Geology Underfoot Along Colorado's Front Range

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COLORADO DIAMONDS—IT’S NO HOAX!

Diamond Pipes along the Front Range

Colorado was already home to many swashbuckling, anything-goes mining camps by 1872, the year the soon-to-be state figured prominently in a mining hoax of such monumental proportions that it threatened to shake the very foundations of our nation’s economy. Before it could visit such calamity on the country, the Great Diamond Hoax of 1872 was thwarted thanks to the efforts of the man who would, seven years later, be appointed the first director of the U.S. Geological Survey: Clarence King. Given this sordid history of Colorado diamond prospecting, there were understandably many skeptics when, in 1975, Colorado State University geology professor Malcolm McCallum discovered diamonds in Colorado. This time, the verifiable evidence for the diamonds’ presence was so overwhelming that, within a year, the state was hosting North America’s first commercial diamond mine. Colorado will never rival South Africa as a world diamond center, but the presence of so-called diamond pipes in the state is intriguing, and the rock fragments found within them provide fascinating glimpses into several chapters of the state’s geologic history about which we know little else.

In the summer of 1872, San Francisco, the de facto mining capital of the United States, was abuzz with rumors of a massive diamond strike. Two prospectors, Philip Arnold and John Slack, were strutting around town showing off a sack of diamonds and other gems they had collected on their secret mining claim located somewhere in the American West. Many profitable gold strikes had been made throughout the West in the previous two decades, and word of a massive diamond discovery in 1870 in Kimberly, South Africa, was still reverberating, so the mining establishment was hungry for news of the next big thing. Arnold and Slack’s goal in flaunting their gems was to attract the interest of one or more wealthy investors. They succeeded when William Ralston, president of the Bank of California, paid them $360,000 cash and $300,000 worth of stock options for their claim. $660,000 is a handsome amount even today, but in 1872, when the U.S. gross national product (GNP) was 2,500 times smaller than today, this was a princely sum. With diamond fever sweeping the U.S. mining and financial worlds, American financiers were loathe to be left behind and quickly ponied up millions of dollars to stake their own claims to the bonanza. Because the country’s economy was already in a fragile state (the global Long Depression was just beginning) and because in reality no such diamonds existed, the threat to the U.S. economy was very real. Many historians believe that if the United States had squandered a significant percentage of its GNP on this hoax, it would have dealt a crippling blow to America’s economic ascendency, in which it soon surpassed Great Britain to become the world’s biggest economy.

By pure chance, in October 1872, Samuel Emmons, a member of Clarence King’s federal expedition to survey the geology along the country’s 40th parallel, struck up a conversation on a train with one of Ralston’s associates, who was returning from an examination of Arnold and Slack’s mystery diamond claim. Piecing together the clues, Emmons and King deduced that the claim must lie in northwestern Colorado, near the 40th parallel at a spot now called Diamond Peak. King was obviously troubled that he evidently missed such a major discovery in an area he had just surveyed. He immediately hastened to Diamond Peak, and sure enough, on November 3 he and his team discovered diamonds and other precious stones there. However, the wave of excitement that initially swept the party was soon tempered by several troubling revelations. First, precisely twelve rubies accompanied each diamond they discovered. How could nature be so discerning and regular in its distribution of these gems? Next, the party discovered amethysts, emeralds, sapphires, garnets, and spinels with the diamonds. These various stones form in completely different geologic environments and are never found together. The final piece of evidence that the team had unearthed a hoax was the discovery of a cut diamond, which absolutely had to have been planted (in the mining vernacular, salted) at the site. King rushed to San Francisco to alert William Ralston that he had been duped. Thanks to the shrewd detective work of one of the country’s leading geologists, a U.S. economic crisis was narrowly averted. King was rewarded for his efforts in 1879 when President Rutherford B. Hayes established the U.S. Geological Survey, the first official U.S. government scientific research agency, and appointed King as its director.

Throughout the remainder of the nineteenth and for much of the twentieth century, numerous discoveries of metal ores and precious gems added further luster to Colorado’s already impressive reputation as a place to seek mineral wealth (vignettes 7, 13). But during that entire time, no hint of a real diamond discovery was made. Then, in 1964, Malcolm McCallum discovered a small pod of a rare volcanic rock called kimberlite within a vast expanse of 1,400-million-year-old granite along Sloan Road, just a few miles east of Chicken Park, and later diamonds within it.

