Geostatistics - 2D: GMS 10.0 Tutorial

v. 10.
GMS 10.0 Tutorial

Geostatistics – 2D
Learn the various 2D interpolation methods available in GMS
Objectives
Learn to create scatter point sets from scratch and how to import scatter sets from a file. Investigate the
various 2D interpolation methods available in GMS including linear, IDW, and kriging.
Prerequisite Tutorials Required Components Time

• None • Grid • 30-60 minutes
• Geostatistics
Page 1 of 15 © Aquaveo 2014

1 Contents
1 Contents ............................................................................................................................... 2
2 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Outline .......................................................................................................................... 2
3 Getting Started .................................................................................................................... 3
4 Creating a Scatter Point Set ............................................................................................... 3
5 Importing a Scatter Point Set ............................................................................................. 4
5.1 Open the File ................................................................................................................ 4
5.2 Import Wizard - Step 1 ................................................................................................. 4
5.3 Import Wizard - Step 2 ................................................................................................. 5
6 Changing the Display Options ........................................................................................... 6
7 Creating a Bounding Grid .................................................................................................. 7
8 Selecting an Interpolation Scheme ..................................................................................... 7
9 Linear Interpolation............................................................................................................ 7
10 Viewing the Results ............................................................................................................. 8
11 Viewing the Elliptical Control Function ........................................................................... 8
12 Simple IDW Interpolation .................................................................................................. 9
13 IDW Interpolation With Gradient Planes ......................................................................... 9
14 Using the Horizontal Anisotropy Option ........................................................................ 10
15 IDW Interpolation With Quadratic Nodal Functions .................................................... 11
16 Truncation ......................................................................................................................... 11
17 Kriging ............................................................................................................................... 12
17.1 Creating the Experimental Variogram ........................................................................ 12
17.2 Creating the Model Variogram................................................................................... 12
17.3 Interpolating to the Grid ............................................................................................. 13
18 Switching Data Sets ........................................................................................................... 13
19 Using the Data Calculator ................................................................................................ 14
20 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................... 14
2 Introduction
Two-dimensional geostatistics (interpolation) can be performed in GMS using the 2D
Scatter Point module. The module is used to interpolate from sets of 2D scatter points to
any of the other object types (meshes, grids, TINs). Several interpolation schemes are
supported, including kriging. Geostatistics are useful for setting up input data for
analysis codes or for site characterization.
The tools for manipulating scatter point sets and the interpolation schemes supported in
GMS are described in this tutorial. The interpolation schemes presented in this tutorial
will be easier to understand if you have read the Interpolation section of the GMS Online
Help. This tutorial should be completed before attempting the 3D Geostatistics tutorial.
2.1 Outline
This is what you will do:

GMS Tutorials Geostatistics – 2D
1. Create a scatter point set from scratch.
2. Import scatter points from a file.
3. Create a bounding grid.
4. Interpolate the scatter points using various interpolation methods.
5. Use the data calculator to compare interpolations.
3 Getting Started
Let’s get started.
1. If necessary, launch GMS. If GMS is already running, select the File | New
command to ensure that the program settings are restored to their default state.
4 Creating a Scatter Point Set

Interpolation in GMS is performed using scatter points. A set of 2D scatter points is
defined by a set of xy coordinates. A group of scatter points is called a scatter point set.
Each scatter point set may also have a data set associated with it. Data sets are scalar or
vector values – one value at each scatter point. The scatter points represent the
geometric objects while the data sets represent the data values at the points. The data
sets may represent anything – elevation, heat measurements, concentration of a chemical
etc. The data sets can be interpolated to a TIN, mesh, or grid.
2D scatter point sets can be created inside GMS using the Create Scatter Points tool.
1. In the Project Explorer right-click on the empty space and then, from the pop-up
menu, select the New | 2D Scatter Point Set menu command.
2. Select the Create Scatter Points tool .
3. Click on the screen a few times in different places.
You are creating scatter points. When you create each point, GMS automatically assigns
a data set value at the point. You can change it so that GMS prompts you for the data set
values.
4. Select the Scatter Points | Scatter Point Settings menu command.
5. Turn on the Confirm data set value option and click OK.
6. Click on the screen.
Now you are prompted to enter a data set value every time you create a new point.

