Gallhofer Et Al-2015-Tectonics

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Tectonics
RESEARCH ARTICLE Tectonic, magmatic, and metallogenic
10.1002/2015TC003834
evolution of the Late Cretaceous arc
Key Points:
• Major magmatic arc concealed by
in the Carpathian-Balkan orogen
postsubduction continental collision Daniela Gallhofer1, Albrecht von Quadt1, Irena Peytcheva1,2, Stefan M. Schmid3,
• Europe’s active margin reconstructed
using magma chemistry and and Christoph A. Heinrich1,4
geochronology 1
• Distribution of magmatic-hydrothermal Institute of Geochemistry and Petrology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland, 2Geological Institute, BAS, Sofia, Bulgaria,
3
ore deposits controlled by stress state Institute of Geophysics, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland, 4Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of
Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
Supporting Information:
• Table S1
• Table S2
Abstract The Apuseni-Banat-Timok-Srednogorie Late Cretaceous magmatic arc in the Carpathian-Balkan
• Table S3 orogen formed on the European margin during closure of the Neotethys Ocean. It was subsequently deformed
• Table S4 into a complex orocline by continental collisions. The Cu-Au mineralized arc consists of geologically distinct
• Table S5
• Text S1 and Figure S1
segments: the Apuseni, Banat, Timok, Panagyurishte, and Eastern Srednogorie segments. New U-Pb zircon ages
and geochemical whole rock data for the Banat and Apuseni segments are combined with previously published
Correspondence to: data to reconstruct the original arc geometry and better constrain its tectonic evolution. Trace element and
D. Gallhofer, isotopic signatures of the arc magmas indicate a subduction-enriched source in all segments and variable
[email protected]
contamination by continental crust. The magmatic arc was active for 25 Myr (~92–67 Ma). Across-arc age trends
of progressively younger ages toward the inferred paleo-trench indicate gradual steepening of the subducting
Citation: slab away from the upper plate European margin. This leads to asthenospheric corner flow in the overriding
Gallhofer, D., A. von Quadt, I. Peytcheva,
plate, which is recorded by decreasing 87Sr/86Sr (0.70577 to 0.70373) and increasing 143Nd/144Nd (0.51234 to
S. M. Schmid, and C. A. Heinrich (2015),
Tectonic, magmatic, and metallogenic 0.51264) ratios over time in some segments. The close spatial relationship between arc magmatism, large-scale
evolution of the Late Cretaceous arc in shear zones, and related strike-slip sedimentary basins in the Timok and Pangyurishte segments indicates mild
the Carpathian-Balkan orogen, Tectonics,
transtension in these central segments of the restored arc. In contrast, the Eastern Srednogorie segment
34, 1813–1836, doi:10.1002/
2015TC003834. underwent strong orthogonal intraarc extension. Segmental distribution of tectonic stress may account for the
concentration of rich porphyry Cu deposits in the transtensional segments, where lower crustal magma storage
Received 23 JAN 2015 and fractionation favored the evolution of volatile-rich magmas.
Accepted 3 AUG 2015
Accepted article online 6 AUG 2015
Published online 9 SEP 2015
1. Introduction
Magmatic arcs form above active subduction zones at convergent plate boundaries, where a continental or
oceanic plate margin overrides a subducting oceanic plate. Along a subduction zone, continental and ocea-
nic arcs generally form distinct segments [e.g., Mahlburg Kay et al., 1982; Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988]. In
continental-margin arcs, the style of tectonic deformation may differ among segments along the arc and
may also vary perpendicular to the arc in response to differences in preexisting geology, convergence rate
and direction, or heterogeneities within the subducting plate. For example, along-arc differences among seg-
ments have been attributed to subducting ridges [Cross and Pilger, 1982; von Huene and Ranero, 2009], slab
tear [Wortel and Spakman, 2000; Rosenbaum et al., 2008], or flat-slab subduction of young oceanic lithosphere
[Haschke et al., 2002; Kay and Coira, 2009; Ramos and Folguera, 2009]. Across-arc variations in style and com-
position of magmatism may be related to steepening or shallowing of the subducting slab [e.g., Trumbull
et al., 2006], which can be related to changing rates or angles of plate convergence. The composition of
subduction-related mantle magmas may vary as a result of heterogeneous source enrichment, and especially
in continental arcs, will be modified by mineral fractionation and crustal assimilation processes, which occur
primarily in the lower crust and on further ascent through the mature continental crust [de Paolo, 1981;
Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988; Annen et al., 2006]. Igneous geology and geochemistry can be used to identify
magma sources and evolution processes and thus serve as evidence to interpret the large-scale plate-
tectonic setting of complex arcs.
Subduction-related magmatic arcs are frequently endowed with magmatic-hydrothermal porphyry Cu ± Au ± Mo
©2015. American Geophysical Union. and epithermal Au ± Ag ± Cu deposits, which can themselves be taken as tectonic indicators [Sawkins, 1972;
All Rights Reserved. Sillitoe, 1972; Groves and Bierlein, 2007]. These deposits usually occur in discrete belts and do not extend along
GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1813

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
Figure 1. Tectonic sketch map of western Eurasia (modified from Morelli and Barrier [2004]). Major Late Tertiary to active thrust belts, active subduction zones, and recent
arc volcanoes are shown in black; the sutures of the Neotethys (green) and location of Mesozoic to Oligocene arc magmas (red) are highlighted: ABTS Apuseni-Banat-
Timok-Srednogorie belt, Alborz magmatic arc, Carpathian magmatic arcs, Eastern Pontide magmatic arc, Kerman belt, Lesser Caucasus magmatic arc, Sanandaj-Sirjan
magmatic arc, Urumieh-Dokhtar magmatic arc, Yüksekova-Baskil magmatic arc.
the entire length of magmatic arcs. Barren and mineralized segments are thought to be due to large-scale
variations in tectonic stress of the lithosphere, and well-endowed segments empirically correlate with flat-
slab subduction, subduction of oceanic ridges, or subduction reversals [Solomon, 1990; Cooke et al., 2005;
Rohrlach and Loucks, 2005; Rosenbaum et al., 2005]. Major porphyry deposits develop preferentially in arc
segments that were subjected to a compressional stress state during ore deposit formation [Sillitoe, 1997;
Camus, 2002; Richards, 2003; Rohrlach and Loucks, 2005; Sillitoe and Perelló, 2005; Sillitoe, 2010]. Horizontal
compression can trap magmas in a lower crustal magma chamber, where high-pressure magmatic differ-
entiation and cyclic replenishment lead to enrichment in volatiles and metal content. Compression also
influences the development of upper crustal magma chambers, thus preventing volcanic eruption and
unfocused loss of volatiles but favoring focused fluid release through intensely veined porphyry stocks
[Rohrlach and Loucks, 2005; Richards, 2011; Loucks, 2014]. High magmatic water contents favor the crystal-
lization of hornblende and suppress plagioclase crystallization in the lower crust [e.g., Burnham, 1979; Lang
and Titley, 1998; Richards et al., 2001; Richards, 2003; Rohrlach and Loucks, 2005; Chiaradia, 2009]. Magmas
which have evolved through these processes therefore have distinct geochemical signatures, generally
referred to as “adakite-like,” which are characterized by high Sr/Y ratios, low Y concentrations, high
light/heavy rare Earth element ratios (LREE/HREE), and weak or absent Eu anomalies [Kay et al., 1999;
Richards et al., 2001; Rohrlach and Loucks, 2005; Richards and Kerrich, 2007; Richards, 2011].
The Eurasian continental margin includes one of the world’s longest magmatic arc systems [Jankovic, 1997;
Perelló et al., 2008; Richards et al., 2012; Richards, 2015], second only to the circum-Pacific region [Garwin
et al., 2005; Sillitoe and Perelló, 2005]. Unlike the circum-Pacific, which is dominated by long-lasting subduction
of oceanic plates below continents, the magmatic arcs of Eurasia are embedded in the Alpine-Himalayan intra-
continental orogenic system (Figure 1). Arc magmatism was driven by subduction of the Neotethys Ocean in
Mesozoic to Tertiary times but terminated at the time of collision and was subsequently heavily overprinted
by major collision-related deformations [Dewey et al., 1973; Schmid et al., 2008]. This collisional overprinting
makes the reconstruction and interpretation of arc magmatism and the associated geotectonic setting more
difficult [Sosson et al., 2010; Bouilhol et al., 2013]. The Late Cretaceous Apuseni-Banat-Timok-Srednogorie
(ABTS) belt in southeastern Europe is the westernmost arc in the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic system related
to the subduction of Neotethys [e.g., Berza et al., 1998; Popov et al., 2002]. This magmatic arc extends over
1000 km length from the Apuseni Mountains of Romania, through Serbia and Bulgaria to the Black Sea
(Figure 1), finding a continuation not discussed in this contribution all the way to Iran. It was deformed after
emplacement on a lithospheric scale [e.g., Neubauer, 2002]. Five segments that show distinct magmatic and