The stars and orange areas mark outcrops of kimberlite along the Front Range. The brown shading indicates outcrops of Precambrian crystalline rock. (Modified from Lester and Farmer, 1998.)

Kimberlite is named for Kimberly, South Africa, the location of a mammoth 1870 diamond strike. Unlike northwestern Colorado’s first find, the Kimberly strike was no hoax, and to this day it remains the richest diamond field on Earth. Kimberlite is a chemically unusual igneous rock that hosts jagged blocks of various other rock types (forming a rock called volcanic breccia). Because such blocks are not part of the magma that crystallized as the kimberlite, but rather were ripped from the volcano’s walls, they are called xenoliths (foreign rocks). Diamonds can be found embedded within those xenoliths or in the kimberlite itself.

Diamonds are nothing but pure carbon, chemically identical to the graphite in your pencil lead save for one crucial difference: in graphite the carbon atoms are arranged in two-dimensional sheets, not unlike the individual pages in a ream of paper. Diamonds are carbon that has been squeezed at absolutely titanic pressures, forcing the atoms to rearrange themselves into a three-dimensional framework that is clear, is the hardest-known natural substance, and refracts light in such a way that it sparkles with dazzling brilliance. The pressures necessary to effect this amazing metamorphosis occur naturally in only two places: at the site of a big asteroid impact or deep in Earth’s mantle. Brazil’s tiny, smoky-colored diamonds are thought to have formed due to an asteroid impact, but almost all other known diamonds formed more than 90 miles below the surface, in the mantle. Rock from such great depths reaches the surface in only one way: through the rapid rise of magma during the eruption of kimberlite.

Kimberlite eruptions are so violent they rip rocks off the walls of the conduits through which the magma passes, forever entombing the foreign rocks in the cooled magma. The resulting volcanic breccia fills the vertical conduit that supplied magma to the volcano. Such breccia-containing conduits are called diatremes. Xenoliths in many diatremes were derived from the mantle, so they potentially contain diamonds. Because diatremes are pipe shaped, those containing diamonds are often called diamond pipes. Since the Kimberly discovery, many other kimberlite diamond pipes have been found around the globe.

Kimberlite diamond pipes, the primary source of diamonds around the globe, are the remains of great volcanic conduits whose magma sources lay 90 to 120 miles below the surface. Xenoliths of mantle rock are forcefully torn from the conduit walls and carried upward with the magma. Both the solidified magma and xenoliths can contain diamonds. (Modified from Colorado Geological Survey, 1999.)

Had the kimberlite magma risen gradually through the Earth, the slow drop in pressure would have caused the diamonds’ carbon atoms to spontaneously rearrange themselves back into graphite, so the very presence of diamonds attests to the rapid rise of the magma to the surface. Geologists believe that kimberlites rise from a depth of 90 to 120 miles in a mere five to twenty hours, at an ascent rate of 6 to 18 miles per hour! The only plausible driving mechanism for such a rapid ascent is that the magma was loaded with dissolved gas, the pressure of which propelled the magma. As the magma neared the surface the gas expanded, driving the magma up even faster, quite possibly at rates up to a couple hundred miles per hour. No one has ever seen a kimberlite volcano erupt, but the geologic characteristics of uneroded diamond pipes corroborate the incredible violence of these rare events.

Though graphite and diamonds have the same chemical composition, the arrangement of the carbon atoms into different frameworks accounts for their radically different properties.

Geologists have discovered four kimberlite pipes full of diamonds at Chicken Park. Kimberlites are often highly fractured, and the many low-silica minerals they contain are highly susceptible to chemical weathering. For these reasons, some kimberlites lack good rock outcrops, instead forming unobtrusive low spots in the topography. Because trees don’t like the chemistry of the soils that mantle kimberlite, poorly exposed diamond pipes commonly manifest themselves as oval-shaped meadows. Such vegetational detective work is particularly critical in order to locate the Chicken Park diamond pipes because prospectors excavated the tops of the pipes with backhoes and then filled them back in. The easiest of the pipes to find is the one closest to the road, about 70 yards southeast of the fence post where you parked. Locate the first break in the grove of aspen trees to the right (southwest) of the prominent granite knob that stands south of Chicken Park. From the fence post walk south, nearly perpendicular to the road, and over a tiny topographic hump to the break.

The easiest-to-locate Chicken Park diamond pipe forms a meadow ringed by pine trees. A few kimberlite boulders lie in the meadow.