7. Click OK to exit the Scatter Point Data Set Value dialog.
You can only enter steady state data this way. To create a scatter point set with transient
data, you would need to import it from a file. That’s what we’ll do next.
5 Importing a Scatter Point Set

Scatter point sets can be imported from an existing file using the Import Wizard. The
Import Wizard allows you to import data into GMS from text files that are in columnar
format. The file we will import was generated as an Excel spreadsheet and exported
from Excel as tab delimited text. The file contains scatter points which represent
locations where the concentration of a contaminant has been estimated using a soil gas
survey. Our goal is to generate a map of the contaminant plume.
5.1 Open the File

1. Select the New button and select No when prompted to save changes.
2. Select the Open button .
3. At the bottom of the Open dialog, change the filter to Text Files (*.txt,*.csv).
4. Locate and open the directory entitled Tutorials\Geostatistics\geos2d.
5. Select the file named plumedat.txt.
6. Click on the Open button.
The Import Wizard should appear. The first step of the Import Wizard allows you to
specify how the data is delineated and where in the file the data begins. For this file, the
first row contains column headings. The first column contains the point labels, the
second column is the X values of the points, the third column is the Y values, and the
fourth column is the data set values for the points.
5.2 Import Wizard - Step 1

1. Change the dialog settings to match those shown in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1. Text Import Wizard, Step 1.
2. Select the Next button.
5.3 Import Wizard - Step 2

Step 2 of the Import Wizard allows you to specify what the data in the file means.
1. Select 2D Scatter Points as the GMS data type.
The data associated with 2D scatter points is now displayed in the Mapping options
section. Now we tell GMS what each column in the file means. We do this by selecting
the correct data type in the Type row of the spreadsheet for each column in the file. The
Type row is the first row in the spreadsheet. The options in the combo box changes
depending on the GMS data type selected in the top of the dialog. Since we specified we
were using a heading row in the first step, GMS looked at the headings and automatically
found and mapped the X and Y columns by selecting the X and Y selection in the Type
row of the spreadsheet.
2. Locate the Type row, the first row in the spreadsheet. The first column is ID’s
for each point. In the Type row for the first column select the Label option in
the pull-down menu.
3. For the column with heading c, make sure the type is set to Data set.
The data set in this file represents concentrations of a contaminant. The No data option
can be used to specify a key value in the file used to indicate a lack of information. For
example, if no measurement was taken at one of the points, we might enter –999 or some
other key value for the concentration and specify –999 as the No data value in the Import
Wizard. GMS will then know to ignore these points when we do interpolation later. The

key value should be a value that would not normally be encountered in the data set. In
this case, we don’t need to use this option.
Figure 2. Text Import Wizard, Step 2.
4. Make sure the dialog looks like Figure 2 and click the Finish button.
A set of points should appear on the screen.
6 Changing the Display Options

You can change the appearance of the scatter points using the Display Options dialog:
1. Select the Display Options button .
2. Select the 2D Scatter Data item from the list on the left.
3. For the Scatter point symbols, change the Color option to Data.
4. Select the OK button to exit the Display Options dialog.
Each of the points should now be displayed with a colored square. The color of the
symbol represents the relative concentration of the contaminant at the point. When
displaying colored symbols, it is useful to also display a color legend.
6. Select the Options button below the Color option.

7. Turn on the Legend option.
8. Select the OK button twice to exit both dialogs.
Notice that the concentrations vary from 0.0 to about 100.0.
7 Creating a Bounding Grid

The goal of this tutorial is to generate a series of contour plots illustrating the plume. To
do this we will first create a grid that bounds the scatter point set and then we will
interpolate the concentrations from the scatter points to the grid nodes. The grid will
then be contoured.
1. In the Project Explorer, right-click on the plumedat scatter point set and
select the Bounding 2D Grid menu command.
Notice that the x and y dimensions of the grid are already defined. The default values
shown in the dialog cause the grid to extend beyond the scatter points by 10% on each
side.
2. In the X-Dimension section, enter 60 for the Number of cells.
3. In the Y-Dimension section, enter 40 for the Number of cells.
4. Select the OK button.
5. Select the Frame button .
A grid should appear on the screen that just encompasses the scatter point set.
8 Selecting an Interpolation Scheme