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
Figure 2. Geological map of the Carpathian-Balkan orogen, modified from Schmid et al. [2008, 2011], showing major tectonic units and the occurrences of Late
Cretaceous igneous rocks and sedimentary basins grouped into five segments of ABTS belt. These are, from NW to SE, the Apuseni, Banat, Timok, Panagyurishte,
and Eastern Srednogorie segments. The red bars are the reference lines approximating the present-day orientation of the arc front in each of the five segments,
based on geochronological data derived in this and previous studies. MF = Maritsa fault system and TF = Timok fault are major transverse structures used to separate
the segments.
mineralization trends can be distinguished along this arc (Figure 2). The timing and evolution of the magma-
tism and its associated ore deposits are well studied in the central and eastern segments [von Quadt et al.,
2005; Kamenov et al., 2007; Peytcheva et al., 2008; S. Georgiev et al., 2009; Kouzmanov et al., 2009; Peytcheva
et al., 2009; Georgiev et al., 2012; Kolb et al., 2013]. However, information on the northwestern Banat and
Apuseni segments is still scarce [Zimmerman et al., 2008]. This hampers the establishment of a larger-scale
model of the arc that also takes account of the regional tectonic and geophysical constraints.
Here we present new U-Pb ages, whole rock major and trace element analyses, and Sr and Nd isotopic data
for the northern Banat and Apuseni segments and combine these new findings with those from previous
studies. Comparing the geochemical characteristics along the arc reveals similarities and differences between
arc segments and identifies common magmatic processes that were active in all segments. We then use our
extensive geochronological data set to test and improve reconstructions of the Late Cretaceous paleotec-
tonic evolution of the belt [e.g., Neubauer, 2002; Fügenschuh and Schmid, 2005]. Furthermore, we combine
geochronological data with tectonic constraints derived from comagmatic sedimentary basins and fault
systems to refine the large-scale tectonic history of the ABTS belt.
2. Regional Geology
The Late Cretaceous magmatic arc and associated metallogenic belt crop out in the Balkan, Northern
Rhodopes, South Carpathian, and Apuseni mountain ranges, which generally rise to less than 2000 m above

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
sea level and are partly obscured by Miocene to recent sediments of the Pannonian Basin. The subduction-
related igneous rocks intruded previously assembled tectonic units, and they discordantly cross older nappe
boundaries (Figure 2) (modified from Schmid et al. [2008]). The arc was intensely deformed after its emplace-
ment and bent around the Moesian platform to create the present L shape of the arc [e.g., Ratschbacher et al.,
1993; Fügenschuh and Schmid, 2005; Ustaszewski et al., 2008; van Hinsbergen et al., 2008], but this deformation
was not pervasive and was confined to brittle fault structures and ductile shear zones at the current level of
exposure. The complex interplay of compressional and extensional tectonics which partly predated, and
partly overprinted the Late Cretaceous magmatic arc, gave rise to the distinct segments of ABTS belt:
Apuseni, Banat, Timok, Panagyurishte, and Eastern Srednogorie segments, which we define here based on
geographic region and major crustal fault zones (Figure 2).
2.1. Tectonic Units of the Carpathian-Balkan Orogen

The Carpathian-Balkan orogen formed due to subduction of oceans and collision of continental blocks with
the European continental margin, which was driven by the overall convergence between the African and
European plates [e.g., Boccaletti et al., 1974; Herz and Savu, 1974; Csontos and Vörös, 2004; Schmid et al.,
2008; Matenco et al., 2010; Schmid et al., 2011]. The Moesian platform represents the undeformed European fore-
land and was amalgamated with other units derived from the European margin (Tisza and Dacia Mega-Units) in
mid-Cretaceous times [Săndulescu, 1984, 1994; Schmid et al., 2008]. The nonophiolitic parts of the Dinarides
became detached from the Adriatic microplate that separated from the African plate during the Mesozoic within
the present-day South Mediterranean realm [Handy et al., 2010; Marton et al., 2010]. All the continental units that
host the ABTS belt are located north and east of the Europe-Adria suture (Sava zone; see Figure 2) and were ori-
ginally derived from the European plate. This relationship holds for the Dacia Mega-Unit encompassing the
major units of the South Carpathians which continue into the Balkan orogen in Bulgaria [Csontos and Vörös,
2004; Schmid et al., 2008] and for the continental Tisza Mega-Unit, poorly exposed in isolated inselbergs within
the Pannonian Basin and in the Apuseni Mountains of Romania [Csontos and Vörös, 2004; Haas and Pero, 2004;
Kounov and Schmid, 2013]. Although the origin of the Strandzha, Circum-Rhodope, and the Rhodope Units is
somewhat ambiguous, they certainly have been part of the European continental margin since at least
Cretaceous times [Okay et al., 2001; Schmid et al., 2008; Burg, 2011]. The Rhodope Unit is separated from the
Dacia Mega-Unit along the right-lateral Maritsa fault system that comprises several NW-SE trending shear zones,
among others the Iskar-Yavoritsa shear zone, which became active in the Late Cretaceous [N. Georgiev et al.,
2009; Naydenov et al., 2013].
Two domains of oceanic lithosphere, Neotethys and Alpine Tethys, opened in Triassic and Jurassic times,
respectively. Their remnants denote distinct paleogeographic realms (Figure 1). Opening of the Alpine
Tethys was kinematically linked to the opening of the central Atlantic. The main branch of Alpine Tethys
forms an oceanic suture in the Alps and Western Carpathians that links with the Neotethys suture of the
Sava zone across the mid-Hungarian shear zone. A second branch led to the suturing of the Ceahlau-
Severin Ocean of the East and South Carpathians that can only be followed until the Serbian-Bulgarian border
(Figures 1 and 2) [Kräutner and Krstić, 2002; Schmid et al., 2008; Matenco et al., 2010]. The Alpine Tethys was
too narrow to give rise to subduction-related arc magmatism during its closure, and it was proposed that
intrusions in the Alps were related to slab break-off [cf. Davies and von Blanckenburg, 1995]. Miocene and
younger calc-alkaline magmas in the Carpathians are related to postcollisional extension or lithospheric dela-
mination [de Boorder et al., 1998; Seghedi et al., 1998; Harangi and Lenkey, 2007; Fillerup et al., 2010; Seghedi
and Downes, 2011]. The Neotethys suture is located between units of the European continental margin
(Tisza and Dacia Mega-Units) and the Adriatic margin (Dinarides) [Schmid et al., 2008]. Before final collision
between Europe and Adria, two different parts of the Neotethys were obducted during the latest Jurassic.
The Eastern Vardar ophiolitic sheets were obducted onto the Tisza and Dacia Mega-Units, while the
Western Vardar sheet was emplaced onto the Adria-derived Dinarides [Csontos and Vörös, 2004; Schmid
et al., 2008; Kounov and Schmid, 2013]. Final closure of the main branch of Neotethys along the Sava
Neotethys suture occurred at the end of the Cretaceous [Pamic, 2002; Karamata, 2006; Ustaszewski et al.,
2010], after a long period of north dipping subduction of the remnants of the Neotethys Ocean, attached
to the Adria margin in the south, underneath the Europe-derived Tisza and Dacia Mega-Units. According
to most authors, it is this originally north dipping subduction of Neotethys that gave rise to the magmatism
in the ABTS belt analyzed in this study. After collision at the end of the Cretaceous, intracontinental

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
convergence continued in Cenozoic times, which led to the severe oroclinal bending of the ABTS belt, as seen
in Figure 2 [Fügenschuh and Schmid, 2005].
2.2. Prearc Nappe Assemblage and Postarc Tectonic Modifications

Because the Late Cretaceous ABTS belt cuts across the boundaries between different tectonic units (Figure 2), it is
obvious that this magmatic arc of the Carpathian-Balkan orogen was preceded by several earlier and distinct
compressional phases. These compressional phases partly involved closure of small oceans leading to collision
and nappe stacking within the European continental margin but not to arc magmatism. The north facing
Strandzha and Circum-Rhodope Units were intensely deformed and regionally metamorphosed during a latest
Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous orogeny [Okay et al., 2001; Bonev and Stampfli, 2011]. At about the same time, parts
of the nappe stack of the Rhodope unit formed [Ricou et al., 1998; Bonev et al., 2006; Burg, 2011], associated with a
first event of eclogitization within what is referred to as the Rhodope Suture Zone or Nestos suture [Krenn et al.,
2010; Turpaud and Reischmann, 2010]. A second compressional phase in the Early Cretaceous (~130–100 Ma,
“Austrian” phase) led to subduction of the narrow Ceahlau-Severin Ocean (Alpine Tethys; Figure 2), to collision
associated with, in present-day coordinates, northeast facing nappe stacking within the Dacia Mega-Unit [e.g.,
Schmid et al., 1998; Iancu et al., 2005] and south directed synmetamorphic thrusting in the Rhodopes [Burg,
2011]. This event is recorded by 40Ar/39Ar cooling ages in the Getic-Supragetic, Srednogorie, and Biharia Units
[Dallmeyer et al., 1996, 1999; Velichkova et al., 2004; Kounov et al., 2010]. A subsequent Cretaceous tectonic
phase affected the Tisza Mega-Unit in the Turonian (~94 to 90 Ma) forming the present-day nappe stack of
the Apuseni Mountains, followed by extension that formed Gosau-type postorogenic basins (Figure 2) from
the Late Turonian onward [Schmid et al., 2008; Kounov and Schmid, 2013], synchronous with the magmatic
activity in the ABTS belt. Thrusting during the latest Cretaceous was associated with the thrusting of the
internal units of the Dacia nappe stack eastward over the Danubian nappes and with only minor deformation
in the Apuseni Mountains and most parts of the Dacia Mega-Unit (Late Campanian-Maastrichtian) [Săndulescu,
1984; Iancu et al., 2005; Schmid et al., 2008; Kounov and Schmid, 2013], which only mildly affected the ABTS belt.
However, most of the oroclinal bending of the Dacia and Tisza Mega-Units, together with the originally
straight ABTS belt they host, occurred in Cenozoic times [Fügenschuh and Schmid, 2005; Ustaszewski
et al., 2008] and in the framework of the invasion of the Tisza and Dacia Mega-Units into the Carpathian
embayment [Balla, 1987; Csontos and Vörös, 2004].
2.3. The Late Cretaceous Magmatic Arc