The pipe consists of an oval-shaped, grassy meadow, measuring about 20 by 30 yards, that is almost completely ringed by pine trees, some of which stand next to low granite outcrops. No outcrop exists in the meadow itself, but if you examine the dirt piles constructed by the area’s burrowing rodents, you will see small chunks of a dark, fine-grained rock that is clearly not granite. This is the kimberlite, delivered to the surface straight from the Earth’s mantle! At the far side of the meadow, close to the trees that define the diamond pipe’s southern border, the backhoe-wielding prospectors partially excavated five kimberlite boulders, the biggest one about 1.5 feet long. The boulders all consist of a dark, greenish gray matrix of microscopic crystals with a few larger, visible crystals that sparkle in the sun. Among the minerals contained in this kimberlite are green olivine and red garnet. Embedded in the boulders are angular, green and reddish brown chunks, many of which are encircled by a weathering rind of white or light green minerals. These chunks are small xenoliths, pieces of the mantle and lower crust that were entrained in the fast-rising kimberlite magma.

Although it is not uncommon for kimberlite to contain diamonds, it took eleven years after the 1964 discovery of the Colorado kimberlite pipes to notice that they in fact contain diamonds. The discovery was made quite accidentally, when a technician at the U.S. Geological Survey in Lakewood was grinding a xenolith on a lapidary wheel in order to create a thin section (used to analyze the minerals of a rock). Lapidary wheels are made of extremely hard material in order to withstand hundreds of hours of rock grinding, but somehow this sample left deep grooves in the grinding plate. After concerted effort, a tiny diamond less than 1 millimeter long was discovered. This set off a flurry of exploration. Soon many more diamonds were found, and to date over 130,000 diamonds have been removed from what has come to be known as the State Line kimberlite field, which comprises more than one hundred kimberlite deposits stretching in a line along the Front Range foothills from Boulder’s Green Mountain to Iron Mountain in Wyoming’s central Laramie Mountains. The largest diamond found was a hefty, 28.3-carat, gem-quality yellow diamond from the Kelsey Lake diamond pipe, the site of North America’s first commercial diamond mine, just south of the Wyoming border.

Due to its dark color, the Chicken Park kimberlite is readily distinguished from the 1,400-million-year-old Sherman granite into which it intrudes.

Upon the discovery of Colorado’s diamonds, geologists immediately began to wonder when the kimberlite pipes erupted. Luckily, a number of the xenoliths found in the kimberlite pipes are chunks of marine limestone that tumbled back down into the pipe during the eruption. Using fossils found in these rocks, paleontologists have dated the limestones as Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silurian in age. Since the limestone had to exist before it was integrated into a volcano’s magma during an eruption, the kimberlite that contains Silurian limestone can be no older than Silurian in age. A handful of radiometric dates obtained from kimberlite samples pointed to a Devonian eruption age (416 to 359 million years ago).

The discovery of Silurian-age (444- to 416-million-year-old) limestone xenoliths was of particular interest because nowhere else in Colorado have rocks of Silurian age ever been found. Prior to this discovery, geologists had speculated that Colorado lay above sea level throughout the Silurian, preventing the deposition of sedimentary rocks. The xenoliths conclusively demonstrate that not only was sedimentary rock accumulating in Colorado during the Silurian, but the Front Range actually lay below sea level. Sometime in the Devonian or early Mississippian period a drop in sea level must have left the area high and dry, causing all of the previously deposited limestone to be eroded save for the few scraps that were encased in the kimberlite volcanoes.

Due to the limestone evidence and radiometric ages, it was widely assumed that all Colorado kimberlite pipes erupted during the Devonian. However, not all of the pipes contain limestone xenoliths, and researchers soon noticed that the kimberlite in some of the pipes, including the ones at Chicken Park and Boulder’s Green Mountain, have compositional differences as well. Researchers at the University of Colorado set out to independently date these pipes. At Chicken Park they analyzed samples from a kimberlite dike that lies about 80 yards southwest of the pipe you’ve been examining. To get there, follow a very faint road to the southwest. After about 40 yards, you pass through a fence with bright orange posts. Leave the road here, cutting diagonally southwest through the pine forest. The dike forms a narrow, linear, southwest-trending meadow that you emerge into after about 40 yards of walking.