The next step is to select an interpolation scheme. Several interpolation schemes are
supported in GMS because there is no one interpolation scheme that is superior in all
situations. Typically, the best approach is to try several schemes and then determine
which scheme is giving the most reasonable results. GMS has been structured in such a
way that several different schemes can be tested quickly and easily.
9 Linear Interpolation
First we will try simple linear interpolation.
1. Select the Interpolation | Interpolation Options menu command.
2. Select the Linear option.

To interpolate to the grid:
4. Select the Interpolation | Interpolate  2D Grid menu command.
5. Click OK.
10 Viewing the Results

A set of contours should now be displayed. The concentrations have been interpolated to
the grid.
1. Select the Oblique View button .
Notice that the grid has been deformed to match the contours. Color shading the entire
surface can provide an even more effective display of the grid.
3. Select the 2D Grid Data item from the list on the left.
4. Make sure the Contours option is checked and select the Options button to the
right of the Contours option.
5. For the Contour method, select Color Fill.
6. Select the OK button twice to exit both dialogs.
Notice that the outer part of the grid still has a concentration value equal to zero. When
linear interpolation is performed, the scatter points are triangulated to form a temporary
TIN. A plane equation is computed for each triangle in the TIN and the coefficients of
the plane equation are used to interpolate to points inside the triangle. Therefore, linear
interpolation cannot be performed for grid nodes outside the convex hull of the TIN (the
boundary of the TIN). As a result, these nodes are assigned a value of zero. However,
for this application, a value of zero is appropriate since the concentrations of the scatter
points on the perimeter of the scatter point set are zero.
11 Viewing the Elliptical Control Function

The scatter points were generated from an elliptical control function. It’s interesting to
see how the different interpolation schemes compare to the original control function. To
view the original control function:
1. Right-click on the grid in the Project Explorer and select the Import Data
Set… option.

2. Select the file Tutorials\Geostatistics\geos2d\ellipse2g.dat and click Open.
3. If necessary, select the control_function data set in the Project Explorer to

make it active.
12 Simple IDW Interpolation

The next scheme we will try is a simple form of inverse distance weighted (IDW)
interpolation.
1. Click on the 2D Scatter Data folder in the Project Explorer.
3. Select the Inverse distance weighted option.
4. Select the Options button to the right of the Inverse distance weighted option.
5. In the Nodal function section at the top of the dialog, select the Constant
(Shepard’s method) option.
6. Select the OK button to exit the 2D IDW Interpolation Options dialog.
7. Select the OK button to exit the 2D Interpolation Options dialog.
The IDW scheme is a simple moving weighted averages scheme. To interpolate a value
at a point, a weighted average of the nearby scatter points is used. The weights are an
inverse function of distance. The closer a scatter point is to the interpolation point, the
greater the weight given to the scatter point.
13 IDW Interpolation With Gradient Planes

One of the problems with simple IDW interpolation is that the interpolated data set
always tends toward the mean of the data set in the voids between scatter points. As a
result, local minima or maxima in the voids in the scatter point set are not properly
inferred. To overcome this problem, a "nodal function" can be computed at each scatter
point. A nodal function is a plane or quadratic function that is forced to pass through the
scatter point and approximate the nearby scatter points in a least squares sense. When
the interpolation is performed, rather than computing an average of the data set values at
the scatter point locations, an average is computed of the nodal functions of the nearby
scatter point evaluated at the interpolation point. This approach allows local trends to be
inferred and often results in a more accurate interpolation.

