Science of the Total Environment 499 (2014) 414423

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Groundwater resources management through the applications of

simulation modeling: A review
Ajay Singh
Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal 721302, India

H I G H L I G H T S

A comprehensive review on the simulation modeling applications has been provided.

Simulations of uid and mass transport were used for transition zone forecasting.
Major constraints for regional groundwater models are setting boundary conditions.
Distributed models often provide only slightly better results than the lumped models.
GIS and remote sensing is extremely useful for groundwater modeling.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The global population is increasing rapidly and expected to touch the 9.5 billion mark by 2050 from the current
Received 11 January 2014 7.2 billion. The management of the groundwater resources is a challenging task worldwide against the backdrop
Received in revised form 7 May 2014 of the growing water demand for industrial, agricultural, and domestic uses and shrinking resources. Moreover,
Accepted 12 May 2014
this task has been hampered signicantly due to declining/rising groundwater levels and associated contamina-
Available online 28 May 2014
tion. A broad range of solutions could be considered to address the aforementioned problems of groundwater
Editor: Carla M Koretsky management, but the effectiveness of all the solutions and their combinations cannot be veried with eld
experiments. Given their predictive capability, simulation models are often the only viable means of providing
Keywords: input to management decisions, as they can forecast the likely impacts of a particular water management strat-
Groundwater management egy. This paper presents a comprehensive review on the simulation modeling applications for the management
Simulation modeling of groundwater resources. The past papers on the overview of groundwater simulation models, use of remote
Groundwater depletion: remote sensing sensing and GIS in groundwater modeling, and application of simulation models in arid and semiarid regions
Semiarid region are described in detail. Conclusions are drawn where gaps exist and more research needs to be focused.
2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction socioeconomic impacts (Shah, 2007). While, overdraft causes the

groundwater depletion, untreated or partially treated sewage, industrial
The sustainability of groundwater resources is a critical issue (Alley efuents, and agricultural chemicals are the major contributors of con-
et al., 1999, 2002; Hiscock et al., 2002; Gleeson et al., 2012) against tamination. Similar to groundwater depletion, rising watertables are
the backdrop of increasing water demand for industrial, agricultural, also serious groundwater management problems in arid and semiarid
and domestic uses for the burgeoning global population, which is ex- regions of the world (Boumans et al., 1988; Hoffman and Durnford,
pected to touch the 9.5 billion mark by 2050 from the current 7.2 billion 1999; McFarlane and Williamson, 2002; Kitamura et al., 2006;
(United Nations, 2012), and shrinking water resources (Singh and Konukcu et al., 2006; van Dam et al., 2006; Guganesharajah et al.,
Panda, 2012a). However, groundwater is often not adequately managed 2007; Ritzema et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2008; Han et al., 2011; Singh,
to ensure its long-term sustainability (Sophocleous, 2010). In fact, 2012a,b; Singh and Panda, 2013). The continuous expansion of the
groundwater depletion and contamination are prevalent in both devel- irrigation system, absence of natural and articial drainage, seepage
oped and developing countries (Konikow and Kendy, 2005; Fogg and from unlined canal networks, percolation from irrigation elds, and
LaBolle, 2006; Rodell et al., 2009) and have locally led to signicant under-exploitation of poor quality groundwater are major factors
contributing to a rising watertable problem (Singh et al., 2012).
Tel.: +91 3222281335, +91 9434706472; fax: +91 3222255303. A wide range of solutions could be considered to address problems
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected]. in groundwater management, which involves both quantity and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.05.048
0048-9697/ 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 A. Singh / Science of the Total Environment 499 (2014) 414423 415

quality-related issues (Das and Datta, 2001). But the effectiveness of all 2. Overview of groundwater simulation models
the solutions and their combinations cannot be veried with eld ex-
periments (Singh et al., 2006a). Moreover, many problems and pros- Research on the development and application of groundwater ow
pects associated with a particular water management options are and transport models has increased signicantly over the last ve de-
often not recognized until they are well advanced. Simulation models cades (Tyson and Weber, 1964; Feddes et al., 1978; Wang and
by way of their predictive capability are often the only feasible means Anderson, 1982; Belman et al., 1983; Lerner and Kumar, 1991;
of providing input to management decisions (Singh, 2010). These Simunek et al., 1998; Varni and Carrera, 1998; Izbicki et al., 2004;
models can help to forecast the likely impacts of a particular water man- Bester et al., 2006; Howard and Maier, 2007; Michael and Voss, 2008;
agement strategy. Therefore, the results of simulation studies of existing Harou et al., 2009; Chandio et al., 2012). Groundwater simulation
and proposed water management policy may form the basis for the models can be divided broadly into two categories viz. groundwater
identication of suitable water management plans for the future ow and solute transport models. Groundwater ow models solve for
(Jhorar et al., 2009). the spatio-temporal values of hydraulic head, whereas, the solute trans-
In recent years, a large number of simulation models have been used port models solve for the spatio-temporal values of solute concentra-
for groundwater management by the researchers worldwide (Table 1). tion. Groundwater simulation models based either on nite difference
Both, the nite element and nite difference techniques have been or nite element techniques have been advocated for predicting
widely used in groundwater simulation modeling. Almost all the previ- groundwater levels (Verruijit, 1972; Ayers and Vacher, 1983). The rst
ous studies in Table 1, except Konikow and Bredehoeft (1992), advocate simulation model for studying the dynamic behavior of a groundwater
verication of model before it is used for simulation. During the last two basin was developed by Tyson and Weber (1964) using nite difference
decades, many researchers have used remote sensing and geographic technique. Later, this model was used by a number of researchers (e.g.,
information systems (GIS) for the solution of groundwater manage- de Ridder and Erez, 1976; Tyagi, 1986; Tyagi et al., 1993). Sauerwein
ment problems (Choudhury, 1994; Kite and Pietroniro, 1996; Kemna (1967) also used the nite difference technique for the solution of
et al., 2002; Herzog et al., 2003; Schmid et al., 2005; Leblanc et al., two-dimensional unsteady state ow conditions. Pinder and Cooper
2007; Hendricks Franssen et al., 2008; Li et al., 2009; Xu et al., 2011). (1970) and Shamir and Dagan (1971) considered a vertical cross section
As far as author is aware, there has been one previous review (Hunt, and used vertical integration to develop one-dimensional equations,
2006) on groundwater modeling during the recent past. However, it which were solved using a nite difference approximation.
was only concentrated on the applications of analytic element method The rst nite element model using stream functions and concentra-
and did not incorporate nite element and nite difference methods tion as dependent variables was introduced by Lee and Cheng (1974).
in groundwater modeling. Application of simulation models in arid However, Segol et al. (1975) and Segol and Pinder (1976) rst devel-
and semiarid regions was not included. Also it fails to incorporate the oped and demonstrated a eld application of an alternative model
uses of GIS and remote sensing in groundwater modeling. A recent re- using uid pressure, velocity components, and concentration as depen-
view (Werner et al., 2013) has covered some aspects of groundwater dent variables. The developed model performed better than the previ-
modeling. But it is specically limited to seawater intrusion processes ous models. Numerous other researchers including Andrews (1981)
and management of coastal aquifers. This paper, therefore, presents a and Din et al. (1987) have used nite element models for groundwater
comprehensive review on the simulation modeling applications for simulation using a diffusive interface approach. Models that incorporate
the management of groundwater resources. The past papers are transition-zone simulation require simultaneous solution of uid-ow
grouped into three sections; overview of groundwater simulation and mass-transport equations. Further, Frind (1982) extended the
models, use of remote sensing and GIS in groundwater modeling, and Galerkin nite element to deal with two-dimensional coastal aquifer
application of simulation models in arid and semiarid regions. aquitard systems and Rubin (1983) used the concept of boundary-

Table 1
Simulation models used in the past.

Model/code Basic model features Purpose Model applications Region

1D-Simulation model FDM S Gupta and Pandey (1983) and Gupta (1985) India
3D-GWFM FDM Freyberg (1988) USA
PLASM, MODFLOW, AQUIFEMM-1 FDM, FEM C, V, S Anderson and Woessner (1992)
FEM, FDM V Konikow and Bredehoeft (1992) USA
MODFLOW, GFLOW FDM C Hunt et al. (1998) USA
SWAP-SWATRE, SIMGRO FEM C, S D'Urso et al. (1999) Italy
SWAP, SLURP FEM S Kite and Droogers (2000) Turkey
MODFLOW, GFLOW, MODPATH FDM C, S Pint et al. (2003), Budge and Sharp (2009) USA
SWAP, WOFOST, SEBAL FEM C, S van Dam and Malik (2003) India
GWFM C, V Hassan (2004)
GLUE SA Beven (2006)
UCODE, MMA C Poeter (2007)
MODFLOW FDM S Michael and Voss (2008) Bangladesh, India
WBM FDM C, V Zhang et al. (2008) Australia
HEM Harou et al. (2009)
UPFLOW S Raes (2009) Belgium
MODFLOW, MT3D FDM V, S Wondzell et al. (2009) USA
ISOQUAD FEM, FDM S Yang et al. (2009a) Taiwan
SEAWAT, UCODE FDM C Sanford and Pope (2010) USA
SVAT, MODFLOW, SIMGRO FDM, FEM V, S van Walsum and Veldhuizen (2011) Netherlands
MODFLOW FDM C, V, S Sherif et al. (2012) UAE
SGMP FDM C, S, SA, S Singh (2013) India
HYDRUS-1D, SWMS2D FEM, FDM V, S Zhu et al. (2013) China