Once again, no bold kimberlite outcrop greets you. Instead, look for chunks of dark kimberlite littering the ground in the meadow. The small, sparkly crystals in the kimberlite chunks consist of the mineral phlogopite, a magnesium-rich mica that also contains radioactive potassium, making it amenable to radiometric dating. The resulting age of 616 (± 2) million years surprised researchers, as it was much older than the Devonian ages obtained from the limestone-bearing kimberlites. Other researchers using a different technique later confirmed this age. It was not possible to date Boulder’s Green Mountain kimberlite as precisely, but using a third technique researchers obtained an age of 572 (± 49) million years, suggesting that it intruded at about the same time as the Chicken Park kimberlites.

This kimberlite dike intruded the area about 616 million years ago.

So, there have been at least two separate periods of kimberlite volcanism in Colorado, one in the late Proterozoic (at Chicken Park and Green Mountain), the other in the Devonian, 200 million years later. One noteworthy characteristic of kimberlite fields throughout the world is that each has hosted several separate episodes of explosive volcanism. Intriguingly, the eruption of these small but violent volcanoes seems to occur during times when the eruption area is otherwise tectonically and volcanically quiet. The Colorado kimberlites fit this pattern, as both the late Proterozoic and the Devonian were quiet geologic periods. Geologists have scratched their heads very hard trying to figure out what recipe is needed to create such a small pool of magma at the base of the continental lithosphere (the diamond-forming depth), and then bring it to the surface rapidly enough to create a diamond pipe when other geologic processes go quiet.

Clearly, one necessary ingredient is heating at the base of the lithosphere to generate magma. Geologists suspect that the necessary heating for most kimberlites is provided by a hot spot—a plume of hot material rising from the mantle that persists for tens of millions of years. It is possible that Colorado hosted such hot spots during both the late Proterozoic and the Devonian, but if so, they have left no legacy other than these kimberlite pipes. A second ingredient may be the presence of deep-seated fractures penetrating the entire lithosphere—up to 120 miles deep. These would provide a natural conduit along which the kimberlite magma could ascend, potentially explaining how the magma rose so quickly. The fact that the Colorado-Wyoming kimberlites line up in a north-south direction supports the idea that deep-seated fractures facilitated the rise of kimberlite magma.

But why would fractures pierce the lithosphere here, along the Front Range? Although Colorado was relatively quiet, globally the time of the Chicken Park diamond pipe emplacement was tectonically eventful: Pangaea’s predecessor, the supercontinent Rodinia (vignette 14), split apart from about 750 to 550 million years ago. Colorado lay well east of the main rifting, which occurred along the modern I-15 corridor in Utah, so no major faulting occurred in the state at this time. However, the presence of north-south dikes in southwestern Colorado indicate that the state was subjected to east-west extensional forces during Rodinia’s breakup. If similar north-south trending fractures existed on the Front Range, they would likely have facilitated the kimberlite magma’s rapid ascent.

It is likely that just such a set of preexisting fractures was indeed present on the Front Range. The Pikes Peak Batholith (vignette 14) was intruded 460 million years before the Chicken Park diamond pipes along a north-south-trending fracture south of and in line with the State Line kimberlite field. Geologists deduce that the fracture the batholith intruded is a southern extension of fractures beneath the kimberlite field. Intrusion of the Pikes Peak granite was likely associated with the assembly of Rodinia. The Chicken Park and Green Mountain diamond pipes may well be telling us that those fractures that formed during that compressional tectonic episode were reactivated during Rodinia’s breakup, allowing the kimberlite magma to well up. Interestingly, most kimberlite diamond pipes around the world erupted during the Mesozoic or the early Cenozoic, when the supercontinent Pangaea was breaking apart. Many geologists believe that enhanced mantle heating during supercontinent breakup is what triggers diamond pipe emplacement. If that is true, the State Line diamond pipes owe their existence to Rodinia splitting apart at the seams! It was certainly doing so during the late Proterozoic eruption of the Chicken Park diamond pipes, and the supercontinent was still actively breaking up 200 million years later, during the second, Devonian episode of kimberlite eruption.

The Front Range diamond pipes lie very close to the boundary between the Rocky Mountains and the Great Plains. It is quite possible that the very same lithospheric-scale fractures along which the kimberlite intruded were reactivated 65 million years ago, when the Laramide orogeny hoisted the Rocky Mountains skyward. The same was likely true 300 million years ago, when the Ancestral Rockies rose in nearly the same location as the modern mountains (vignette 5). It is extremely difficult for geologists to conclusively link such distinctly different and temporally separated events. But one thing is abundantly clear: the narrow strip of real estate known as the Front Range has repeatedly been the locus of a great deal of geologic activity for over 1 billion years. It is the presence of the kimberlite pipes, and especially the diamonds they contain, that provides the most concrete evidence that the fractures that resulted from the region’s tectonic activity cut all the way through the crust and into the mantle.