The next scheme we will try is IDW interpolation with planar nodal functions.
3. In the Nodal function section at the top of the dialog, select the Gradient plane
option.
14 Using the Horizontal Anisotropy Option

The interpolation can be “stretched” in a horizontal direction by using the horizontal
anisotropy option in conjunction with a specified azimuth. This option might be used if,
for example, you know a contaminant plume is elongated in a particular direction due to
groundwater flow.
To change the horizontal anisotropy:
1. Select the Plan View button .
3. Change the Horizontal anisotropy value to 2.0.
4. Change the Azimuth value to 90.0.
7. Enter c_idw_grad_h2 for the new data set name.
As can be seen, the data has been stretched in the horizontal direction. You might want
to experiment with different values for the horizontal anisotropy.

15 IDW Interpolation With Quadratic Nodal Functions

The nodal functions used in IDW interpolation can also be quadratic functions which are
constrained to pass through the scatter point and approximate the neighboring scatter
points in a least squares fashion. The averaging or blending of the quadratic functions
during the interpolation stage often results in a very smooth surface.
1. Select the Oblique View button .
4. In the Nodal function section at the top of the dialog, select the Quadratic
option.
16 Truncation
Notice that the minimum value listed in the color legend is a negative number. Of
course, this is impossible since there is no such thing as a negative concentration. By
inferring trends, the nodal functions can sometimes project the plume values beyond zero
and into the negative range. This type of error can be easily fixed using truncation.
2. Turn on the Truncate values option.
3. Select the Truncate to specified range option.
4. Enter 0.0 for the Min value and enter 150.0 for the Max value.
We don't want the concentrations to go below zero but we will allow the interpolation
scheme to infer a maximum concentration greater than the maximum measured value.
7. Enter c_idw_quad_trunc for the name of the new data set.

Notice that the concentrations are now mostly zero around the perimeter of the map.
17 Kriging
The last interpolation scheme we will test is kriging. Kriging is based on the assumption
that points that are near each other have a certain degree of spatial correlation, but points
that are widely separated are statistically independent. Kriging is a set of linear
regression routines that minimize estimation variance from a predefined covariance
model.
2. Select the Kriging option.
3. Select the Options button to the right of the Kriging option.
17.1 Creating the Experimental Variogram

There are a large number of options to be specified in the Kriging Options dialog.
Fortunately, the defaults shown are adequate in most cases. However, a variogram must
always be defined.
1. Select the Edit Variograms button to bring up the Variogram Editor.
2. Select the New button in the section entitled Experimental variogram.
3. Select the OK button to accept the defaults.
A curve should appear in the upper window of the Variogram Editor. This curve is
called an experimental variogram. The experimental variogram is found by calculating
the variance in data set values of each scatter point in the set with respect to each of the
other points and plotting the variances versus distance between the points. As can be
seen in the plot of the experimental variogram, the shape of the variogram indicates that
at small separation distances, the variance is small. In other words, points that are close
together have similar data values. With many data sets, after a certain level of
separation, the variance in the data values becomes somewhat random and the variogram
oscillates about a value corresponding to the average variance. However, with
concentration data, many of the points have zero values and this tends to pull the
experimental variogram back down.
17.2 Creating the Model Variogram

Once the experimental variogram is computed, the next step is to define a model
variogram. A model variogram is a simple mathematical function that models the trend
in the experimental variogram. The model variogram is used in the kriging
computations.

1. In the section entitled Nested structure, select the New button.
2. For the Model function select the Gaussian option.
3. Enter a value of 25.0 for the Nugget, 1965.0 for the Contribution, 63.0 for the
Range.
At this point there should be a reasonable fit between the model and the first part of the
experimental variogram. The second part is difficult to fit in this case because of the
zero values described above.
4. Select the OK button to exit the Variogram Editor.
5. Select the OK button to exit the Kriging Options dialog.
17.3 Interpolating to the Grid

Notice that this interpolation scheme results in an upward curvature towards the outside
edges of the grid. If you wanted to correct this, you could add more scatter points with a
concentration of 0.0 in these outlying areas.
18 Switching Data Sets

Now that we have interpolated to the grid using several different interpolation schemes,
we may wish to review the results by replotting some of the interpolated data sets. We
can switch back to one of the previous data sets using the Project Explorer.
1. Select the Plan View button .
2. In the Project Explorer, select the c_linear data set under the 2D Grid Data
folder .
3. Use the up and down keys to switch between the datasets and watch the contours
change.