FDM nite difference method; FEM nite element method; GWFM groundwater ow model; WBM water balance model; HEM hydro-economic model; S simulation;
C calibration; V validation/verication; SA sensitivity analysis.
416 A. Singh / Science of the Total Environment 499 (2014) 414423

layer approximation to simulate advectivedispersive transport of salt using cross-correlation analysis. Some other applications of
in the transition zone. However, this approach is applicable to only MODFLOW by Ting et al. (1998) in the Pingtung Plain, Taiwan;
simple cases where the DupuitForchheimer assumptions and Gedeon et al. (2007) in the north-east Belgium; and Pisinaras et al.
boundary-layer approximations are justied. The nite difference and (2007) in the Ismarida plain, North Greece, are found in the literature.
nite element models were respectively developed and used by Recently, Xu et al. (2012) integrated a SoilWaterAtmospherePlant
Sondhi et al. (1989) and Rao and Sarma (1993) for simulating ground- (SWAP) package with the groundwater ow model MODFLOW in
water ow in large canal irrigation projects in India. The seepage losses such a way that the SWAP package calculates vertical ux for
from canal networks and percolation losses from agricultural elds MODFLOW, while MODFLOW provides averaged watertable depth to
were estimated as components of recharge, in these models. determine the bottom boundary condition for SWAP zones. They
Although, in theory, distributed models are expected to outperform applied the integrated model to simulate a regional groundwater ow
their lumped counterparts, in reality, there have been mixed results. problem in Hetao Irrigation District, upper Yellow River basin of North
Beven (1989) and Grayson et al. (1992) concluded that physically China. The results of MODFLOW applications are better when it is inte-
based distributed models, when compared to lumped models, often grated with other software applications. This is mainly because each
provide only slightly better results. A similar observation was made by software works in sync with each other to solve many aspects of
Reed et al. (2004), who reported the results of a comprehensive inter- groundwater management problem.
comparison study of several physically based and conceptual distribut- The traditional numerical models with specic boundary conditions
ed models and concluded that lumped model outperformed distributed are able to depict the complex structures of aquifers including compli-
models in most cases. Given these conclusions and the magnitude of cated prediction of groundwater levels (Sorooshian and Gupta, 1995;
efforts required to parameterize and validate distributed hydrologic Singh and Woolhiser, 2002; Wu et al., 2003). A three dimensional
models, it is reasonable to question whether distributed models can steady-state nite difference groundwater ow model was used to
effectively be used in forecasting. Carpenter and Georgakakos (2006) quantify the groundwater uxes and analyze the subsurface hydrody-
presented the results of an intercomparison of lumped versus distribut- namics in the Akaki catchment by giving particular emphasis to the
ed hydrologic model and concluded that a distributed model gave better well eld that supplies water to the city of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
results than the lumped model. They applied the models in two study (Ayenew et al, 2008). The model can also be used for analyzing the
watersheds located in the southern Central Plains of the US and used groundwatersurface water interaction, effect of pumping on the well
operational quality data to drive the models. Khakbaz et al. (2012) eld, and groundwater ow pattern.
calibrated a semi-distributed model for the Illinois River Basin at Siloam Yang et al. (2009b) applied two groundwater models BPANN and ITS
Springs, Arkansas using streamow observations at the basin outlet for prediction of groundwater levels in western Jilin Province, China.
only. They concluded that model performance at the basin outlet can They compared the model performance in terms of MAE, RMSE, and
be improved by using a semi-distributed structure calibrated at both CE and found that BPANN models are superior to the ITS in forecasting
interior points and the outlet, even when only a few years of historical the groundwater levels. The use of standard regional groundwater
record are available. While, Wilson et al. (1979) showed that accounting ow models in predicting regional patterns of water chemistry based
for the spatial variation of precipitation signicantly inuences the vol- on well-water was evaluated by Furlong et al. (2011). They concluded
ume, time to peak, and peak ow of predicted hydrograph. The results that particle tracking with the implied ow eld of a standard regional
of Wilson et al. (1979) were substantiated by Troutman (1983), Beven groundwater ow model can account for uncertainties in ow and
(1985), Krajewski et al. (1991), Ogden and Julien (1994), and Shah regional water quality interpretations. Groundwater ow and transport
et al. (1996). The researchers i.e., Refsgaard and Knudsen (1996), Shah models have also been used in a number of past studies by the re-
et al. (1996), Boyle et al. (2001), Koren et al. (2004), and Zhang et al. searchers worldwide (Besbes et al., 1978; Flug et al., 1980; Carrea and
(2004) have compared distributed versus lumped model simulations. Neuman, 1986; Tracy, 1995; Zhao et al., 1998; Bakker et al., 1999;
Studies on the distributed and lumped modeling have also been under- Vermulst and De Lange, 1999; Bethke and Johnson, 2002; Helweig
taken by Beven (1992, 2002), Duan et al. (1992), Michaud and et al., 2002; Weissmann et al., 2002; Trowsdale and Lerner, 2003,
Sorooshian (1994), Boyle et al. (2001), Smith et al. (2004), and Kampf 2007; Plummer et al., 2004; Sanford et al., 2004; Zhang et al., 2008).
and Burges (2007).
The MODFLOW model has been used worldwide because of its easy 3. Use of remote sensing and GIS in groundwater modeling
accessibility, user-friendliness and versatility (Kashaigili et al., 2003).
Palma and Bentley (2007) used MODFLOW for simulating the ow in Groundwater resources management and modeling are hindered
the Leon-Chinandega aquifer located in Nicaragua. The model results signicantly by a lack of good quality data. The problem is particularly
indicated that pumping induces a decrease in base ow, depleting serious in arid and semiarid regions where observation infrastructure is
river discharge. The agriculturally based watershed model SWAT and weak (Schmid et al., 2005; Brunner et al., 2007). Regional groundwater
the groundwater model MODFLOW with streamaquifer interaction models require distributed input data (Wondzell et al., 2009), while, typ-
routines were suitably modied and linked into a comprehensive ical hydrological measurements provide only point data. In the absence
basin model known as SWATMOD by Sophocleous et al. (1999). The de- of required extensive data, these models cannot be used as reliable
veloped model SWATMOD, which is capable of simulating the surface decision support tool because of under/over estimation of outputs
water, groundwater, and stream aquifer interactions, was applied in (Storey et al., 2003; Kasahara and Hill, 2006). The new sources for spatial
the Rattlesnake Creek basin in south central Kansas. The model was input data have emerged with the recent developments in remote
run for a 40 year historical simulation period and a 40 year prediction sensing and GIS (Bobba et al., 1992; Kite and Pietroniro, 1996; Jackson,
period. A number of hypothetical management scenarios involving re- 2002; Leblanc et al., 2003; Brunner et al., 2004; Dar et al., 2010; Stisen
ductions and variations in withdrawal rates and patterns were simulat- et al., 2011). A detailed review of the remote sensing applications in
ed. Later, the fully distributed groundwater model MODFLOW was groundwater modeling is provided by Brunner et al. (2007). The review
integrated with the quasi distributed watershed model SWAT by also provided the examples of its uses in Botswana and China. The differ-
Sophocleous and Perkins (2000) and applied in Kansas. Budge and ent aspects regarding the use of remote sensing technique in water re-
Sharp (2009) derived aquifer parameters of the Barton Springs segment sources management are given in Becker (2006). Earlier, Tsihrintzis
of the Edwards Aquifer by introducing spatially varying parameters in et al. (1996) have presented a review of the uses of GIS in water
MODFLOW. They used the algorithms developed by Padilla and resources.
Pulido-Bosch (1995) to investigate the heterogeneity of karst aquifers Groundwater ow models are appropriate tools to assess the effect
and concluded that spatial variability within an aquifer can be inferred of foreseen future human activities on groundwater dynamics
 A. Singh / Science of the Total Environment 499 (2014) 414423 417