Calc-alkaline magmatism was initiated after the Austrian phase when the Lower Cretaceous Europe-verging
nappe stack preserved within Tisza and Dacia became an upper plate continental unit above the north
dipping subduction zone of the Neotethys lower plate. The magmatic arc can be divided into five segments
(Figure 2), based on structurally observed boundaries and published geological mapping.
The northernmost, presently NNE-SSW trending (1) Apuseni segment extends from volcanics outcropping
within the Tisza Mega-Unit to small plutons emplaced in the Eastern Vardar ophiolitic unit. The (2) Banat
segment is located south of the Apuseni segments and the Eastern Vardar ophiolitic unit. The mostly plutonic
rocks of the Banat segment crop out exclusively within the Dacia Mega-Unit of the Banat area in Romania. The
Danube is the natural boundary between the Banat segment and the (3) Timok segment. The adjacent (3)
Timok segment differs from the Banat segment in being preserved at a higher erosion level, as indicated
by abundant volcanic rocks and volcaniclastic basins, richly mineralized porphyries, and the abundant occur-
rence of adakite-like rocks [Ciobanu et al., 2002; Kolb et al., 2013]. The Timok and (4) Panagyurishte segments
are divided from each other by the Cenozoic right-lateral Timok Fault that links with the Late Cretaceous
right-lateral Maritsa fault system (Figure 2). All igneous products to the east of the Timok Fault are attributed
to the Panagyurishte segment. The Panagyurishte segment comprises West Bulgarian occurrences and
stretches from the Elatsite deposit in the north to the Rila granitic pluton in the Rhodopes in the south
[von Quadt and Peytcheva, 2005; Peytcheva et al., 2007]. The separation of the Panagyurishte segment from
the (5) Eastern Srednogorie segment is defined by a gap in magmatic activity that coincides with a reduction
of crustal thickness toward the Eastern Srednogorie segment [Yosifov and Pchelarov, 1977], probably induced
during rifting of the Black Sea [Görür, 1988] and persisting today. (5) The Eastern Srednogorie segment is the
only segment that hosts potassium-rich primitive magmas [e.g., S. Georgiev et al., 2009] extruded in a marine
intraarc rift basin. The Eastern Srednogorie segment is terminated by the Western Black Sea Fault, which

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
shifted the Istanbul zone, formerly connected to the Prebalkan, to the south during the opening of the Black
Sea [Okay et al., 1994]. The magmatic arc continues into the Pontides, Lesser Caucasus, and into northern Iran
outside the area of this study [e.g., Jankovic, 1997; Rice et al., 2009; Sosson et al., 2010].
The central Timok and Panagyurishte segments host economically significant porphyry-type and epithermal
Cu-Au deposits [Ciobanu et al., 2002; Heinrich and Neubauer, 2002], whereas skarn-type (calc-silicate replace-
ment) and polymetallic vein deposits prevail in the three adjacent segments, the Apuseni, Banat, and Eastern
Srednogorie segments [Vlad, 1997; Berza et al., 1998; Popov et al., 2002]. Broadly, coeval volcano-sedimentary
basins and sedimentary basins (Gosau-type basins in Romanian literature) occur in all segments along the
magmatic arc [Georgiev et al., 2001; Willingshofer et al., 2001; Popov et al., 2002; Kräutner and Krstić, 2003;
Schuller et al., 2009].
3. Results
3.1. Sample Selection and Compilation of Data
We collected some 100 samples of Late Cretaceous igneous rocks from the northernmost Banat and Apuseni
segments. The Late Cretaceous plutons, subvolcanic stocks, dikes, and volcanics are generally undeformed.
The majority of samples are fresh and lack alteration, and weathered surfaces were removed prior to sample
processing. Loss on ignition (LOI) values for the Banat and Apuseni samples range from 0.45 to 6.57 wt %, and
15 out of the 87 analyzed samples have a LOI higher than 3 wt %, which indicates moderate alteration. Higher
LOI values might affect mobile elements (e.g., Sr, Pb, K, and Ba) but the variations of these elements are
probably primary magmatic, because they do not correlate systematically with LOI. Whole rock samples were
analyzed for major and trace elements and for Sr and Nd isotope ratios (see Text S1 in the supporting infor-
mation for details). Additionally, we compiled geochemical whole rock data from previous studies of the
Timok segment [Kolb et al., 2013], the Panagyurishte segment [Kamenov et al., 2003; Stoykov et al., 2004;
Chambefort et al., 2007; Kamenov et al., 2007; Peytcheva et al., 2008; Kouzmanov et al., 2009; Peytcheva et al.,
2009], and the Eastern Srednogorie segment [S. Georgiev et al., 2009]. Major and trace element data are
reported in Table S1 in the supporting information, and Sr and Nd isotopic data are reported in Table S2.
Samples showing clear temporal relations in the field, deduced from crosscutting relations or wall-rock
contacts, were preferentially chosen for U-Pb age dating (see Text S1 for details). Single zircon crystals of
54 Late Cretaceous igneous rocks from the Banat and Apuseni segments were dated by the laser
ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) and/or thermal ionization mass
spectrometry (TIMS) method. For both methods, crystallization ages were calculated from the dates of
single zircon crystals and given as 206Pb/238U ages. Our new data are complemented by U-Pb ages for
the Timok segment [Kolb, 2011; Kolb et al., 2013], the Panagyurishte segment [von Quadt et al., 2002;
Kamenov et al., 2003; Stoykov et al., 2004; von Quadt et al., 2005; von Quadt and Peytcheva, 2005; Chambefort
et al., 2007; Peytcheva et al., 2007, 2008; Kouzmanov et al., 2009; Peytcheva et al., 2009; Atanasova-Vladimirova
et al., 2010; Nedkova et al., 2012; Bidzhova et al., 2013], and the Eastern Srednogorie segment [Georgiev et al.,
2012]. Calculated crystallization ages for all segments are reported in Table S3. A tectonic map of the ABTS
belt summarizing the crystallization ages of the magmatic samples is provided in Appendix Figure A1.
LA-ICP-MS single zircon dates for the Banat and Apuseni segments are reported in Table S4; TIMS data are
given in Table S5. Concordia and 206Pb/238U age weighted average plots are given in Figure S1 in the
supporting information. We report 2 standard deviations (2σ) of overlapping and concordant TIMS or
LA-ICP-MS ages in a population of analyses of each sample, as a conservative measure of age uncertainty,
rather than standard errors of the mean that become unrealistically small in the case of numerous point
analyses [von Quadt et al., 2011].
3.2. Geochemical Results
3.2.1. Major Elements and Classification
We classify volcanic, shallow intrusive (porphyritic to hypabyssal), and plutonic rocks from the ABTS belt accord-
ing to their whole rock geochemistry. In the A = Na2O + K2O, F = FeO, M = MgO (AFM) plot (Figure 3a) [Kuno,
1968; Irvine and Baragar, 1971] nearly all Late Cretaceous samples from the ABTS belt fall into the field of
calc-alkaline rocks, with the exception of primitive magmas from the Eastern Srednogorie segment, which fall
into the tholeiite field on account of their exceptionally high Fe + Mg. For easier comparison, all volcanic and
intrusive samples were plotted in the same total alkalis versus silica (TAS) diagram, subdivided and labelled

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
for volcanic rock names only (Figure 3b)

