075-1078
Richards JP (2009) Postsubduction
porphyry Cu-Au and epithermal Au
deposits: Products of remelting of
subduction-modied lithosphere.
Geology 37: 247-250
Seedorff E, Dilles JH, Proffett JM, Einaudi
MT, Zurcher L, Stavast WJA, Barton MD,
Johnson DA (2005) Porphyry-related
deposits: Characteristics and origin of
hypogene features. Economic Geology
100
th
Anniversary Volume, pp 251-298
Seward TM, Barnes HL (1997) Metal trans-
port by hydrothermal ore uids. In:
Barnes HL (ed) Geochemistry of
Hydrothermal Ore Deposits, 3
rd
edition.
John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp 435-486
Sillitoe RH (2000) Gold-rich porphyry
deposits: Descriptive and genetic models
and their role in exploration and
discovery. Reviews in Economic Geology
13: 315-345
Sillitoe RH, Hedenquist JW (2003)
Linkages between volcanotectonic
settings, ore-uid compositions, and
epithermal precious metal deposits.
Society of Economic Geologists Special
Publication 10: 315-343
Simmons SF, Brown KL (2006) Gold in
magmatic hydrothermal solutions and
the rapid formation of a giant ore
deposit. Science 314: 288-291
Simmons SF, White NC, John DA (2005)
Geologic characteristics of epithermal
precious and base metal deposits.
Economic Geology 100
th
Anniversary
Volume, pp 485-522
White NC, Hedenquist JW (1995)
Epithermal gold deposits: Styles, charac-
teristics and exploration. Society of
Economic Geologists Newsletter 23: 1-13
Williams-Jones AE, Heinrich CA (2005) Vapor
transport of metals and the formation
of magmatic-hydrothermal ore deposits.
Economic Geology 100: 1287-1312
Williams-Jones AE, Bowell RJ, Migdisov AA
(2009) Gold in solution.
Elements 5: 281-287
of a long-lived and evolving magmatic complex. Such a
complex includes a deep magma chamber, numerous intru-
sive events and overlapping hydrothermal systems, which
may have formed, cooled and been overprinted or moved
to a different location by a younger hydrothermal system
(Gustafson and Hunt 1975; Garwin 2002). In the epith-
ermal environment, because of the rapid cooling inherent
in shallow crust, geochronology commonly distinguishes
the multiple events. In contrast, the long-term perturbation
of the thermal prole by multiple porphyry intrusions and
their related hydrothermal systems, as well as by the under-
lying cooling batholith, may blur temporal distinctions
between discrete spatially related porphyry systems, poten-
tially detectable using modern geochronology tools. The
result is an apparently long-lived and continuously oper-
ating porphyry hydrothermal system, rather than one
characterized by superposed systems that may have acted
episodically over a protracted period of time.
CONCLUSIONS
Porphyry and epithermal deposits have contributed signi-
cantly to the global and historical production of gold. Their
formation involves the entire lithospheric column, starting
in metasomatized upper mantle, then in the upper crust where
a hydrothermal uid exsolves from an oxidized magma, and
nally higher in the upper crust where changing physico-
chemical conditions coupled with external geological controls
contribute to precipitation and the formation of ore deposits.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This overview has beneted from decades of research by
the geological community, much of which could not be
directly cited herein. The authors thank the many scientists
who have contributed their knowledge to the subject.
Suggestions to improve the manuscript by Anthony
Williams-Jones and Robert Hough are greatly appreciated.
This is MDRU contribution no. 236.
ADVERTISING