(Dawoud et al., 2005; Mylopoulos et al., 2007). However, models re- evaluation of groundwater resources and for deciding the location of
quire good quality data on the physical and hydrogeological settings. rainwater harvesting structures in semiarid regions.
The physical ones refer to topography, land use, soils, canals and Chowdary et al. (2003) advocated the coupling of simulation models
drainage ditches, climate and crops demand for water (Xu et al., and GIS because GIS had no data representation exibility for space and
2011). The hydrogeological settings include the aquifer system and time. Coupling can range from loose to tight coupling. A loose coupling
boundary conditions, main hydraulic parameters characterizing each involves a data transfer from one system to another, while, in a tight
aquifer layer, and the dynamics of groundwater levels. All of them coupling, the data management is integrated into the system. The GIS
vary both, in space and time, thus adopting GIS in association with a is used to preprocess data or to make maps of input data or model re-
model is helpful. Coupling GIS technology with a process-based ground- sults. This approach was adopted by the majority of the past applica-
water model may facilitate hydrogeological and hydrologic system con- tions because it allows the use of existing physical models with little
ceptualization and characterization (Hinaman, 1993; Kolm, 1996; Gogu or no modications to the software (Roaza et al., 1993). Fayer et al.
et al., 2001), thus also a proper adaptation of the groundwater ow (1996) used GIS technique for identifying all possible combinations of
model to the area under study (Brodie, 1998). Various examples con- soil type and vegetation which was used for estimating the areal distri-
rm the appropriateness of GIS applications in groundwater hydrology bution of natural recharge for a groundwater ow and transport model.
(Herzog et al., 2003; Brunner et al., 2008; Li et al., 2008). Recently, a spatially distributed water balance model WetSpass in
The calibration of a groundwater model is necessary for achieving a conjunction with remote sensing images and GIS tools was used by
close match between the observed and simulated state variables. The Gebreyohannes et al. (2013) for the assessment of available water
trial and error method is usually used for adjusting the sensitive param- resources in the Geba basin of Ethiopia. They used the model for prepar-
eters of the model during the calibration (Poeter and Hill, 1997; Gupta ing the digital maps of long-term surface runoff, evapotranspiration and
et al., 1998). However, adjusting too many parameters during the groundwater recharge. The model predictions are veried with
calibration will result in an over-parameterized groundwater model, observed river ow data and were found reliable.
which will have a very little predictive value (Li et al., 2009). Garcia
et al. (2006) introduced a model that utilizes GIS to predict relative re- 4. Application of simulation models in arid and semiarid regions
ductions in crop yield due to waterlogging and salinity at a eld-scale
by incorporating spatially and temporally variable crop, climatic, and Water and salt are the key elements that decide the sustainability of
irrigation data to simulate crop yields. This model utilizes soil and irrigated agriculture in arid and semiarid ecosystems. Due to that, water
water data commonly collected in eld-scale studies. Some examples and salt balance studies have been done at various research stations
of remote sensing data applications in groundwater modeling can also worldwide (Williams, 1987; Garg and Ali, 2000; Dai and Labadie,
be found in Choudhury (1994), Meijerink (1996), Hendricks Franssen 2001; Upadhyaya and Chauhan, 2002; Oster and Wichelns, 2003;
et al. (2008), and Dams et al. (2013). Tuteja et al., 2003). In arid and semiarid areas, provision of irrigation is
The potential of GIS technique in numerical modeling for groundwa- vital to enhance crop production. However, without appropriate man-
ter resources was demonstrated by Chenini and Mammou (2010). They agement, irrigated agriculture can be detrimental to the environment
coupled GIS software ARCVIEW with groundwater model MODFLOW and may endanger its sustainability (Sakthivadivel et al., 1999; van
and used it in the Maknassy basin of central Tunisia. The similar studies Dam et al., 2006). For example, during the past four decades, most of
of GIS-MODFLOW applications in groundwater modeling were also the canal irrigated areas of Haryana State (India) are facing rising
undertaken by Kim et al. (2008) and Depaz et al. (2009) for mapping groundwater levels, and problems such as waterlogging and soil
the groundwater recharge. Akbar et al. (2011) developed a GIS-based salinization are emerging (Agarwal and Roest, 1996; Singh et al.,
modeling system ArcPRZM-3, which can be used for a site-specic 2010; Singh, 2011). The groundwater simulation models were devel-
single simulation or regional synchronized multiple simulations which oped and applied for the management of waterlogged saline lands by
require spatial distributed data. The model was applied in Woodruff many researchers worldwide, i.e., Gates and Grismer (1989), Hossain
County, Arkansas, USA for developing a health risk map, which was et al. (1994), Aslam and Skogerboe (1995), Hill (1996), Simunek et al.
based on dissolved bentazon concentration in soil. Ireson et al. (2006) (1996), Havard et al. (1997a,b), Nathan and Mudgway (1997), Cheng
proposed the coupling of a water resources management simulation et al. (1998), Ramasesha (1998), Lamsal et al. (1999), and Singh
model (MIKE-Basin) and a nite difference groundwater model (2013). Almost in all the previous studies, a recharge reduction and/or
(ASM). The GIS software ArcView was used in this study. They applied draft increase measures are recommended to combat the problems of
the models in data scarce Vrbas River basin, in Republic Srpska in waterlogging and associated salinization.
Bosnia and Herzegovina and concluded that the proposed technique is Some researchers used one dimensional unsaturated ow model to
valid as an initial knowledge development and optioneering step, simulate water management under drained and undrained conditions
which can support the collection exercise for detailed modeling. (Singh and Kumar, 1998). While, others used a groundwater simulation
A GIS module GRASS (Kunkel and Wendland, 2002; Neteler and model to predict the dynamic behavior of the watertable in response to
Mitasova, 2004) was created to overcome the proprietary problem of groundwater pumpage and net recharge (Singh et al., 1984). A distrib-
common GIS software. The GRASS was integrated with nite difference uted irrigation water management model FRAME, which was a combi-
groundwater ow model MODFLOW by Carrera-Hernandez and Gaskin nation of an unsaturated ow model SIWARE and a groundwater
(2006). The results indicate that the integrated model can be used to simulation model SGMP (Boonstra and de Ridder, 1990; Boels et al.,
solve large scale groundwater ow problems. Thus, the module GRASS 1996) was used for the simulation study by Kumar and Singh (2003).
provides a tool for groundwater ow modeling to those users who can- The model FRAME was applied on a regional scale in Sirsa Irrigation
not afford commercially available software. Leblanc et al. (2007) used Circle in the northwestern part of Haryana, India, which was faced
the remote sensing and GIS techniques for regional groundwater with serious waterlogging and salinity problems in areas underlain
modeling in Lake Chad Basin, Africa located in a semiarid area. They with saline groundwater irrigated by the canal networks. It was con-
demonstrated the usefulness of these techniques through a better cluded that the model FRAME can be used for studying the impact of
denition of groundwater recharge and discharge areas, groundwater/ policy changes on the future groundwater behavior, which is the
surface water interaction, and paleohydrological settings. Gaur et al. major benet of the model. Connell (2007) presented a series of semi-
(2011) developed a methodology by combining the MODFLOW and analytical and analytical solutions for transport of a surface released
GIS. The developed methodology was applied on the sub-basin of the contaminant vertically through the unsaturated zone to the watertable
Banganga River, India for delineating the groundwater potential zones. and then within groundwater. The study presented three different
They concluded that the developed model is very helpful for the approaches to describe transport in the unsaturated zone. Earlier the
418 A. Singh / Science of the Total Environment 499 (2014) 414423

similar studies were undertaken by Refsgaard et al. (1999) and Hantush located in the Haryana State of India. Recently, Singh and Panda