[Le Maitre et al., 1989]. Additional infor-
mation about the igneous rock series
can be inferred from the K2O versus
SiO2 diagram (Figure 3c) [Rickwood,
1989]. The samples show a wide compo-
sitional range from basalt to rhyolite with
a predominance of andesite to dacite
magmas. The majority of Apuseni sam-
ples have SiO2 contents over 60 wt %, fall
into the dacite and rhyolite fields, and
belong to the high-K calc-alkaline series.
The Banat samples are mostly intermedi-
ate to acid rocks and plot in the calc-
alkaline and high-K calc-alkaline fields.
Timok segment samples are predomi-
nantly intermediate in silica but com-
prise calc-alkaline to shoshonite series
[Kolb et al., 2013]. The Panagyurishte
samples show a wide compositional
variation and fall into the fields of calc-
alkaline and high-K calc-alkaline series.
Basic to intermediate magmas predomi-
nate in the Eastern Srednogorie seg-
ment. Samples from the central part of
this segment are particularly enriched in
alkalis (Na2O + K2O) and hence belong
to the high-K calc-alkaline and shosho-
nite series [S. Georgiev et al., 2009].
3.2.2. Trace Element Characteristics
The individual arc segments have differ-
ent concentrations of trace elements
which may be explained by mineral frac-
tionation (see section 4.1 for discussion)
(Figure 4). Light rare Earth elements
(LREE, e.g., La and Ce) are moderately
enriched in the ABTS belt samples, and
pronounced Eu anomalies are largely
absent (Eu/Eu* 0.8–1.2) for the majority
of samples with less than 65 wt % SiO2
(Figure 4a). In normal mid-ocean ridge
basalt (N-MORB)-normalized [Sun and
McDonough, 1989] trace element plots
(Figure 4b), samples from all five seg-
Figure 3. Chemical classification of Late Cretaceous igneous rocks from ments show enrichment in large-ion
different segments of the ABTS belt (see inset of Figure 3b). The open lithophile elements (LILEs), such as Ba,
symbols denote the volcanic and shallow intrusive rocks, and the filled K, Sr, and Pb; somewhat less enrichment
symbols indicate the plutonic rocks. The larger symbols indicate the in U and Th; and depletion of Nb, Ta, and
samples related to ore deposits. (a) AFM diagram showing the boundary
other high field strength elements
between calc-alkaline and tholeiitic series after Kuno [1968] (solid line)
and Irvine and Baragar [1971] (stippled line). (b) Total alkalis versus silica (HFSEs, e.g., Zr and Hf).
(TAS) diagram [Le Maitre et al., 1989]. TB: trachybasalt, BTA: basaltic tra-
The plots of La/Yb versus Yb and Sr/Y
chyandesite, TA: trachyandesite. (c) K2O versus SiO2 classification diagram
for subalkalic rocks, boundary bands after Rickwood [1989]. Analyses in versus Y (Figures 4c and 4d) aim at
Figures 3b and 3c were recalculated to 100% on an H2O-free basis. distinguishing normal-arc magmas from

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
Figure 4. Trace element characteristics of Late Cretaceous igneous rocks from ABTS belt. (a) Chondrite-normalized rare Earth elements. All samples from Banat segment are
plotted (red lines); for the other arc segments the overall range of data is represented by lines for the maximum and minimum values. (b) N-MORB-normalized trace element
patterns. Normalizing values for Figures 4a and 4b from Sun and McDonough [1989]. Trace element ratios: (c) La/Yb versus Yb (ppm). (d) Sr/Y versus Y (ppm) and the fields
for adakite-like and normal-arc magma compositions (from Defant and Drummond [1993]) and qualitative differentiation paths of various minerals (from Richards and
Kerrich [2007]). (e) (La/Sm)N and (f) (Dy/Yb)N versus SiO2 (wt %) as a measure of fractionation, with mineral fractionation paths from Davidson et al. [2007].
adakite-like signatures defined by La/Yb and Sr/Y ratios in excess of 20 and Yb and Y contents below 1.9 and
18 ppm, respectively [Defant and Drummond, 1993; Richards and Kerrich, 2007]. Apart from some Timok,
Banat, and Panagyurishte samples, most samples plot in the normal-arc field in the La/Yb plot (Figure 4c).
The Sr/Y plot, however, shows more variation among the arc segments. The majority of samples from
Panagyurishte and Banat segments fall into both fields, close to the field limits; some Panagyurishte
samples with low Y contents fall below the adakite-like Sr/Y. Eastern Srednogorie and Timok samples
partly fall into the normal-arc field but also display adakite-like affinities with higher Sr/Y ratios.
Apuseni samples mainly plot in the normal-arc field. Rare Earth element ratios, (La/Sm)N and (Dy/Yb)N,
plotted versus SiO2 can give insights into mineral fractionation (Figures 4e and 4f). The (La/Sm)N ratios

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
of ABTS belt samples generally

increase with increasing SiO2; the
Apuseni samples show a decrease at
SiO2 contents higher than 70 wt %.
(Dy/Yb)N ratios decrease with increas-
ing SiO2 in all arc segments.
3.2.3. Isotope Geochemistry
Age-corrected Sri isotope ratios and
εNdi values show a significant variation
among the arc segments. Nevertheless,
individual segments partly overlap. The
data lie between the mid-ocean ridge
basalt (MORB)-type mantle source field
Figure 5. Initial Sr and Nd isotope ratios for samples from the Late
(Timok) and that of Variscan granitoids
Cretaceous ABTS belt. Samples from Banat, Timok, and Eastern Srednogorie (Apuseni) from the prearc European
segments were backcalculated to 80 Ma based on analyzed bulk Rb and basement [Duchesne et al., 2008]. The
Sm concentrations; Panagyurishte samples were corrected for 85 Ma and Timok samples are the least radiogenic
87 86
90 Ma (Table S2). (a) εNdi versus Sr/ Sri. Field for MORB from Stracke
(highest εNdi: +4.4 to +5.4 and lowest
et al. [2005], composition of depleted MORB mantle (DMM) and enriched 87
DMM from Workman and Hart [2005], field for Variscan granitoids Sr/86Sri: 0.70339 to 0.70375) [Kolb
(corrected to 80 Ma) from Duchesne et al. [2008] and Peytcheva et al. [2008], et al., 2013]; the more radiogenic
and composition of Serbian flysch sediments from Prelevic et al. [2008]. Timok samples overlap with the isoto-
Two-component isotopic mixing for mantle source enrichment between pically primitive Banat samples. Banat
isotopically unmodified, least radiogenic Timok sample (MM38) [Kolb et al.,
samples extend to highly radiogenic
2013] and Serbian flysch (06FL03) [Prelevic et al., 2008]. Mixing line for
crustal contamination shows percent addition of representative basement isotopic compositions (low εNdi: 1.8
gneiss (R4626) [Duchesne et al., 2008] to the presumably isotopically to 3.1 and high 87Sr/86Sri: 0.70598 to
unmodified, least radiogenic Timok sample (MM38) [Kolb et al., 2013]; 0.70707) and partly overlap with the
see text for discussion.
basement granitoids. Panagyurishte
samples are also part of this array and
overlap with or are slightly more radiogenic than the Banat samples. However, a few Panagyurishte samples
are shifted off this trend toward more primitive Sri isotope ratios at low εNdi values ( 1.7 and lower). Age-
corrected Sri isotope ratios (not plotted in Figure 5) for the Eastern Srednogorie segment range from
0.70392 to 0.70590 and overlap with the other segments.
3.3. Age Constraints

3.3.1. Timing of Magmatic Activity
All arc segments were simultaneously active over the time period of 81 to 75 Ma (Campanian), but onset and
termination of magmatic activity occurred at different times in the individual segments (Figure 6 and Table S3).
Magmatic activity along the ABTS belt started as early as ~92 Ma (Turonian) in the northern Panagyurishte seg-
ment [von Quadt et al., 2002; Stoykov et al., 2004; Chambefort et al., 2007; Kamenov et al., 2007]; it set in slightly
later, between 90 and 87 Ma, in the Timok and Eastern Srednogorie segments [Kolb, 2011; Georgiev et al., 2012].
In the Banat and Apuseni segments, magmatism apparently did not start before ~84 and ~81 Ma, respectively.
The youngest igneous products occur in the Banat and Timok segments (74 to 71 Ma). However, still younger
magmatism is found in the Rhodope Unit, which forms the southern parts of the Panagyurishte and Eastern
Srednogorie segments (67–71 Ma) [von Quadt and Peytcheva, 2005; Marchev et al., 2006; Peytcheva et al., 2007].
Our compilation includes only the Late Cretaceous magmatism in the Rhodope Unit, although magmatism
continued beyond the Cretaceous-Palaeogene boundary, used as a somewhat arbitrary limit of our compilation
in this area.
3.3.2. Across-Arc Age Progression and Isotope Variation
Some arc segments show distinct across-arc age variations, whereby geochemical distribution patterns
vary in correlation with the age of magma emplacement. However, because trace elements might
be affected by differentiation, we focus on isotopic variations only. We use the red reference lines
approximating the orientation of the arc front in each segment (Figure 2) to sort the ages and
isotopic compositions within the arc segments. We start with samples close to these lines and move