19 Using the Data Calculator

Occasionally, it is useful to use the Data Calculator to compare two data sets generated
by interpolation. As an example, we will use the Data Calculator to compute the
difference between the kriging and IDW quadratic data sets.
1. Select the Data Calculator tool.
The currently available data sets are listed in the top of the dialog. Each data set is
numbered from “d1” to “dn”. Data sets are referenced in the mathematical expression
using the “d” numbers. The "c_krig" data set should be numbered "d10" and the
"c_idw_quad" data set should be labeled "d7".
2. In the Expression field, enter abs(d7-d10).
3. In the Result field, enter Difference.
4. Select the Compute button.
Now that we have computed the difference between two data sets it is helpful to view
some basic statistics related to the new data set.
5. Select the Data Set Info button.
The resulting dialog displays basic statistics related to the active data set such as
minimum, maximum, and mean data values.
6. Select the OK button to exit the Data Set Info dialog.
7. Select the Done button to exit the Data Calculator dialog.
8. Select the Frame button .
The contour plot now displayed represents the data set we just computed. Any new data
set computed using the Data Calculator is automatically designated the active data set.
20 Conclusion
This concludes the tutorial. Here are some of the key concepts in this tutorial:
• You can interpolate from a sparse set of points to a different set of points
(usually more dense and defining a surface) by using 2D scatter points.
• 2D scatter points can be created by hand or imported from a file.
• There are several interpolation algorithms available in GMS.
• Linear algorithms do not interpolate beyond the convex hull of the scatter points.

• Anisotropy and truncation can be used to help control the interpolation process.

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v. 10.

GMS 10.0 Tutorial

Prerequisite Tutorials Required Components Time

Page 1 of 15 © Aquaveo 2014

Page 2 of 15 © Aquaveo 2014

1. Create a scatter point set from scratch.

2. Import scatter points from a file.

3. Create a bounding grid.

4. Interpolate the scatter points using various interpolation methods.

5. Use the data calculator to compare interpolations.

4 Creating a Scatter Point Set

2. Select the Create Scatter Points tool .

3. Click on the screen a few times in different places.

4. Select the Scatter Points | Scatter Point Settings menu command.

6. Click on the screen.

Page 3 of 15 © Aquaveo 2014

7. Click OK to exit the Scatter Point Data Set Value dialog.

5 Importing a Scatter Point Set

5.1 Open the File

2. Select the Open button .

4. Locate and open the directory entitled Tutorials\Geostatistics\geos2d.

5. Select the file named plumedat.txt.

6. Click on the Open button.

5.2 Import Wizard - Step 1

Page 4 of 15 © Aquaveo 2014

Figure 1. Text Import Wizard, Step 1.

2. Select the Next button.

5.3 Import Wizard - Step 2

1. Select 2D Scatter Points as the GMS data type.

Page 5 of 15 © Aquaveo 2014

Figure 2. Text Import Wizard, Step 2.

A set of points should appear on the screen.

6 Changing the Display Options

1. Select the Display Options button .

4. Select the OK button to exit the Display Options dialog.

5. Select the Display Options button .

6. Select the Options button below the Color option.

Page 6 of 15 © Aquaveo 2014

7. Turn on the Legend option.

8. Select the OK button twice to exit both dialogs.

Notice that the concentrations vary from 0.0 to about 100.0.

7 Creating a Bounding Grid

2. In the X-Dimension section, enter 60 for the Number of cells.

3. In the Y-Dimension section, enter 40 for the Number of cells.

4. Select the OK button.

5. Select the Frame button .

8 Selecting an Interpolation Scheme

1. Select the Interpolation | Interpolation Options menu command.

2. Select the Linear option.

Page 7 of 15 © Aquaveo 2014

3. Select the OK button.

To interpolate to the grid:

4. Select the Interpolation | Interpolate  2D Grid menu command.

10 Viewing the Results

1. Select the Oblique View button .

2. Select the Display Options button .

5. For the Contour method, select Color Fill.

6. Select the OK button twice to exit both dialogs.

11 Viewing the Elliptical Control Function