et al. (2000). A three dimensional nite element model, based on Galerkin (2012b,c) used SAHYSMOD in northwest India, where the groundwater
weighted residual techniques, was presented by Chandio et al. (2012). level is rising continuously. After successful calibration and validation,
The model was applied in a waterlogged area located in the lower Indus they used the model for studying the long-term effect of different man-
Basin, Pakistan for groundwater simulation. Babajimopoulos et al. agement alternatives on the future groundwater scenarios. None of the
(2007) applied a mathematical model SWBACROS to estimate the contri- previous applications of SAHYSMOD, except Singh and Panda (2012b,c),
bution of a shallow groundwater to the water needs of a maize crop. considered the socio-economic issues, which have wider policy signi-
Management of waterlogging and secondary salinization is causing cance on the water resources management, in groundwater simulation.
universal concern because of its implication on food security and envi- Some models are used to simulate both the salt and water balances
ronmental conservation (Sharma, 1999; Singh et al., 2010). Researchers of saturated and unsaturated systems. Oosterbaan and Abu Senna
i.e., Skaggs (1982), Workman and Skaggs (1989), and Singh et al. (1989) used the model SaltMod in Nile delta of Egypt for salt and
(2006b) used eld scale deterministic hydrological model DRAINMOD water balance analysis. Some earlier applications of SaltMod by Rao
to simulate groundwater ow under shallow watertable conditions et al. (1992) in Tungabhandra Irrigation Project, Karnataka, India;
and they found that the model is quite useful for controlling the rising Vanegas Chacon (1993) in the Leziria Grande Polder, Portugal; Singh
watertable and groundwater salinity problems. However, Sinai and et al. (2002a,b) in the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, India;
Jain (2006), who used DRAINMOD for the prediction of watertable Srinivasulu (2002), and Srinivasulu et al. (2004) in Konanki pilot area,
depths in irrigated elds at the Jordan Valley, concluded that Andhra Pradesh, India; Srinivasulu et al. (2005) in Nagarjuna Sagar
DRAINMOD cannot give the right prediction because of a strong side right canal command, India; Bahceci et al. (2006) in KonyaCumra
effect of the Jordan river, presence of sandy permeable layers below Plain, Turkey; Sarangi et al. (2006) in Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh,
the depth of the drains which magnies the boundary condition effect India; and Singh (2012c) in Haryana State of northwest India, are found
of the Jordan River, and a very signicant component of deep and lateral in the literature. In all the previous studies, SaltMod was applied in areas
seepage. Raes and Deproost (2003) concluded that sophisticated mech- where sub-surface drainage system was installed except Singh (2012c).
anistic models for simulating water ow in unsaturated porous medium Also the aquifer parameters were not calibrated and sensitivity analysis
(Feddes et al., 1978; Belman et al., 1983; Simunek et al., 1998) can be of the model parameters was not performed in any studies except the
used to obtain reliable estimates for any type of environment but the last one. The model SGMP was used by Tyagi et al. (1993) for the
data requirement is quite extensive and their use requires great groundwater balance analysis of an irrigated semiarid area located in
expertise. Lower Ghaggar Basin in the command of Bhakra Canal System in Hary-
The SoilWaterAtmospherePlant model (SWAP, van Dam et al., ana State of India. Later, SGMP was used by Boels et al. (1996), Boonstra
1997; Kroes et al., 1999) was applied by Anuraga et al. (2006) for the and Bhutta (1996), Boonstra (1999), Anchal et al. (2002), Kumar and
estimation of groundwater recharge using land use and soil data of an Singh (2003), and Singh (2013) for the groundwater balance analyses
area located in an agricultural subwatershed in Karnataka, south India. of different regions. The impact of potential policy changes on the
The model SWAP also can simulate water budgets under a broad groundwater resources has not been studied in any previous applica-
range of cropping systems and has been tested and validated for differ- tions of SGMP except the last one.
ent crops and irrigation scenarios in semiarid areas of India, Iran, and Conventional perception holds that the best solution for dealing
Pakistan (Bastiaanssen et al., 1996; Smets et al., 1997; Kelleners et al., with the twin menace of waterlogging and salinity is to maintain a net
1999; Singh, 2004; Noory et al., 2011). The calibration and validation ux of salt away from the rootzone and to control the watertable. A
of SWAP were done by Mandare et al. (2008) in the parts of northwest simulation model, SUTRA (Voss, 1984) was used by Khouri (1998) to
India where the groundwater quality is marginal and canal water sup- tackle the problems of waterlogging and salinization. Researchers like
ply is scarce. They prepared some monographs for water management Humphreys et al. (2006) and Khan (2007) suggested two approaches
alternatives at the eld level by considering the quality and quantity to reduce net recharge to shallow saline groundwater from cropped
of groundwater and its impact on the crop yield and soil salinity. areas using a soil, water and groundwater management model, SWAG-
SWAP has also been applied in many hydrological studies for a wide MAN. First approach applies the concept of growing deep-rooted crop
range of climatic and agriculture conditions (e.g., Kite and Droogers, (crop consuming water from soil and shallow watertable) over an
2000; van Dam and Malik, 2003; Qureshi et al., 2003). The digital area equivalent to recharge from a unit area of crop to maintain the
groundwater model PLASM has been extensively tested covering irriga- total water balance. The second approach involves achieving whole
tion commands in some of the critical basins, such as the Bist-Doab, farm water balance for average and wet climatic conditions to nd out
Upper Bari-Doab and the southwestern tracts in the Punjab (Sondhi optimum cropping pattern to minimize recharge from cropped eld.
et al., 1996). This work has shown that models can effectively simulate A physically-based regional hydrological model SIMGRO (Querner,
the seasonal behavior of groundwater basins and can, therefore, provide 1988, 1997), which simulates the water ow in the saturated zone, in
information that can aid better planning and management. A nite ele- the unsaturated zone, and in the surface water in an integrated manner,
ment model was developed to access water and dissolved solutes to was applied to an irrigated area of 2650 ha in the province of Mendoza,
parallel drains in a tile-drained soil aquifer system (Kamra et al., Argentina, after it was calibrated with data on groundwater levels,
1991a,b). The model results revealed that the closely spaced drains evapotranspiration and salinity (Kupper et al., 2002.) It can take into
are quite effective in desalinizing top 80 cm soil prole, where most account the effects of irrigation, drainage, groundwater use and their
crop production activities take place. However, the deep-widely spaced impact on the evapotranspiration of different crops (Querner et al.,
drains are more effective in removing the salts from the entire soil 1997). The modied version of the SIMGRO model was used by van
prole. Walsum and Veldhuizen (2011) in a shallow watertable area of The
An integrated Spatial-Agro-HYdro-Salinity MODel, SAHYSMOD Netherlands. They concluded that the coupling of model is difcult if
(Oosterbaan, 2005), which is a combination of the salinity model the ow resistance across the boundaries of subdomains is small. Re-
SaltMod (Oosterbaan and de Lima, 1989) and the nodal groundwater cently, Querner et al. (2012) has applied SIMGRO in peat meadows of
model SGMP (Boonstra and de Ridder, 1990), was used by Akram The Netherlands, where the conditions for farming are not favorable
et al. (2009) to evaluate factors affecting design and operation of a and soil subsidence prevails. They used the model to examine the possi-
bio-drainage system. The results showed that the major constraint of ble future strategies to control water level and found that in the future
bio-drainage is salt accumulation in tree plantation strips in arid and the soil subsidence will increase and more water will be needed to
semiarid regions. Earlier the model SAHYSMOD was used by Rao et al. maintain the target surface water levels. The model SIMGRO was used
(1995) for the salt and water balance analysis of a waterlogged area for the simulation of water ow in an integrated manner in all the
 A. Singh / Science of the Total Environment 499 (2014) 414423 419