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
206 238
Figure 6. (a) Compilation of Pb/ U ages (in Ma) for ABTS belt and Rhodopes (see Table S3 for sources). The five
segments of ABTS belt are arranged along the arc from northwest (Apuseni) to southeast (Eastern Srednogorie).
Within the individual segments, data points are sorted in terms of increasing distance in km from the inferred arc front
(red reference lines in Figure 2), which corresponds to a sorting from paleo-north to paleo-south after restoration of
the L-shaped bend in the magmatic arc (see text for explanation). The grey bands indicate the more restricted intervals
of magmatic-hydrothermal Cu ± Au mineralization in the Timok and Panagyurishte segments. The green frames
87 86
indicate the sedimentation intervals in comagmatic basins. (b) Corresponding across-arc trends of Sr/ Sri ratios.
87 86
This compilation also includes Sr/ Sri ratios of samples for which no U-Pb ages are available. Two Apuseni samples
(DG094 and DG112) fall outside the plotted Sr isotope ratio range, further emphasizing the unusually wide range in
143 144
this segment. (c) Corresponding across-arc trends of Nd/ Ndi ratios.
perpendicular to the reference line toward northwest in the Apuseni segment, to the west in the Banat
and Timok segments, to the southwest in the Panagyurishte segment, and to the south in the Eastern
Srednogorie segment (Figure 6, from left to right).
The Timok and Pangyurishte segments show the most pronounced progression of magmatic activity (Figure 6),
which is also clearly visible in the age-distribution map included in Appendix A of this paper. The oldest ages
occur closest to the interpreted arc magmatic front; in each segment, the youngest magmatic ages are found
furthest away from the arc front [von Quadt et al., 2005; Kolb et al., 2013]. In the Eastern Srednogorie segment,
ages show no clear overall trend, but the oldest intrusions tend to occur in the southern periphery (Strandzha
Unit) of the region exposing overall younger, submarine extrusive rocks [Georgiev et al., 2012]. Magmatism in
the Rhodope Unit (67–71 Ma) [von Quadt and Peytcheva, 2005; Marchev et al., 2006; Peytcheva et al., 2007] is

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
interpreted as the continuation of the magmatic activity in the Panagyurishte and Eastern Srednogorie
segments. Within the Banat segment younging of magmatism toward the west from 83.9 to 70.2 Ma is only
observed in the area that is currently adjacent to Serbia. By contrast, two samples from the northern part located
close to the inferred arc front yield younger ages (75–76 Ma), and the large Bocşa pluton and close-by smaller
intrusions that occur furthest away from the inferred arc front yield distinctly older ages (76 to 80 Ma). In the
Apuseni segment, where the youngest ages (75.5 to 78 Ma) are found closest to the inferred arc front, the trend
in age progression appears to be reversed.
The across-arc age trends are accompanied by distinct geochemical changes, which are most clearly traced
by isotopic signatures. The Panagyurishte magmatism evolves toward lower 87Sr/86Sri ratios and higher
εNdi southward, and the most depleted isotopic compositions are found in the youngest samples [von
Quadt et al., 2005]. A similar evolution to more primitive Sr and Nd isotopic ratios away from the arc front
is found in the Banat segment. Magmatism in the Timok segment, however, evolves toward more
radiogenic Sr and less radiogenic Nd isotope ratios away from the arc front, as well as in time, but is briefly
interrupted by a shift to lower 87Sr/86Sri ratios and higher εNdi at ~83 Ma [Kolb et al., 2013]. The 87Sr/86Sri
ratios in the Eastern Srednogorie segment are relatively low and vary little in the central rifted basin,
whereas higher ratios are found in the southern part (Strandzha Unit), which includes older intrusives in
this segment [S. Georgiev et al., 2009]. No clear isotopic trend is observed in the Apuseni samples. Some
volcanic rocks have particularly high 87Sr/86Sri ratios, whereas the youngest rocks coincide with relatively
low 87Sr/86Sri ratios.
4. Discussion
This discussion aims at supporting and refining the idea that the geochemical characteristics of the
different arc segments are best explained by a single north dipping subduction zone of the Neotethys
Ocean (also referred to as the “Vardar” Ocean) that was active during the Late Cretaceous and was closed
by collision of the Adriatic microcontinent with the European plate [e.g., von Quadt et al., 2005; Georgiev
et al., 2012; Kolb et al., 2013]. Subduction induced magmatism within this northerly adjacent continental
upper plate but also created distinct magmatic and metallogenetic characteristics for each segment of
the magmatic arc. First, we will discuss the tectonic significance of our compilation of geochemical
and geochronological data. Next, we will refine the tectonic reconstruction of this arc (Figure 7), prior
to its large-scale bending into the present-day L shape by deformations occurring during and after
continental collision.
4.1. Tectonic Significance of Magma Geochemistry and Magmatic Ages

Subduction-related mantle melts that ascend through mature continental crust undergo fractionation and
crustal contamination, which modifies their original composition [de Paolo, 1981; Hildreth and Moorbath,
1988; Thirlwall et al., 1996]. Therefore, tracing the primary source(s) of magmas in an evolved arc is difficult.
Magmatism in all segments of the ABTS belt shows a clear “arc signature,” i.e., enrichment in LILE (Ba, K, Sr,
and Pb) and depletion in HFSE (Nb, Ta, Zr, and Hf; Figures 4a and 4b), which is also prominent in the less
evolved basaltic andesites and indicates a subduction-related origin of the magmas.
The observed isotopic compositions in the ABTS arc magmas indicate interaction with continental crust
(Figure 5). Theoretically, some crustal contamination might have already taken place in the mantle source
via addition of subducted sediment [Elliott, 2003]. In a continental arc, however, evolved isotopic composi-
tions are more likely acquired during interaction and assimilation of the local continental crust [Hildreth
and Moorbath, 1988; Wörner et al., 1992]. The local continental crust [Duchesne et al., 2008] and subducted
sediments [Prelevic et al., 2008] are isotopical rather similar in this region, which impede any further distinc-
tion, but most of the contamination might have occurred during storage and melting, assimilation, storage,
and homogenization processes [Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988] in the continental crust. The ABTS belt magmas
form an array between primitive isotopic compositions similar to MORB (high εNdi and low 87Sr/86Sri ratios),
as observed for the Timok segment, and more evolved isotopic compositions (low εNdi and high 87Sr/86Sri
ratios), which partly overlap with the field of local Variscan granitoids as observed for the Apuseni segment.
This array can be approximated by admixing of the least radiogenic sample, which presumably represents
the isotopically unmodified mantle in the case of the Timok segment [Kolb et al., 2013], with varying amounts

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
Figure 7. Restoration of the configuration at the onset of arc magmatism around 90 Ma ago, partly based on retrodeforma-
tions of Ustaszewski et al. [2008] and Fügenschuh and Schmid [2005] but modified to restore the magmatic arc to a gently
curved line, consistent with paleomagnetic data. TF = Timok fault, MF = Maritsa fault system. The straight red lines are the
reference lines for the individual arc segments, with the same orientation relative to outcropping magmatic bodies as
shown in Figure 2.
of basement granitoid. Depending on the choice of crustal assimilant, 10 to several tens of percent of crustal
melt were added to the mantle-derived parental melt. Assimilation of local crustal basement is also indicated
by the presence of inherited zircons in igneous rocks from most arc segments, recording Jurassic,
Carboniferous, Ordovician, and older crystallization ages [Georgiev et al., 2012; Kolb et al., 2013].
The ABTS belt magmas have normal-arc as well as adakite-like geochemical signatures (Figure 4).
Adakite-like signatures (La/Yb and Sr/Y > 20, Yb < 1.9 ppm, and Y < 18 ppm) [Defant and Drummond,
1993] are frequently associated with economic porphyry Cu-Au and epithermal Cu-Au-Mo deposits
[e.g., Rohrlach and Loucks, 2005; Richards and Kerrich, 2007] but probably do not indicate slab melting
as suggested in the original interpretation of adakite by Defant and Drummond [1993]. Instead,
adakite-like geochemical signatures indicate plagioclase-absent fractionation of amphibole at high
pressure (>0.8–1 GPa and 25–30 km) [e.g., Alonso-Perez et al., 2009] and thus reflect intermediate storage
of increasingly hydrous magmas in the lower crust [Rohrlach and Loucks, 2005; Richards, 2011]. Yttrium as
well as middle rare Earth elements (e.g., Sm and Dy) are preferentially incorporated into amphiboles
[Davidson et al., 2007; Richards and Kerrich, 2007], and the observed increasing (La/Sm)N and decreasing
(Dy/Yb)N ratios in magmas from all arc segments of the ABTS belt are most likely to indicate widespread
hornblende fractionation (Figures 4e and 4f). Kolb et al. [2013] proposed that adakite-like signatures next
to normal-arc signatures in the Timok magmas were caused by high-pressure amphibole fractionation in
the lower crust, followed by variable proportions of upper crustal plagioclase fractionation (incorporating