It is clear that the Chicken Park and other Front Range diamond pipes have provided geologists with important insights into the region’s geologic history. There is, in fact, one more important event to add to that list, and it pertains to the very birth of the continental crust that is now Colorado. Save one tiny outcrop in the extreme northwest, the state’s oldest rocks date from the early Proterozoic eon, about 1,780 million years ago. But in Wyoming, rocks of much greater antiquity (from the Archean eon, over 2,500 million years old) are common. Geologists have been able to draw a line on a map that neatly separates Wyoming’s old (Archean-age) continental crust from the relatively youthful (Proterozoic-age) crust of Colorado. Because it runs near Cheyenne, it is called the Cheyenne Line.

Abundant evidence indicates that Colorado’s continental crust was forged in several chains of volcanic islands that formed above multiple subduction zones between about 1,780 and 1,700 million years ago. Soon after they formed, these islands collided with what was then the edge of the North American continent: the Cheyenne Line. That series of collisions welded the land we now call Arizona, Colorado, and Nebraska onto the edge of North America (vignette 7). It turns out that the diamond-bearing kimberlites of the State Line field lie south of the Cheyenne Line, on the younger, Proterozoic continental crust. But globally, diamonds are consistently associated with older, Archean-age crust. This fact has led many geologists to conclude that a piece of Wyoming’s Archean lithosphere lay beneath northern Colorado, supplying diamonds to the kimberlite magma as it erupted. That is precisely the configuration one would expect if Archean North America (for example, Wyoming) were attached to a slab of oceanic lithosphere that was subducting to the southeast, beneath Colorado’s chain of volcanic islands. When the last of the oceanic crust was subducted, the island chain was thrust northwestward, up over the edge of the continent. In this scenario, the edge of the Archean continent underlies the volcanic mountain complex in northern Colorado. The Cheyenne Line marks the place where that old continental margin emerges from underneath Colorado’s younger crust.

Since diamonds were first discovered in the State Line kimberlite field in 1975, 306 diamonds have been recovered from Chicken Park. Although most of the State Line diamonds are of the poorer, industrial grade, some valuable gemstones have also been discovered. This economic bounty was sufficient to warrant the development of the Kelsey Lake Mine, North America’s first commercial diamond mine, in a kimberlite pipe just south of the Wyoming border. The mine operated from 1996 to 2003, and its closure was due to legal problems, not because it ran out of ore. Colorado is likely to reap additional economic rewards from its kimberlite in the future.

The Cheyenne Line is a suture along which the Proterozoic-age volcanic island arcs that make up Colorado were welded onto North America’s Archean-age coastline, which lay in southern Wyoming. (Modified from Lester and Farmer, 1998.)

The thought of finding a sparkling diamond in the rough might be just the incentive you need to mount a prospecting expedition to Chicken Park, one of the few kimberlite diamond pipes located on public land. But before you see too many dollar signs passing before your eyes, it is worth contemplating how many diamonds kimberlite like this can actually serve up. The Chicken Park kimberlite has assayed at 6.7 carats of diamond per 100 tons (200,000 pounds) of ore. As you scour the diamond pipe and associated dike discussed in this vignette, you will likely encounter at most 100 pounds of ore. So even if you were the first person to examine these specimens (which you most certainly aren’t!), the law of averages suggests that you will find about 0.003 carat of diamonds. Given that a carat is 0.2 grams, your best hope is to put any sample you find at Chicken Park on a grinding wheel. If your wheel gets scratched, you are probably the proud owner of a diamond about the size of that first one discovered in 1975. The diamonds of Chicken Park are no hoax, but the most rewarding aspects of a trip here are likely to be the chance to surround yourself with the park’s natural beauty and the excitement of discovery that comes from piecing together these less-well-known events in Colorado’s fascinating geologic history.

GETTING THERE: All stops are located in Fort Collins’s Soapstone Prairie Natural Area, which is open from dawn to dusk March 1 through December 1 (for additional information check www.fcgov.com/naturalareas/finder/soapstone). From Denver travel north on I-25 to exit 288 (County Road 82/Buckeye Road). Turn left (west) onto County Road 82 and follow it 6.1 miles to its end. Turn right (north) onto County Road 15, a good gravel road. Follow County Road 15 for 1.2 miles. It bends to the right and becomes Rawhide Flats Road, which is signed to Soapstone Prairie. You enter the natural area at a gate after 4.2 miles; the official entrance station lies 2.2 miles farther up the road. At the entrance booth, turn left and drive 0.1 mile to a parking lot. Walk back to the entrance booth along the Pronghorn Loop, crossing the road and continuing another 300 yards to the first small wash, the east wall of which consists of Pierre shale (stop 1).