previous studies without considering the climate change impact. that some aspects of some of the subjects have either been overlooked
However, Querner et al. (2012) used this model for simulating different or only briey referred to. It is expected that these gaps could be lled
future scenarios by taking into account the impact of climate scenarios. by subsequent contributions and that there is scope for further discus-
The accurate quantication of the water balance and water redistri- sion about the subjects covered in this review.
bution in soil is strictly required for a proper simulation of solute trans-
port and for management of plant growth and irrigation. Several models
Conict of interest
are available to serve the purpose (e.g., SWAP, CropSyst, Hydrus,
RZWQM, and MACRO). Despite their common basis of the representa-
The author has no actual or potential conict of interest including
tion of water ow in the unsaturated zone, apparently similar hydrolog-
any nancial, personal or other relationships with other people or orga-
ical models give different results when applied in the same ecological,
nizations within three years of the beginning of this work.
climatic and agronomic scenarios (Simunek et al., 2003; Vanderborght
et al., 2005). Bonfante et al. (2010) compared the performance of
three well known models (SWAP, MACRO and CropSyst) in terms of Acknowledgments
simulated soil water contents, using detailed high frequency and high-
resolution measured data. They concluded that generally SWAP had The author extends great gratitude to the editors and anonymous re-
the best performance, followed by CropSyst and then MACRO. The viewers of the journal whose constructive and insightful comments and
similar conclusions were made by Smets et al. (1997) who used suggestions have led to considerable improvement to the early versions
SWAP93 to analyze the water ow and salt transport for the prevailing of the manuscript.
irrigation regime and climatic conditions, and Cirkel et al. (2010) who
used model SWAP to generate measured time series of groundwater References
and surface water levels.
Agarwal MC, Roest CWJ. Towards improved water management in Haryana State; nal
report of the Indo-Dutch operational research project on hydrological studies. CCS
5. Summary and conclusions Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, International Institute for Land Reclamation
and Improvement, Wageningen, DLO Winand Staring Centre for Integrated Land,
The literature review revealed that groundwater models developed Soil and Water Research, now Alterra Green World Research, Wageningen; 1996. p.
80.
and applied in the past, mainly dealt with the issues of water and solute
Akbar TA, Lin H, DeGroote J. Development and evaluation of GIS-based ArcPRZM-3
transport. It emerged from the available literature that the rst simula- system for spatial modeling of groundwater vulnerability to pesticide contamination.
tion model for studying the dynamic behavior of groundwater was Comput Geosci 2011;37:82230.
Akram S, Kashkouli HA, Pazira E. Sensitive variables controlling salinity and water table in
applied about ve decades ago and it used the nite difference tech-
a bio-drainage system. Irrig Drain Syst 2009;22:27185.
nique. Later nite element technique has also been used in groundwater Alley WM, Reilly TE, Franke OL. Sustainability of ground water resources. U S Geol Surv
modeling along with nite difference technique. The other technique Circ 1999;1186.
used in groundwater modeling includes nite element technique with Alley WM, Healy RW, LaBaugh JW, Reilly T. Flow and storage in groundwater systems.
Science 2002;296(5575):198590.
diffusive interface approach. Simultaneous simulations of uid-ow Anchal V, Gupta SK, Mishra KL, Singh A. Application of a groundwater model to assess
and mass-transport were used in the models which provide land degradation problems. Proceedings of Commonwealth Geographical Bureau,
transition-zone forecasting. The major constraints for the regional ap- Food Security Workshop and International Symposium on Land Degradation, 711
April, held at M.M.H. College, Ghaziabad, India; 2002. p. 2318.
plication of groundwater models are setting the boundary conditions. Anderson MP, Woessner WW. Applied groundwater modeling-simulation of ow and
Linearized Boussinesq equation was also used by researchers for model- advective transport. California: Academic Press Inc.; 1992. p. 381.
ing of groundwater level variation. Physically based spatially distributed Andrews RW. Seawater intrusion in the Costa de Hermisillo, Mexico: a numerical analysis
of water management proposals. Groundwater 1981;19:63547.
models were used with additional capabilities to account for agricultur- Anuraga TS, Ruiz L, Mohan Kumar MS, Sekhar M, Leijnse TA. Estimating groundwater re-
al features at the catchment scale. The general belief that the distributed charge using land use and soil data: a case study in south India. Agric Water Manag
models outperform lumped models with a wide margin has been bro- 2006;84:6576.
Aslam M, Skogerboe GV. Irrigation system salinity management modeling. Int J Water
ken by many researchers in the past. They concluded that distributed Resour Dev 1995;11:26172.
models often provide only slightly better results than the lumped Ayenew T, Demlie M, Wohnlich S. Application of numerical modeling for groundwater
models. Considering these conclusions and the magnitude of efforts re- ow system analysis in the Akaki Catchment, Central Ethiopia. Math Geosci 2008;
40(8):887906.
quired to parameterize and validate distributed models, it is reasonable
Ayers JF, Vacher HL. A numerical model describing unsteady ow in a fresh water lens.
to question whether distributed models can effectively be used in fore- Water Resour Bull 1983;19:78590.
casting. Advanced soil water ow simulation models have been used by Babajimopoulos C, Panoras A, Georgoussis H, Arampatzis G, Hatzigiannakis E, Papamichail
researchers to solve relatively complex problems in groundwater, irri- D. Contribution to irrigation from shallow water table under eld conditions. Agric
Water Manag 2007;92:20510.
gation, and drainage management. Some researchers recommended Bahceci D, Dinc N, Tari AF, Agar AI, Sonmez B. Water and salt balance studies using
the use of multiple models to overcome the limitation(s) of a particular SaltMod to improve subsurface drainage design in the KonyaCumra Plain, Turkey.
model(s). GIS and remote sensing techniques are extremely useful in Agric Water Manag 2006;85:26171.
Bakker M, Anderson EI, Olsthoorn TN, Strack ODL. Regional groundwater modeling of the
the acquisition of spatially distributed data for groundwater modeling. Yucca Mountain site using analytic elements. J Hydrol 1999;226:21123.
By interpreting remote sensing, we can get spatially exhaustive al- Bastiaanssen WGM, Singh R, Kumar S. Analysis and recommendations for integrated on
though non-exact verication data in contrast to the traditional limited farm water management in Haryana, India: a model approach. Report 118, Alterra
Green World Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands; 1996. p. 152.
number of more exact point data. The applications of remote sensing Becker MW. Potential for satellite remote sensing of ground water. Ground Water 2006;
with traditional methods provide a huge potential in improving the 44(2):30618.
quality of modeling work. The remote sensing and GIS techniques are Belman C, Wesseling JG, Feddes RA. Simulation model of the water balance for the
cropped soil: SWATRE. J Hydrol 1983;63:27186.
particularly useful in the developing countries with weak infrastructure Besbes M, Delhomme JP, DeMarsily G. Estimating recharge from ephemeral streams in
and data scarcity and where main water resource problems exist. On the arid regions: a case study at kariokan. Water Resour Res 1978;14(2):28190.
contrary, the use of these techniques is of less interest in most of the Bester ML, Frind EO, Molson JW, Rudolph DL. Numerical investigation of road salt impact
on an urban welleld. Ground Water 2006;44:16575.
developed countries which have strong spatial observation networks.
Bethke CM, Johnson TM. Paradox of groundwater age: correction. Geology 2002;30:
Despite the fact that the study has examined all possible literature 3858.
sources, it seems to be impractical to include in a review all publications. Beven KJ. Distributed models. In: Anderson MG, Burt TP, editors. Hydrological forecasting.
This review paper highlights an overall approach for simulation model- New York: Wiley; 1985. [Ch. 13].
Beven K. Changing ideas in hydrology the case of physically-based models. J Hydrol
ing applications for the management of groundwater resources and 1989;105:15772.
each section deserves a more comprehensive, special review. It is likely Beven K. Future of distributed modeling. Hydrol Process 1992;6(3):2534.
420 A. Singh / Science of the Total Environment 499 (2014) 414423