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
Sr) and assimilation of local basement. This interpretation might also be applicable to adakite-like rocks from
the other segments of ABTS belt. We therefore conclude that all ABTS belt magmas tapped a mantle wedge
source that was enriched by subduction. During ascent, the mantle magmas were modified to variable
degrees by fractionation in the lower and/or the upper continental crust and varying degrees of assimilation
of the local upper crust of dominantly Variscan (Late Paleozoic) age.
The ABTS belt shows pronounced across-arc age and isotopic variations during a period of 25 Myr (~92
to 67 Ma, Turonian to Maastrichtian). Although different segments record different periods of initiation
and conclusion of arc magmatism, no major breaks in magmatic activity are observed within any of
the arc segments, and all arc segments were magmatically active within a common time window of
~83 to ~75 Ma (Figure 6). Age progression in magmatic arcs away from the arc front toward the
inferred subduction trench, i.e., narrowing of the arc-trench gap, is commonly interpreted in terms
of progressive steepening of the subducting slab. Such steepening can be associated with slab roll-
back; i.e., trench migration and slab hinge retreat away from the upper plate due to increasing slab
pull forces as the age of the subducted oceanic slab increases, inducing back-arc extension in the
upper plate [Heuret and Lallemand, 2005]. Trends of younging magmatic ages from paleo-north to
paleo-south (that is, toward the paleo-trench), which is pronounced in the case of the Banat, Timok,
and Panagyurishte segments, indicate narrowing of the arc-trench gap by up to 100 km (Figure 2),
consistent with steepening of the subducting Neotethys slab and intraarc extension in the upper
plate. The southward migration is particularly pronounced in the Panagyurishte segment and even
more so if the plutons within the northernmost Rhodopes are included. A systematic age progression
is missing in the Eastern Srednogorie segment, where magmatism in a central deep marine basin
(Yambol-Burgas Basin) [Georgiev et al., 2001] yields ages between 81.2 and 78.0 Ma, while older intrusions
occur in the southerly adjacent region [Georgiev et al., 2012]. Magmatism in the Apuseni segment neither
shows any systematic trend (or even a reversed trend?) in the age pattern. At the same time, the age range
of magmatism in the Apuseni segment (75.5–80.8), as well as that of the East Srednogorie segment, overlaps
with magmatism in the central segments. This indicates that magmatism was relatively stationary within the
upper plate during the process of subduction at both ends of ABTS belt.
Slab rollback or slab steepening also enhances corner flow within the subcontinental mantle wedge,
associated with asthenospheric upwelling and partial melting [Gvirtzman and Nur, 1999]. Therefore,
an increasing mantle input to the later and more southerly magmas over time, only traced by isotopic
compositions in the case of the Banat and Panagyurishte segments, is in good agreement with the
proposed slab steepening (Figure 6b). Many of the Apuseni magmas, however, show a distinctly
higher degree of crustal contamination. In contrast to the other segments, the Timok magmas origin-
ally derived from a mantle-type source with negligible crustal contamination and show increasing
crustal contamination in the younger magmas only [Kolb et al., 2013]. Locally deviating, strongly
crustal-influenced isotope ratios in the Timok and Eastern Srednogorie segments have been explained
by a higher degree of crustal assimilation, perhaps due to thicker crust or a longer residence time
in the crust relative to magmas from elsewhere in the ABTS belt [S. Georgiev et al., 2009; Kolb
et al., 2013].
4.2. Tectonic Significance of Comagmatic Sedimentary Basins and Shear Zones

Arc magmatism in the ABTS belt is intimately associated with Late Cretaceous sedimentary basins
(Figure 2), which provide additional constraints on the state of stress in different segments of the
magmatic arc. Some of them contain volcanic and volcaniclastic materials, while others lack such
material. It is important to note that not all of these Late Cretaceous sedimentary basins are
associated with ABTS belt magmatism. Late Cretaceous postorogenic basins unrelated to ABTS
magmatism are also widespread in the Tisza and Dacia Mega-Units and are often referred to as
Gosau-type basins [Willingshofer et al., 1999; Schuller et al., 2009]. They formed during collapse of
overthickened and gravitationally unstable continental crust and seal former nappe contacts formed
during the Early Cretaceous (“Austrian”) orogeny. Sedimentation in these older basins typically starts
in Albian-Cenomanian times [Kounov and Schmid, 2013]. Only the age range of comagmatic basins
(94–72 Ma) whose formation is related to ABTS magmatism rather than orogenic collapse is indicated
in Figure 6.

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
In the northern parts of the Eastern Srednogorie segment, layers of andesitic pyroclastics and
reworked tephra deposits already appear in the Turonian (94–90 Ma) sedimentary sequence
[Nachev and Dimitrova, 1995], but the most pronounced magmatic activity of submarine extrusive
arc magmas coincides with the most intense phase of intraarc extension and crustal thinning in
the Campanian 81–78 Ma [Georgiev et al., 2012]. Magmatism and sedimentation abruptly stopped
at around 72 Ma ago. The volcano-sedimentary basins east of Sofia cover the entire time span
between Late Turonian and the end of Campanian (92–72 Ma) [Popov et al., 2012]. Sedimentation
of volcaniclastic material in the Timok segment west of Sofia starts in the Turonian and ends before
the deposition of Late Campanian to Maastrichtian clastic and reefal sediments [Banješević, 2010].
These biostratigraphic constraints agree with the ~90 to 79 Ma age interval for igneous rocks asso-
ciated with the volcaniclastic basin in the eastern part of the Timok segment [Kolb, 2011]. In contrast
to the Eastern Srednogorie Basin, the basins in the Panagyurishte and Timok segments are marine
pull-apart basins, which partly formed during dextral shearing along the Iskar-Yavoritsa shear zone
[N. Georgiev et al., 2009; Naydenov et al., 2013]. This dextral shear zone is syntectonic with felsic
and mafic plutons emplaced during the 86–75 Ma time interval. Hence, pluton emplacement partly
overlaps with the age span of the volcano-sedimentary parts of the Panagyurishte and Timok
Basins. This suggests opening of the Panagyurishte and Timok Basins in a scenario of crustal-scale
dextral strike-slip motion, interpreted in terms of dextral transpression by previous authors
[N. Georgiev et al., 2009; Naydenov et al., 2013; Georgiev et al., 2014]. However, a transtensional rather
than transpressional setting is indicated for two reasons: (1) the Iskar-Yavoritsa shear zone is contem-
poraneous with the opening of comagmatic transtensional basins [Naydenov et al., 2013] and (2) the
Iskar-Yavoritsa shear zone is confined to the area of deposition of the Panagyurishte and Timok
Basins and has no further continuation to the east. The age of volcaniclastic sediments deposited
in sedimentary basins in the Banat region is not well constrained [Barzoi and Seclaman, 2010], but
magmatic dikes (76–75 Ma) are associated with Santonian-Campanian sediments (~84–72 Ma). In the
Apuseni segment, moderate intraarc extension probably caused deepening within the Gosau-type
orogenic collapse basins in the Campanian [Kounov and Schmid, 2013].
In summary, the onset of comagmatic sedimentation in the Late Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary basins
(Figure 6) starts at ~94 Ma in the east (Eastern Srednogorie) and systematically becomes younger to the west
and north (82 Ma in the Apuseni segment) and coincides with the onset of magmatic activity along the ABTS
belt. This extension is therefore not related to orogenic collapse but rather to the subduction of the
Neotethys Ocean triggering comagmatic basin formation along the entire continental margin of the
European upper plate. Massive orthogonal intraarc extension is indicated for the Eastern Srednogorie
segment, while the tectonic setting in the Panagyurishte and the Timok segments was transtensive and
associated with relatively moderate extension [N. Georgiev et al., 2009]. Moderate extension in the peripheral
Apuseni and Banat segments was of shorter duration.
4.3. Ore Deposits: Regional Stress Regime and Preservation

The regional stress regime of the crust is considered to be a critical factor in generating different styles
of ore deposits. Giant porphyry Cu-Au deposits in the circum-Pacific arcs preferentially formed in arc
segments that underwent contractional pulses [e.g., Sillitoe and Perelló, 2005]. Geodynamically induced
horizontal compression inhibits propagation of subvertical dikes and keeps buoyant magmas trapped
in sheet-like subhorizontal chambers [Tosdal and Richards, 2001; Richards, 2003; Rohrlach and Loucks,
2005]. Prolonged storage of magmas in lower crustal magma chambers is crucial for allowing enrich-
ment in water, other volatiles, and possibly ore metals [e.g., Richards, 2003; Rohrlach and Loucks, 2005;
Richards and Kerrich, 2007]. Stress relaxation eventually facilitates rapid ascent of fertile hydrous
magma into the upper crust, where volatiles exsolve from the magma to form ore deposits. Magma
ascent is focused in localized ascent paths such as strike-slip faults [Sillitoe and Perelló, 2005].
However, a change to strong extension is not favorable for porphyry deposit formation, as it would
result in volcanic eruption rather than magma storage in the upper crust [Tosdal and Richards, 2001;
Richards, 2003].
In the Late Cretaceous ABTS arc, indications for comagmatic compression have been reported for the
Panagyurishte segment [Naydenov et al., 2013], but crustal-scale dextral transtension probably