To reach stop 2, drive back to the entrance booth and turn left, heading another 0.9 mile north along Rawhide Flats Road to a small gravel pullout on the right atop a small rise on a narrow neck of land separating two small washes. Stop 3 lies 1.4 miles farther north along the same road, at the point where the road bends sharply to the right (east) and a gated service road branches off to the left. Park just before the gate. To reach stop 4, continue 1 more mile and park in the parking lot at the end of Rawhide Flats Road. Follow the concrete, handicap-accessible Lindenmeier Trail, which begins next to the toilet and reaches the obvious Lindenmeier Overlook in 0.3 mile. Stop 4 is at a patch of bare, light gray ground on the hillslope to your right (north) about 100 yards before the overlook.

To reach stop 5, return to the parking lot and follow the Mahogany Loop, which heads east from the northeast side of the lot. At 0.2 mile turn left (north) onto the Towhee Loop. Stop 5 is about 0.5 mile (a ten- to fifteen-minute walk) from the trailhead. It is the first obvious outcrop, which lies 20 feet above the trail midway along its eastward traverse above the wash. From here you can either return to your car or complete the Towhee Loop. You reach the plateau crest—the top of the Gangplank—0.6 mile beyond stop 5. Turn left (west) to complete the loop, which returns to the parking lot. The entire Towhee Loop is 3.1 miles long with 400 feet of elevation gain.

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WALKING THE GANGPLANK

Soapstone Prairie Natural Area

An explanation for why mountain ranges formed where they did was a major early success of plate tectonic theory; in fact, the explanation was key to the theory’s widespread adoption. But during the 1960s and early 1970s, when the efficacy of the theory was still being hotly debated, skeptics pointed to Colorado and Wyoming’s Rocky Mountains as prime evidence that plate tectonics could not account for some mountain ranges. The principal reason for this skepticism was that these mountains lie over 600 miles away from the nearest plate boundary. Decades of research have allayed those original objections, and plate tectonics is now a preeminent theory in geology. Scientists routinely use it to explain the existence of the Rockies. But new questions have arisen, making the southern Rockies one of the most puzzling mountain ranges on the planet. When and how the peaks we see rose to their present stature is one of the hottest unresolved issues in Colorado geology. And the question is of more than local interest; its eventual resolution will have implications of global significance by enhancing our understanding of the ways that plate tectonics creates topography.

Ironically, despite Soapstone Prairie being part of the Great Plains and not the Rockies, no place in Colorado possesses a better record of what happened to the mountain belt after its initial formation. The peaks first rose during the Laramide orogeny, which in the Front Range lasted from about 67 to 53 million years ago (vignettes 8, 16). Exposed at Soapstone Prairie is a nearly complete sequence of post-uplift sedimentary rock layers. In this vignette we will examine the characteristics of this sequence and determine their relationship to the nearby Rockies, all with an eye to deducing how the mountains have evolved since their birth.

The beginning of the story can be examined at stop 1. Exposed in the east wall of Wire Draw are several outcrops of olive green, Cretaceous Pierre shale. This was the last sedimentary layer to accumulate prior to the start of the Laramide orogeny. The outcrop consists of numerous very thin mudstone layers that all tilt gently down toward the northeast. This mud accumulated on the calm, quiet floor of the last sea to ever occupy Colorado. Just a few million years after settling to the seafloor, the Pierre mud, along with all underlying rock layers, was tilted, faulted, and folded as the Rockies rose. Stop 1 is located a few miles east of the mountains’ edge, so here the Pierre underwent only gentle tilting and folding.

Unlike the Pierre, the rest of Soapstone’s rock layers were deposited after the Laramide orogeny had ended, so they are not similarly tilted. In fact, the overlying White River Group sediments, composed of a mix of volcanic ash and river mud, rest upon progressively older rock layers the farther west (closer to the mountains) you go. Here at stop 1, White River Group sediment lies directly above the 70-million-year-old Pierre shale, but just 3.5 miles to the west, at the toe of the mountains, it sits atop the 300-million-year-old Fountain Formation. This contrast is due to two events: first, the tilting of all pre-Laramide sedimentary layers to the east