Beven K. Towards an alternative blueprint for a physically based digitally simulated Flug M, Abi-Ghanem GV, Duckstein L. An event based model of recharge from an ephem-
hydrologic response modeling system. Hydrol Process 2002;16:189206. eral stream. Water Resour Res 1980;16(4):68590.
Beven K. A manifesto for the equinality thesis. J Hydrol 2006;320:1836. Fogg GE, LaBolle EM. Motivation of synthesis, with an example on groundwater quality
Bobba AG, Bukata RP, Jerome JH. Digitally processed satellite data as a tool in detecting sustainability. Water Resour Res 2006;42:W03S05. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/
potential groundwater ow systems. J Hydrol 1992;131:2562. 2005WR004372.
Boels D, Smit AAMFR, Jhorar RK, Kumar R, Singh J. Analysis of water management in Sirsa Freyberg DL. An exercise in ground-water model calibration and prediction. Ground
District in Haryana: model testing and application. Report 115. DLO Winand Staring Water 1988;26:35060.
Centre for Integrated Land, Soil and Water Research, now Alterra Green World Frind EO. Seawater intrusion in continuous coastal aquitard systems. Adv Water Resour
Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands; 1996. p. 50. 1982;5:8997.
Bonfante A, Basile A, Acutis M, De Mascellis R, Manna P, Perego A, et al. SWAP, CropSyst Furlong BV, Riley MS, Herbert AW, Ingram JA, Mackay R, Tellam JH. Using regional
and MACRO comparison in two contrasting soils cropped with maize in northern groundwater ow models for prediction of regional wellwater quality distributions.
Italy. Agric Water Manag 2010;97:105162. J Hydrol 2011;398:116.
Boonstra J. Use of simulation models for groundwater management in arid and semi-arid Garcia LA, Foged N, Cardon GE. Development of GIS-based model to estimate relative re-
regions. Proceedings of Salinity Management in Agriculture, 25 December 1998, ductions in crop yield due to salinity and waterlogging. J Irrig Drain Eng ASCE 2006;
held at Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, India; 1999. p. 197205. 132(6):55363.
Boonstra J, Bhutta MN. Groundwater recharge in irrigated agriculture: the theory and Garg NK, Ali A. Groundwater management for lower Indus basin. Agric Water Manag
practice of inverse modeling. J Hydrol 1996;174:35774. 2000;42:27390.
Boonstra J, de Ridder NA. Numerical modelling of groundwater basins. The Netherlands: Gates TK, Grismer ME. Irrigation and drainage strategies in salinity affected regions. J Irrig
ILRI Publication 29, Wageningen; 1990. Drain Eng ASCE 1989;115(2):25580.
Boumans JH, van Hoorn JW, Kruseman GP, Tanwar BS. Water table control, reuse and Gaur S, Chahar BR, Graillot D. Combined use of groundwater modeling and potential zone
disposal of drainage water in Haryana. Agric Water Manag 1988;14:53745. analysis for management of groundwater. Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinf 2011;13:
Boyle DB, Gupta HV, Sorooshian S, Koren V, Zhang Z, Smith M. Toward improved 12739.
streamow forecasts, value of semi-distributed modeling. Water Resour Res 2001; Gebreyohannes T, Smedt FD, Walraevens K, Gebresilassie S, Hussien A, Hagos M, et al.
37(11):274959. Application of a spatially distributed water balance model for assessing surface
Brodie RS. Integrating GIS and RDBMS technologies during construction of a regional water and groundwater resources in the Geba basin, Tigray, Ethiopia. J Hydrol
groundwater model. Environ Model Softw 1998;14:11928. 2013;499:11023.
Brunner P, Bauer P, Eugster M, Kinzelbach W. Using remote sensing to regionalize local Gedeon M, Wemaere I, Marivoet J. Regional groundwater model of north-east Belgium. J
precipitation recharge rates obtained from the chloride method. J Hydrol 2004;294: Hydrol 2007;335:1339.
24150. Gleeson T, Alley WM, Allen DM, Sophocleous MA, Zhou Y, Taniguchi M, et al. Towards
Brunner P, Hendricks Franssen HJ, Kgotlhang L, Bauer-Gottwein P, Kinzelbach W. How sustainable groundwater use: setting long-term goals, backcasting, and managing
can remote sensing contribute in groundwater modeling? Hydrogeol J 2007;15(1): adaptively. Ground Water 2012;50(1):1926.
518. Gogu RC, Carabin G, Hallet V, Peters V, Dassargues A. GIS-based hydrogeological databases
Brunner P, Li HT, Kinzelbach W, Li WP, Dong XG. Extracting phreatic evaporation from and groundwater modelling. Hydrogeol J 2001;9:55569.
remotely sensed maps of evapotranspiration. Water Resour Res 2008;44:W08428. Grayson RB, Moore ID, McMahon TA. Physically based hydrologic modeling: 1. A terrain-
Budge TJ, Sharp Jr JM. Modeling the usefulness of spatial correlation analysis on karst sys- based model for investigative purposes. Water Resour Res 1992;28:263958.
tems. Ground Water 2009;47(3):42737. Guganesharajah K, Pavey JF, van Wonderen J, Khasankhanova GM, Lyons DJ, Lloyd BJ.
Carpenter TM, Georgakakos KP. Intercomparison of lumped versus distributed hydrologic Simulation of processes involved in soil salinization to guide soil remediation. J Irrig
model ensemble simulations on operational forecast scales. J Hydrol 2006;329: Drain Eng ASCE 2007;133:1319.
17485. Gupta SK. Leaching of saline soils through rainfall. J Indian Soc Soil Sci 1985;33:12836.
Carrea J, Neuman SP. Estimation of aquifer parameters under transient and steady state Gupta SK, Pandey RS. A mathematical model for evaluating leaching of saline soils when
conditions. I. Maximum likelihood method incorporating prior information. Water saline and fresh water are used in conjunction. Indian J Agric Sci 1983;53:7016.
Resour Res 1986;22(2):20111. Gupta VK, Sorooshian S, Yapo PO. Towards improved calibration of hydrologic model:
Carrera-Hernandez JJ, Gaskin SJ. The groundwater modeling tool for GRASS (GMTG): multiple and noncommensurable measures of information. Water Resour Res 1998;
open source groundwater ow modeling. Comput Geosci 2006;32(3):33951. 34:75163.
Chandio AS, Lee TS, Mirjat MS. The extent of waterlogging in the lower Indus Basin (Pakistan) Han D, Song X, Currell MJ, Cao G, Zhang Y, Kang Y. A survey of groundwater levels and
a modeling study of groundwater levels. J Hydrol 2012;426427:10311. hydrogeochemistry in irrigated elds in the Karamay Agricultural Development
Cheng JR, Strobl RO, Yeh GT, Lin HC, Choi WH. Modeling of 2D density-dependent ow Area, northwest China: implications for soil and groundwater salinity resulting
and transport in the subsurface. J Hydrol Eng ASCE 1998;3:24857. from surface water transfer for irrigation. J Hydrol 2011;405:21734.
Chenini I, Mammou AB. Groundwater recharge study in arid region: an approach using Hantush MM, Marino MA, Islam MR. Models for leaching of pesticides in soils and
GIS techniques and numerical modeling. Comput Geosci 2010;36(6):80117. groundwater. J Hydrol 2000;227:6683.
Choudhury BJ. Synergism of multispectral satellite observations for estimating regional Harou JJ, Pulido-Velazquez M, Rosenberg DE, Medelln-Azuara J, Lund JR, Howitt RE.
land surface evaporation. Remote Sens Environ 1994;49:26474. Hydro-economic models: concepts, design, applications, and future prospects. J
Chowdary VM, Rao NH, Sarma PBS. GIS-based decision support system for groundwater Hydrol 2009;375:62743.
assessment in large irrigation project areas. Agric Water Manag 2003;62:22952. Hassan AE. Validation of numerical ground water models used to guide decision making.
Cirkel DG, Witte J-PM, van der Zee SEATM. Estimating seepage intensities from ground- Ground Water 2004;42:27790.
water level time series by inverse modelling: a sensitivity analysis on wet meadow Havard PL, Prasher SO, Bonnell RB, Madani A. LINKFLOW, a water ow computer model
scenarios. J Hydrol 2010;385:13242. for water table management: part 2. Model verication. Trans ASAE 1997a;40:
Connell LD. Simple models for subsurface solute transport that combine unsaturated and 153942.
saturated zone pathways. J Hydrol 2007;332:36173. Havard PL, Prasher SO, Bonnell RB, Madani A. LINKFLOW, a water ow computer model for
Dai T, Labadie JW. River basin network model for integrated water quantity/quality man- water table management: part 3. Model application. Trans ASAE 1997b;40:15437.
agement. J Water Resour Plan Manag ASCE 2001;127:295305. Helweig TG, Madramootoo CA, Dodds GT. Modeling nitrate losses in drainage water using
Dams J, Dujardin J, Reggers R, Bashir I, Canters F, Batelaan O. Mapping impervious surface DRAINMOD 5.0. Agric Water Manag 2002;56:15368.
change from remote sensing for hydrological modeling. J Hydrol 2013;485:8495. Hendricks Franssen HJ, Brunner P, Makobo P, Kinzelbach W. Equally likely inverse solu-
Dar IA, Sankar K, Dar MA. Remote sensing technology and geographic information system tions to a groundwater ow problem including pattern information from remote
modeling: an integrated approach towards the mapping of groundwater potential sensing images. Water Resour Res 2008;44:W01419.
zones in Hardrock terrain, Mamundiyar basin. J Hydrol 2010;394:28595. Herzog LB, Larson DR, Abert CC, Wilson DS, Roadcap SG. Hydrostratigraphic modeling of a
Das A, Datta B. Application of optimization techniques in groundwater quantity and qual- complex, glacial-drift aquifer system for importation into MODFLOW. Ground Water
ity management. Sadhana 2001;26(4):293316. 2003;41(1):5765.
Dawoud M, Darwish M, El-Kady M. GIS-based groundwater management model for Hill BM. Use of a numerical model for management of shallow groundwater levels in the
Western Nile Delta. Water Resour Manag 2005;19(5):585604. Yuma, Arizona area. Ground Water 1996;34:397404.
de Ridder NA, Erez EOptimum use of water resources, IILRI, The Netherlands, publication Hinaman KC. Use of a geographic information system to assemble input-data sets for a
no. 21; 1976. p. 250. nite difference model of ground-water ow. J Am Water Resour Assoc 1993;
Depaz JM, Delgado JA, Ramos C, Shaffer MJ, Barbarick KK. Use of a new GIS nitrogen index 29(3):4015.
assessment tool for evaluation of nitrate leaching across a Mediterranean region. J Hiscock KM, Rivett MO, Davison RM. Sustainable groundwater development. In: Hiscock
Hydrol 2009;365:18394. KM, Rivett MO, Davison RM, editors. Sustainable groundwater development,
Din MMN, King IP, Tangi KK. Salinity management model: II applications. J Irrig Drain Eng Geological Society. London: Special Publications; 2002. p. 114.
ASCE 1987;113:45468. Hoffman GJ, Durnford DS. Drainage design for salinity control. In: Skaggs RW, van
Duan QY, Sorooshian S, Gupta V. Effective and efcient global optimization for conceptual Schilfgaarde J, editors. Agricultural drainage. Agronomy no.: 38. American Society of
rainfallrunoff models. Water Resour Res 1992;28(4):101531. Agronomy; 1999. p. 579614.
D'Urso G, Menenti M, Santini A. Regional application of one-dimensional water ow Hossain S, Hoque MM, Ahmed MU. Application of rainfall-runoff model NAM in the
models for irrigation management. Agric Water Manag 1999;40:291302. northwest region of Bangladesh. J Irrig Eng Rural Plan 1994;38:308.
Fayer MJ, Gee GW, Rockhold ML, Freshey MD, Walters TB. Estimating recharge rates for a Howard KWF, Maier H. Road de-icing salt as a potential constraint on urban growth in the
groundwater model using a GIS. J Environ Qual 1996;25:5108. Greater Toronto Area, Canada. J Contam Hydrol 2007;91:14670.
Feddes RA, Kowalik PJ, Zaradny H. Simulation of eld water use and crop yield. Humphreys E, Lewin LG, Khan S, Beecher HG, Lacy JM, Thompson JA, et al. Integration of
The Netherlands: Wageningen Center for Agric. and Documentation, Wageningen; approaches to increasing water use efciency in rice-based systems in southeast
1978. Australia. Field Crop Res 2006;97:1933.
 A. Singh / Science of the Total Environment 499 (2014) 414423 421