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
prevailed during the activity of the Maritsa fault system and the opening of pull-apart comagmatic
basins in the Panagyurishte and Timok segments. Significant porphyry-type ore deposits occur only
in these two segments, in association with magmas exhibiting adakite-like trace element characteris-
tics [e.g., von Quadt et al., 2005; Kolb et al., 2013]. A near-neutral stress state of the crust with mild
transtension might also explain why igneous rocks with adakite-like signatures, derived by lower crus-
tal high-pressure amphibole fractionation, and normal-arc signatures, obtained by upper crustal assim-
ilation and fractional crystallization, occur in spatially overlapping areas in the Timok segment [Kolb
et al., 2013]. The peripheral Eastern Srednogorie segment, by contrast, was under extreme extension
and did not form significant porphyry-style deposits.
The NNW-SSE alignment of ore deposits in the Panagyurishte segment (between Elatsite and
Elshitsa; see Figure 2) [e.g., Popov et al., 2002; Moritz et al., 2004] is conspicuous and was probably
controlled by a deep crustal fault. The fact that the southeastern end of this linear array abuts
the dextral Iskar-Yavoritsa shear zone (which itself contains synkinematic intrusions of Late
Cretaceous age) [N. Georgiev et al., 2009] suggests that the linear Panagyurishte array may follow
a tensional fault oriented parallel to the σ1/σ2 plane. First-rank shear zones parallel to the WNW-
ESE trending Iskar-Yavoritsa shear zone and NNW-SSE tensional faults paralleling σ1 probably
focused magma ascent and fluid flow to the sites of ore deposit formation, as ore deposits in the
Panagyurishte segment are primarily found along these secondary oblique and cross-arc faults
[Drew, 2005; Georgiev et al., 2014]. Relationships between fault zones and ore deposit formation
are less evident in the Timok segment but may be obscured by more intense later tectonic overprint
and poor exposure.
Partial preservation of a comparatively old porphyry Cu-Au district like the ABTS belt depends critically
on limited postemplacement uplift and erosion [Groves et al., 2005; Kesler and Wilkinson, 2006]. This
points to postemplacement processes that prevented or counteracted substantial crustal thickening
in the continental host units, which would have favored complete erosion of the volcano-sedimentary
successions, as it currently happens in the Andes where preserved porphyry deposits are much
younger [Sillitoe and Perelló, 2005]. Preservation of shallow volcanics in the Apuseni, Banat, and
Timok segments is probably due to extensional and transtensional postemplacement processes asso-
ciated with Eocene to Miocene bending around the Moesian platform and extrusion of the
Carpathian-Balkan orogen into the still open Carpathian embayment [e.g., Schmid et al., 1998].
Extensional tectonics followed accretion in the Aegean region from Paleogene times onward [e.g.,
Burchfiel et al., 2008] and resulted in core complex formation and tectonic denudation in the
Rhodopes [Burg, 2011; Kaiser Rohrmeier et al., 2013] (Figure 2). Extension may have also caused removal
of shallow ore deposits and volcanics and exposure of deeper crustal levels in the southern parts of the
Panagyurishte and Eastern Srednogorie segments.
4.4. Reconstruction and Tectonic Model for the ABTS Belt

All reconstructions of the Carpathian-Balkan orogen are speculative to some extent due to the intense
later tectonic overprint in this region [Neugebauer et al., 2001; Csontos and Vörös, 2004; Stampfli and
Borel, 2004; Ustaszewski et al., 2008], but considering the tectonic scenario that generated the exten-
sive arc magmatism described in this paper provides important additional constraints. Figure 7 shows
a modified paleotectonic map of the Carpathian-Balkan orogen for the Turonian (~90 Ma), indicating
the Late Cretaceous position of continental blocks hosting the arc-related magmatic rocks along a
gently curved magmatic arc. The reconstruction is still consistent with the block rotations proposed
by Ustaszewski et al. [2008] but extended backward in time to indicate the location of a continuous
active plate boundary at the northern margin of Neotethys, such that the observed subduction mag-
matism can be at least qualitatively explained.
We used the Miocene restoration by Ustaszewski et al. [2008] as a starting point for the reconstruction and
integrated a previous retrodeformation to the Late Cretaceous situation proposed by Fügenschuh and
Schmid [2005, their Figure 9]. Our restoration is still tentative, because exact amounts of shortening or exten-
sion and changes in the geometric configuration of the tectonic units cannot be quantified. For this new
reconstruction, arc segments were rotated and translated individually, but outlines of magmatic bodies and
their distribution within the segments were left unchanged, to facilitate comparison with the present-day

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
configuration. This is reasonable because contacts between intrusions and wall rocks are generally unde-
formed, indicating that displacements were concentrated along larger block faults even though these
segment boundaries could rarely be defined in the field. Significant deformation within synkinematic igneous
intrusions related to ABTS magmatism is directly observed only along the Iskar-Yavoritsa shear zone
[N. Georgiev et al., 2009; Naydenov et al., 2013], which was therefore used as one of the major segment
boundaries in our retrodeformation.
The European foreland including Moesia is fixed in its present-day position. Paleomagnetic data provide
major constraints regarding rotation when restoring the Late Cretaceous situation of the Tisza Mega-Unit
of the European continental margin. Counterclockwise back rotation of the Apuseni Mountains from
their respective Miocene position is required to account for the presently observed total of ~90° clock-
wise rotation [Pǎtraşcu et al., 1990; Pǎtraşcu et al., 1992; Panaiotu, 1998; Marton et al., 2007; van
Hinsbergen et al., 2008]. A smaller amount of total rotation was adopted for the Banat and Timok seg-
ments for geometric reasons. Only areas to the west of an inferred link between the Maritsa fault system
and the future Timok-Cerna-Jiu fault system were rotated around a rotation pole fixed to the European
margin, consistent with previous restorations [e.g., Schmid et al., 1998]. The Getic-Supragetic-Srednogorie
Units (Dacia) and the arc segments were shifted to the south by 50 km to account for Maastrichtian and
Cenozoic thrusting of the Srednogorie Unit with respect to Moesia [Doglioni et al., 1996; Banks, 1997;
Stuart et al., 2011]. Our reconstruction also retrodeforms N-S extension in the Rhodopes that occurred
in mid-Eocene to Miocene times [e.g., Brun and Sokoutis, 2007; Burg, 2011; Kaiser Rohrmeier et al.,
2013]. Measured in a N-S direction across the center of the Rhodopian core complex we restored
125 km of extension [Brun and Sokoutis, 2007; van Hinsbergen and Schmid, 2012]. This extension continu-
ously decreases westward (see rotation model of Brun and Sokoutis [2007]), which results in an increase
in the gap between trench and arc toward west (Figure 7). For easier comparison with Figure 2 we left
the outlines of the Rhodope and Strandzha Units unchanged, being aware that substantial portions of
the Rhodopes were still covered by Circum-Rhodope and Strandzha Units in the north, east, and south
and by Danubian, Getic, and Serbo-Macedonian Units in the west during Late Cretaceous times. The
intra-Turonian nappe stacking in the Tisza Mega-Unit [Kounov and Schmid, 2013] was retrodeformed
by taking back 150 km of shortening. In order to achieve a better fit for the magmatic arc, the tectonic
units of the Apuseni Mountains had to be shifted further to the west, compared to the restoration by
Fügenschuh and Schmid [2005].
The width of the Neotethys remnant basin, i.e., the ocean that closed to form the Sava-Izmir-Ankara
suture between Adria and Europe in the Late Cretaceous [Schmid et al., 2008, 2011], is not well con-
strained and differs widely among published reconstructions [e.g., Neugebauer et al., 2001; Csontos
and Vörös, 2004; Stampfli and Borel, 2004]. Our interpretation of the ABTS belt as a magmatic arc
above a subduction zone places an additional constraint on the minimum width of Neotethys,
because a mature subduction slab must be established before arc magmatism can start.
Transporting hydrated oceanic lithosphere to a typical depth required to initiate partial melting
of the overriding mantle (100–120 km), and choosing the arc-trench gap of 250 km resulting from
our reconstruction at 90 Ma ago, a minimum slab length of 270 km must have been subducted to
trigger the onset of magmatism. This corresponds to a rather flat subduction zone with a shallow
angle of 22–26°. There is considerable uncertainty on these estimates, and a shorter arc-trench
gap or a higher depth of melting would result in increases or decreases in the subducted slab
length, respectively, and a steeper initial subduction angle at the onset of magmatism. Given the
Africa-Europe convergence rate of 15 km/Ma before 90 Ma, calculated for the N-S direction
[Rosenbaum et al., 2002], subduction of 270 km of oceanic lithosphere would have been initiated
some 18 Ma earlier, i.e., in the Albian, which corresponds to the end of the Early Cretaceous
(Austrian) orogeny in which the prearc nappe system along the European margin was established.
An additional width of 300 km of oceanic lithosphere, remaining at 90 Ma as depicted in Figure 7, is
necessary to sustain subduction-related magmatism until ~70 Ma, assuming an unchanged plate
motion speed of 15 km/Ma [Rosenbaum et al., 2002] until closure of the Neotethys.
The southward migration of magmatic activity within the central segments of the arc is best interpreted as
resulting from a gradual increase in the subduction angle associated with a reduction of the width of the

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
Figure 8. Schematic tectonic model for three representative segments of the ABTS belt. Late Cretaceous tectonic history of (a, d, and g) the Banat segment, (b, e, and h)
the Panagyurishte segment, and (c, f, and i) the Eastern Srednogorie segment. The colors of tectonic units are the same as in Figure 7. Blue drops = mantle source
enrichment and melting; grey lines = magma ascent paths; black = active magma chambers and volcanoes; grey = extinct magma chambers and volcanoes; light
green = sedimentary basins; light pink = lower crustal magma chamber. The small insets in lower left corners show a magnification of the crustal magmatic activity.
arc-trench gap. For the particularly well-documented Panagyurishte segment, 100 km of across-arc migration
of magmatism from 92 to 75 Ma (67 Ma including the Rhodopes) corresponds to a steepening of the subduc-
tion angle from an initial 22–26° to 34–39° and a contraction of the arc-trench gap from an initial 250 km to
150 km. Slab rollback and southward migration of both trench and arc relative to fixed Europe is a rather
unlikely alternative to explaining across-arc migration of magmatism [cf. von Quadt et al., 2005], given the
evidence for continued Africa-Europe convergence. Consequently, we interpret the comagmatic sedimen-
tary basins as intraarc rift basins rather than back-arc rift basins.
The magmatic arc of the ABTS belt has natural terminations on its two ends. It terminates west of the Apuseni
segment because there is no along-strike continuation of the Neotethys (Sava) Ocean, due to a change in
subduction polarity between Alps and Dinarides along a transform fault that approximately coincides with
the present-day mid-Hungarian shear zone (Figure 7) [Schmid et al., 2008, 2011]. In the east the magmatic
arc terminates at the West Black Sea Fault, a transform fault delimiting the oceanic Black Sea back-arc basin
to the west [Okay et al., 1994].
The evolution of the ABTS belt in Late Cretaceous times can be subdivided into the following three stages
illustrated in Figure 8 for three representative segments of the ABTS belt:
1. Active continental margin at ~110 Ma. As discussed above north dipping subduction of the Neotethys
Ocean along the Sava trench must have started some time before the onset of arc magmatic activity, most
likely during the Albian. Sediment accumulation in subduction-related basins started between 100 and
90 Ma along the full length of the European continental margin (Figures 8a–8c). The formation of strike-

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
slip and pull-apart basins in the Panagyurishte segment indicates that the dextral Maritsa fault system has
already been active at that time (Figure 8b). Toward the end of this stage the mantle source was geo-
chemically enriched by subduction fluids and/or melts to generate the characteristic subduction-like sig-
nature of arc magmas. A lower crustal magma chamber, where the first magmas were further enriched in
volatiles and metal content, might have already existed below the Panagyurishte and Timok segments.
2. Initiation of magmatic activity, steepening of the subduction zone, and ore deposit formation (~92 to 75 Ma).
The earliest upper crustal magmatism is recorded by intrusive rocks from the northern
Panagyurishte segment and indirectly by comagmatic sediments preserved in the Eastern
Srednogorie segment (~92 Ma; Figures 8e and 8f). The onset of magmatic activity systematically
became younger toward the west (~89 to 82 Ma; Figure 6) in the other segments of ABTS belt
(Figures 6 and 8d–8f). The ascent of magmas to the upper crust might have been facilitated
by the steepening of the subduction zone and was partly focused by pull-apart structures,
e.g., along the Panagyurishte lineament associated with strike-slip faulting along the Maritsa
fault system (Figure 8e). At the same time, magmatic activity shifted continuously to the south
in all the arc segments except for the Apuseni segment, as is evidenced by progressively
younger magmatic ages toward south. This age shift away from the continent toward the
paleo-trench is the most compelling evidence for continuous steepening of the subduction zone,
probably because of the increasing magnitude of slab pull forces. Additionally, the trend to less radio-
genic, more mantle-like Sr and Nd isotope ratios in most segments and the deepening of the volcano-
sedimentary basins support steepening of the subducting Neotethys slab. Economic porphyry Cu and
epithermal Cu ± Au deposits coincide with early stages of magmatism in the Panagyurishte and
Timok segments.
3. End of active subduction and arc magmatism by continental collision (~72 to 67 Ma). Arc magmatism
within or near to the intraarc basins ceased at ~72 Ma in all the segments, but younger plutons occur
further south within the Rhodopes and Strandzha Units, south of the Panagyurishte and Eastern
Srednogorie segments (69–67 Ma; Figures 8g and 8h). These latest plutons probably reflect the termi-
nation of active subduction of the Sava branch of Neotethys Ocean and likely mark the collision
between Adria and Europe at the end of Maastrichtian (~66 Ma) [e.g., Schmid et al., 2008]. Younger plu-
tons intruded the Rhodopes only after a significant gap of some 10 Ma (55–56 Ma) [Soldatos et al.,
2008; Jahn-Awe et al., 2010; Marchev et al., 2013]. They probably intruded in a postcollisional setting
after subduction in the Sava trench had stalled and the subduction zone had shifted to a new trench
further south. Still younger Eocene to Oligocene (~42 to 26 Ma) magmatism in the Rhodope and Dacia
Units either formed due to postcollisional slab break-off or mantle delamination [Schefer et al., 2010;
Marchev et al., 2013] or was driven by a subduction zone now located further south in the Aegean
region [Lehmann et al., 2013]. Active subduction migrating southward matches a long-lived environ-
ment of slab rollback on the larger scale, progressing since the Early Cretaceous to present-day
Crete, which is supported by an ~1600 km long tomographically imaged slab beneath the Aegean
region [Bijwaard et al., 1998; van Hinsbergen et al., 2005].
5. Summary and Conclusions

In this study we have attempted to resolve the tectonic history of the Late Cretaceous magmatic arc
embedded in the Carpathian-Balkan orogen, by comparing magma-chemical signatures and age
trends in distinct segments along and across the arc. Based on geochemical characteristics, the
Apuseni-Banat-Timok-Srednogorie (ABTS) belt can be interpreted as a typical subduction-related
magmatic arc that formed on a continental margin. The arc was active for 25 Ma, and across-arc
younging of the magmatic products toward the paleo-trench provides clear evidence for gradual
steepening of the subducting Neotethys slab. This north to south age progression is accompanied
by distinct isotopic trends in the respective arc segments, generally indicating an increasing contri-
bution of mantle melts, which probably results from increasing asthenospheric corner flow. The con-
temporaneous formation of sedimentary and volcano-sedimentary basins is likely due to the same
tectonic processes, i.e., subduction and slab steepening leading to intraarc extension. Economic deposits
preferentially formed in the central arc segments, because these were subjected to only mild transtension
during contemporaneous shearing, favoring high-pressure amphibole fractionation and accumulation of

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
magmatic volatiles. Collision with the Adriatic plate terminated active subduction in the Sava trench and arc
magmatism. Postemplacement bending of the entire arc and associated extensional tectonics partly con-
cealed the rather simple and typical geometry of this continental magmatic arc but favored the preservation
of near-surface ore deposits and shallow volcano-sedimentary basins in this relatively old metallogenic belt.
Appendix A
The distribution patterns of magmatic crystallization ages can yield important additional constraints for
plate tectonic reconstructions. All available magmatic ages were plotted in the present-day tectonic map
(Figure A1) to identify any systematic variations of the magmatic ages along and across the magmatic arc.
Pronounced across-arc variations are observed in the Panagyurishte, Timok, and Banat segments, where
they change from north to south younging trends (Panagyurishte) to east to west younging trends (Timok
and Banat). The rotation, which has been inferred from paleomagnetic data [e.g., Marton et al., 2007;
van Hinsbergen et al., 2008], is therefore also indicated by the magmatic ages. Calculated crystallization
ages for all segments are reported in Table S3. For the Banat and Apuseni segments, 2 standard deviations
of overlapping and concordant TIMS or LA-ICP-MS ages in a population of analyses of each sample are
reported, as a conservative measure of age uncertainty, rather than standard errors of the mean that
become unrealistically small in the case of numerous point analyses.
Figure A1. Tectonic map of the ABTS belt summarizing the crystallization ages of the magmatic rocks. The numbers in zircons correspond to numbering
of occurrences in Table S3. LA-ICP-MS and TIMS single zircon dates and Concordia plots for the Banat and Apuseni segments are provided in Tables S4 and S5
and Figure S1.

Tectonics 10.1002/2015TC003834
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GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1813

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1814

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1815

2.1. Tectonic Units of the Carpathian-Balkan Orogen

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1816

2.2. Prearc Nappe Assemblage and Postarc Tectonic Modiﬁcations

2.3. The Late Cretaceous Magmatic Arc

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1817

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1818

for volcanic rock names only (Figure 3b)

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1819

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1820

of ABTS belt samples generally

3.3. Age Constraints

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1821

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1822

4.1. Tectonic Signiﬁcance of Magma Geochemistry and Magmatic Ages

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1823

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1824

4.2. Tectonic Signiﬁcance of Comagmatic Sedimentary Basins and Shear Zones

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1825

4.3. Ore Deposits: Regional Stress Regime and Preservation

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1826

4.4. Reconstruction and Tectonic Model for the ABTS Belt

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1827

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1828

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1829

5. Summary and Conclusions

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1830

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1831

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1832

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1833

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1834

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1835

GALLHOFER ET AL. EVOLUTION OF THE ABTS BELT 1836

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