Hunt RJ. Ground water modeling applications using the analytic element method. Ground Leblanc M, Favreau G, Tweed S, Leduc C, Razack M, Mofor L. Remote sensing for ground-
Water 2006;44(1):515. water modelling in large semiarid areas: Lake Chad Basin, Africa. Hydrogeol J 2007;
Hunt RJ, Anderson MP, Kelson VA. Improving a complex nite-difference ground water 15:97100.
ow model through the use of an analytic element screening model. Ground Water Lee CH, Cheng RT. On seawater encroachment in coastal aquifers. Water Resour Res 1974;
1998;36:10117. 10:103943.
Ireson A, Makropolos C, Maksimovic C. Water resources modelling under data scarcity: Lerner DN, Kumar PB. Dening the catchment of a borehole in an unconsolidated valley
coupling MIKE BASIN and ASM groundwater model. Water Resour Manag 2006;20: aquifer with limited data. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 1991;24:32331.
56790. Li HT, Kinzelbach W, Brunner P, Li WP, Dong XG. Topography representation methods for
Izbicki JA, Stamos CL, Nishikawa T, Martin P. Comparison of groundwater ow model improving evaporation simulation in groundwater modelling. J Hydrol 2008;356:
particle-tracking results and isotopic data in the Mojave River ground-water basin, 199208.
southern California, USA. J Hydrol 2004;292:3047. Li HT, Brunner P, Kinzelbach W, Li WP, Dong XG. Calibration of a groundwater model
Jackson TJ. Remote sensing of soil moisture: implications for groundwater recharge. using pattern information from remote sensing data. J Hydrol 2009;377:12030.
Hydrogeol J 2002;10(1):4051. Mandare AB, Ambast SK, Tyagi NK, Singh J. On-farm water management in saline ground-
Jhorar RK, Smit AAMFR, Roest CWJ. Assessment of alternative water management options water area under scarce canal water supply condition in the Northwest India. Agric
for irrigated agriculture. Agric Water Manag 2009;96:97581. Water Manag 2008;95:51626.
Kampf SK, Burges SJ. Parameter estimation for a physics-based distributed hydrologic McFarlane DJ, Williamson DR. An overview of water logging and salinity in southwestern
model using measured outow uxes and internal moisture states. Water Resour Australia as related to the Ucarro experimental catchment. Agric Water Manag
Res 2007;43(12):W12414. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006WR005605. 2002;53:529.
Kamra SK, Singh SR, Rao KVGK, van Genuchten MT. A semi-discrete model for water and Meijerink AMJ. Remote sensing applications to hydrology: groundwater. Hydrol Sci J
solute movement in tile-drained soils. 1. Governing equations and solution. Water 1996;41:54961.
Resour Res 1991a;27:243947. Michael HA, Voss CI. Evaluation of the sustainability of deep groundwater as an arsenic-
Kamra SK, Singh SR, Rao KVGK, van Genuchten MT. A semi-discrete model for water and safe resource in the Bengal Basin. PNAS 2008;105:85316.
solute movement in tile-drained soils. 2. Field validation. Water Resour Res 1991b; Michaud J, Sorooshian S. Comparison of simple versus complex distributed runoff models
27:244956. on a mid-sized semiarid watershed. Water Resour Res 1994;30(3):593605.
Kasahara T, Hill AR. Hyporheic exchange ows induced by constructed rifes and steps in Mylopoulos N, Mylopoulos Y, Tolikas D, Veranis N. Groundwater modelling and manage-
lowland streams in southern Ontario, Canada. Hydrol Process 2006;20:4287305. ment in a complex lake-aquifer system. Water Resour Manag 2007;21(2):46994.
Kashaigili JJ, Mashauri DA, Abdo G. Groundwater management by using mathematical Nathan RJ, Mudgway LB. Estimating salt loads in high water table areas II: regional salt
modeling: case of the Makutupora groundwater basin in dodoma Tanzania. Botsw J loads. J Irrig Drain Eng ASCE 1997;123:919.
Technol 2003;12(1):1924. Neteler M, Mitasova H. Open Source GIS: A GRASS GIS approach. The Kluwer International
Kelleners TJ, Beekma J, Chaudhry MR. Spatially variable soil hydraulic properties for Series in Engineering and Computer Science. 2nd ed. Boston, Dordrecht: Kluwer
simulation of eld scale solute transport in the unsaturated zone. Geoderma 1999; Academic Publishers; 2004. p. 424.
92:199215. Noory H, van der Zee SEATM, Liaghat A-M, Parsinejad M, van Dam JC. Distributed agro-
Kemna A, Vanderborght J, Kulessa B, Vereecken H. Imaging and characterisation of sub- hydrological modeling with SWAP to improve water and salt management of the
surface solute transport using electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and equivalent Voshmgir Irrigation and Drainage Network in Northern Iran. Agric Water Manag
transport models. J Hydrol 2002;267:12546. 2011;98:106270.
Khakbaz B, Imam B, Hsu K, Sorooshian S. From lumped to distributed via semi- Ogden FL, Julien PY. Runoff model sensitivity to radar rainfall resolution. J Hydrol 1994;
distributed: calibration strategies for semi-distributed hydrologic models. J Hydrol 158:118.
2012;418419:6177. Oosterbaan RJ. SAHYSMOD (version 1.7a): description of principles, user manual and case
Khan S. Equivalent cropping area and whole farm water balance approaches to reduce net studies. The Netherlands: International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improve-
recharge to shallow saline groundwater from rice based cropping systems. Paddy ment, Wageningen; 2005. p. 140.
Water Environ 2007;5:14352. Oosterbaan RJ, Abu Senna M. Using SaltMod to predict drainage and salinity in the Nile
Khouri N. Potential of dry-drainage for controlling soil salinity. Can J Civ Eng 1998;25: Deltas. Annual report, ILRI, Wageningen, The Netherlands; 1989. p. 6374.
195205. Oosterbaan RJ, de Lima P. SaltMod manual. International Institute for Land Reclamation
Kim NW, Chung IM, Won YS, Arnold JG. Development and application of the integrated and Improvement. The Netherlands: Wageningen; 1989.
SWATMODFLOW model. J Hydrol 2008;356:116. Oster JD, Wichelns D. Economic and agronomic strategies to achieve sustainable
Kitamura Y, Yano T, Honna T, Yamamoto S, Inosako K. Causes of farmland salinization and irrigation. Irrig Sci 2003;22:10720.
remedial measures in the Aral Sea basinresearch on water management to prevent Padilla A, Pulido-Bosch A. Study of hydrographs of karst aquifers by means of correlation
secondary salinization in rice-based cropping system in arid land. Agric Water Manag and cross-spectral analysis. J Hydrol 1995;168:7389.
2006;85:114. Palma HC, Bentley LR. A regional-scale groundwater ow model for the LeonChinandega
Kite G, Droogers P. Comparing evapotranspiration estimates from satellites, hydrological aquifer, Nicaragua. Hydrogeol J 2007;15:145772.
models and eld data. J Hydrol 2000;229:318. Pinder GF, Cooper Jr HH. A numerical technique for calculating the transient position of
Kite GW, Pietroniro A. Remote sensing applications in hydrology. Hydrol Sci 1996;41: the saltwater front. Water Resour Res 1970;6:87580.
56392. Pint CD, Hunt RJ, Anderson MJ. Flowpath delineation and ground water age, Allequash
Kolm KE. Conceptualization and characterization of ground-water systems using Basin, Wisconsin. Ground Water 2003;41:895902.
geographic information systems. Eng Geol 1996;42(23):1118. Pisinaras V, Petalas C, Tsihrintzis VA, Zagana E. A groundwater ow model for water re-
Konikow LF, Bredehoeft JD. Ground water models cannot be validated. Adv Water Resour sources management in the Ismarida plain, North Greece. Environmental Modeling
1992;15:7583. and Assessment, 12. Springer; 2007. p. 7589.
Konikow LF, Kendy E. Groundwater depletion: a global problem. Hydrogeol J 2005;13(1): Plummer LN, Bexeld LM, Anderholm SK, Sanford WE, Busenberg E. Hydrochemical
31720. tracers in the middle Rio Grande Basin, USA: 1. Conceptualization of groundwater
Konukcu F, Gowing JW, Rose DA. Dry drainage: a sustainable solution to waterlogging and ow. Hydrogeol J 2004;12:35988.
salinity problems in irrigation areas. Agric Water Manag 2006;83:112. Poeter E. All models are wrong, how do we know which are useful? Ground Water 2007;
Koren V, Reed S, Smith M, Zhang Z, Seo D-J. Hydrology laboratory research modeling 45:3901.
system (HL-RMS) of the U.S. national weather service. J Hydrol 2004;291(34): Poeter EP, Hill MC. Inverse models: a necessary next step in ground-water ow modeling.
297318. Ground Water 1997;35:25060.
Krajewski WF, Lakshmi V, Georgakakos KP, Jain SC. A Monte Carlo study of rainfall Querner EP. Description of a regional groundwater ow model SIMGRO and some
sampling effect on a distributed catchment model. Water Resour Res 1991;27(1): applications. Agric Water Manag 1988;14:20918.
11928. Querner EP. Description and application of the combined surface and groundwater ow
Kroes JG, van Dam JC, Huygen J, Vervoort RW. User's guide of SWAP version 2.0. Simula- model MOGROW. J Hydrol 1997;192:15888.
tion of water ow, solute transport and plant growth in the soilwateratmosphere Querner EP, Mora'bito JA, Manzanera M, Pazos J, Ciancaglini N, Menenti M. The use of hy-
plant environment. Technical document 48, Alterra Green World Research, drological models in the irrigated areas of Mendoza. Argentina. Agric Water Manag
Wageningen, report 81, Department of Water Resources, Wageningen University 1997;35:1128.
and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands; 1999. p. 127. Querner EP, Jansen PC, van den Akker JJH, Kwakernaak C. Analysing water level strategies
Kumar R, Singh J. Regional water management modeling for decision support in irrigated to reduce soil subsidence in Dutch peat meadows. J Hydrol 2012;446447:5969.
agriculture. J Irrig Drain Eng ASCE 2003;129:4329. Qureshi AS, Turral H, Masih I. Strategies for the management of conjunctive use of surface
Kunkel R, Wendland F. The GROWA98 model for water balance analysis in large river ba- water and groundwater resources in semi-arid areas: a case study from Pakistan. Re-
sinsthe river Elbe case study. J Hydrol 2002;259:15262. search report 86, International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka. In:
Kupper E, Querner EP, Morabito JA, Menenti M. Using the SIMGRO regional hydrological van Dam JC, Malik RS, editors. Water productivity of irrigated crops in Sirsa district,
model to evaluate salinity control measures in an irrigation area. Agric Water Manag India: integration of remote sensing, crop and soil models and geographical informa-
2002;56:115. tion Systems. WATPRO nal report; 2003. [173 pp.].
Lamsal K, Paudyal GN, Saeed M. Model for assessing impact of salinity on soil water Raes D. UPFLOW-water movement in a soil prole from a shallow water table to the top-
availability and crop yield. Agric Water Manag 1999;41:5770. soil, reference manual version 3.2. Belgium: Department of Earth and Environmental
Leblanc M, Leduc C, Razack M, Lemoalle J, Dagorne D, Mofor L. Application of remote sens- Sciences, K.U.Leuven University; 2009.
ing and GIS for groundwater modelling of large semiarid areas: example of the Lake Raes D, Deproost P. Model to assess water movement from a shallow water table to the
Chad Basin, Africa. In: Servat E, Najem W, Leduc C, Shakeel A, editors. Hydrology of root zone. Agric Water Manag 2003;62:7991.
Mediterranean and semiarid regions. Wallingford, UK: IAHS Publ. 278, IAHS; 2003. Ramasesha CS. Groundwater simulation for assessing waterlogged areas in northwest
p. 18692. India. In: Gupta, et al, editors. Salinity Management in Agriculture, Proceedings of
422 A. Singh / Science of the Total Environment 499 (2014) 414423

the National Conference. Karnal, India: CSSRI; 1998. p. 17581. [December 25, 1998 Singh A. Development and application of a watertable model for the assessment of
held at]. waterlogging in irrigated semi-arid regions. Water Resour Manag 2012b;26(15):
Rao VV, Sarma PBS. Regional groundwater modelling using nite element method: a case 443548.
study. Proceedings of Session III, International Conference on Hydrology and Water Singh A. Validation of SaltMod for a semi-arid part of northwest India and some options
Resources. The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 1993. for control of waterlogging. Agric Water Manag 2012c;115:194202.
Rao KVGK, Ramesh G, Chauhan HS, Oosterbaan RJ. Salt and water balance studies to eval- Singh A. Groundwater modelling for the assessment of water management alternatives. J
uate remedial measures for waterlogged saline irrigated soils. Proc. 5th Int. Drainage Hydrol 2013;481:2209.
Workshop, Lahore, Pakistan ICID & CHD II; 1992. p. 26777. Singh J, Kumar R. Drainage disposal and reuse simulation in canal irrigated areas in
Rao KVGK, Oosterbaan RJ, Boonstra J. Regional agro-hydro-salinity model. In: Rao, et al, Haryana. Irrig Drain Syst 1998;12:122.
editors. Reclamation and management of waterlogged saline soils, national seminar Singh A, Panda SN. Effect of saline irrigation water on mustard (Brassica Juncea) crop
proceedings. Hisar, India: CSSRI, Karnal and CCSHAU; 1995. p. 30311. [April 58, yield and soil salinity in a semi-arid area of North India. Exp Agric 2012a;48(1):
1994]. 99110.
Reed S, Koren V, Smith M, Zhang Z, Moreda F, Seo DJ. Overall distributed model intercom- Singh A, Panda SN. Integrated salt and water balance modelling for the management of
parison project results. J Hydrol 2004;298(14):2760. waterlogging and salinization. 1: validation of SAHYSMOD. J Irrig Drain Eng ASCE
Refsgaard JS, Knudsen J. Operational validation and intercomparison of different types of 2012b;138(11):95563.
hydrological models. Water Resour Res 1996;32(7):2189202. Singh A, Panda SN. Integrated salt and water balance modelling for the management of
Refsgaard JC, Thorsen M, Jensen JB, Kleeschulte S, Hansen S. Large scale modelling of waterlogging and salinization. 2: application of SAHYSMOD. J Irrig Drain Eng ASCE
groundwater contamination from nitrate leaching. J Hydrol 1999;221:11740. 2012c;138(11):96471.
Ritzema HP, Satyanarayana TV, Raman S, Boonstra J. Subsurface drainage to combat Singh A, Panda SN. Optimization and simulation modelling for managing the problems of
waterlogging and salinity in irrigated lands in India: lessons learned in farmers' elds. water resources. Water Resour Manag 2013;27(9):342131.
Agric Water Manag 2008;95:17989. Singh VP, Woolhiser DA. Mathematical modeling of watershed hydrology. J Hydrol Eng
Roaza H, Roaza RM, Jeffry RW. Integrating geographic information systems in groundwa- 2002;7(4):27092.
ter applications using numerical modelling techniques. Water Resour Bull 1993; Singh R, Sondhi SK, Singh J, Kumar R. A groundwater model for simulating the rise of
29(4):84760. water table under irrigated conditions. J Hydrol 1984;71:16579.
Rodell M, Velicogna I, Famiglietti JS. Satellite based estimates of groundwater depletion in Singh M, Bhattacharya AK, Nair TVR, Singh AK. Nitrogen losses through subsurface
India. Nature 2009;460:9991002. drainage efuent in coastal rice elds from India. Agric Water Manag 2002a;52:
Rubin H. On the application of the boundary layer approximation for simulation of 24960.
density stratied ows in aquifers. Adv Water Resour 1983;6:96105. Singh M, Bhattacharya AK, Singh AK, Singh A. Application of SaltMod in coastal clay soils
Sakthivadivel R, Thiruvengadachari S, Amerasinghe U, Bastiaanssen WGM, Molden D. Per- in India. Irrig Drain Syst 2002b;16:21331.
formance evaluation of the Bhakra irrigation system, India, using remote sensing and Singh R, Helmers MJ, Zhiming Q. Calibration and validation of DRAINMOD to design sub-
GIS techniques. Research report no. 28. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water surface drainage systems for Iowa's tile landscapes. Agric Water Manag 2006a;85:
Management Institute; 1999. p. 32. 221332.
Sanford WE, Pope JP. Current challenges using models to forecast seawater intrusion: les- Singh R, Kroes G, van Dam JC, Feddes RA. Distributed ecohydrological modelling to
sons from the Eastern Shore of Virginia, USA. Hydrogeol J 2010;18:7393. evaluate the performance of irrigation systems in Sirsa district. India I: current
Sanford WE, Plummer LN, McAda DP, Bexeld LM, Anderholm SK. Hydrochemical tracers water management and its productivity. J Hydrol 2006b;329:692713.
in the middle Rio Grande Basin, USA: 2. Calibration of a groundwater-ow model. Singh A, Krause P, Panda SN, Flugel WA. Rising water table: a threat to sustainable agricul-
Hydrogeol J 2004;12:389407. ture in an irrigated semi-arid region of Haryana, India. Agric Water Manag 2010;
Sarangi A, Singh M, Bhattacharya AK, Singh AK. Subsurface drainage performance study 97(10):144351.
using SaltMod and ANN models. Agric Water Manag 2006;84:2408. Singh A, Panda SN, Flugel W-A, Krause P. Waterlogging and farmland salinisation: caused
Sauerwein H. Numerical calculations of multidimensional and unsteady ows by the and remedial measures in an irrigated semi-arid region of India. Irrig Drain 2012;
method of characteristics. J Comput Phys 1967;1:40632. 61(3):35765.
Schmid T, Koch M, Gumuzzio J. Multisensor approach to determine changes of wetland Skaggs RW. Field evaluation of a water management simulation model. Trans ASAE 1982;
characteristics in semiarid environments (central Spain). IEEE Trans Geosci Remote 25:66674.
Sens 2005;43(11):251625. Smets SMP, Kuper M, van Dam JC, Feddes RA, Hamdy A. Modelling the effect of irrigation
Segol G, Pinder GF. Transient simulation of saltwater intrusion in Florida. Water Resour on salinity and crop transpiration for current irrigation practices in Pakistan's Punjab.
Res 1976;12:6570. CIHEAM International Conference, Valenzano, Bari, Italy, 2226 September 1997;
Segol G, Pinder GF, Gray WG. A Glarkin nite element technique for calculating the tran- 1997. p. 22953.
sient position of seawater front. Water Resour Res 1975;11:3437. Smith MB, Seo D-J, Koren VI, Reed SM, Zhang Z, Duan Q, et al. The distributed model in-
Shah T. The groundwater economy of South Asia: an assessment of size, signicance and tercomparison project (DMIP): motivation and experiment design. J Hydrol 2004;
socio-ecological impacts. In: Giordano M, Villholth KG, editors. The agricultural 298(14):426.
groundwater revolution: opportunities and threats to development. Oxfordshire: Sondhi SK, Rao NH, Sarma PBS. Assessment of groundwater potential for conjunctive
CABI; 2007. p. 736. water use in a large irrigation project in India. J Hydrol 1989;107:28395.
Shah SMS, O'Connell PE, Hosking JRM. Modelling the effects of spatial variability in rainfall Sondhi SK, Kaushal MP, Panesar PS. Computer simulation model for groundwater basins.
on catchment response, 2, experiments with distributed and lumped models. J Bull. PAU/1996/T/609/E. New Delhi: PAU, Ludhiana and ICAR; 1996. p. 55.
Hydrol 1996;175:89111. Sophocleous M. Review: groundwater management practices, challenges, and innova-
Shamir V, Dagan G. Motion of the seawater interface in coastal aquifers: a numerical tions in the High Plains aquifer, USA-lessons and recommended actions. Hydrogeol
solution. Water Resour Res 1971;7:64457. J 2010;18(3):55975.
Sharma BR. Regional salt and water balance modelling for sustainable irrigated agricul- Sophocleous M, Perkins SP. Methodology and application of combined watershed and
ture. Agric Water Manag 1999;40:12934. ground-water models in Kansas. J Hydrol 2000;236:185201.
Sherif M, Kacimov A, Javadi A, Ebraheem AZ. Modeling groundwater ow and seawater Sophocleous MA, Koelliker JK, Govindaraju RS, Birdie T, Ramireddygari SR, Perkins SP.
intrusion in the coastal aquifer of Wadi Ham, UAE. Water Resour Manag 2012;26: Integrated numerical modeling for basin-wide water management: the case of the
75174. Rattlesnake Creek basin in south-central Kansas. J Hydrol 1999;214:17996.
Simunek J, Suarez DL, Sejna M. UNSATCHEM software package for simulating the one- Sorooshian S, Gupta VK. Model calibration. In: Singh VP, editor. Computer models of
dimensional variably saturated water ow, heat transport, carbon dioxide production watershed hydrology. Colorado 80126-0026, USA: Water Resources Publication,
and transport, and multi component solute transport with major ion equilibrium and Highlands Ranch; 1995. p. 2368.
kinetic chemistry, Version 2. Research report no. 141, U.S. Salinity Laboratory, ARS, Srinivasulu A. Salt and water balance modeling of the data from Konanki pilot area.
USDA, Riverside, California 186; 1996. Deputation report on collaborative research carried out at ILRI, Wageningen.
Simunek J, Sejna M, Van Genuchten MTh. HYDRUS 1D-software package for simulating New Delhi, India: The Netherlands submitted to the Government of India;
the one-dimensional movement of water, heat and multiple solutes in variable 2002. p. 23.
saturated-media. Colorado, USA: International Ground Water Modeling Center, Colo- Srinivasulu A, Rao CS, Lakshmi GV, Satyanarayana TV, Boonstra J. Model studies on salt
rado School of Mines, Golden; 1998. p. 162. and water balances at Konanki pilot area, Andhra Pradesh, India. Irrig Drain Syst
Simunek J, Jarvis NC, van Genuchten MT, Gardenas A. Review and comparison of models 2004;18:117.
for describing non-equilibrium and preferential ow and transport in the vadose Srinivasulu A, Satyanarayana TV, Hemakumar HV. Subsurface drainage in a pilot area in
zone. J Hydrol 2003;272:1435. Nagarjuna Sagar right canal command, India. Irrig Drain Syst 2005;19:6170.
Sinai G, Jain PK. Evaluation of DRAINMOD for predicting water table heights in irrigated Stisen S, McCabe MF, Refsgaard JC, Lerer S, Butts MB. Model parameter analysis using re-
elds at the Jordan Valley. Agric Water Manag 2006;79:13759. motely sensed pattern information in a multi-constraint framework. J Hydrol 2011;
Singh R. Simulations on direct and cyclic use of saline waters for sustaining cotton- 409:33749.
wheat in a semi-arid area of northwest India. Agric Water Manag 2004;66: Storey RG, Howard KWF, Williams DD. Factors controlling rife-scale hyporheic exchange
15362. ows and their seasonal changes in a gaining stream: a three-dimensional ground-
Singh A. Decision support for on-farm water management and long-term agricultural water ow model. Water Resour Res 2003;39:1034. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/
sustainability in a semi-arid region of India. J Hydrol 2010;391(12):6376. 2002WR001367.
Singh A. Estimating long-term regional groundwater recharge for the evaluation of poten- Ting CS, Zhou Y, de Vries JJ, Simmers I. Development of a preliminary groundwater ow
tial solution alternatives to waterlogging and salinisation. J Hydrol 2011;406(34): model for water resources management in the Pingtung Plain, Taiwan. Ground
24555. Water 1998;36(1):2036.
Singh A. Optimal allocation of resources for the maximization of net agricultural return. J Tracy FT. l-D, 2-D, and 3-D analytical solutions of unsaturated ow in groundwater. J
Irrig Drain Eng ASCE 2012a;138(9):8306. Hydrol 1995;170:199214.
 A. Singh / Science of the Total Environment 499 (2014) 414423 423

Troutman BM. Runoff prediction errors and bias in parameter estimation induced by Voss CI. SUTRA. A nite element simulation model for saturatedunsaturated uid
spatial variability of precipitation. Water Resour Res 1983;19(3):791810. density dependent groundwater ow with energy transport or chemically reactive
Trowsdale SA, Lerner DN. Implications of ow patterns in the sandstone aquifer beneath single species transport. US Geol Surv Water Res Investig 1984:409.
the mature conurbation of Nottingham (UK) for source protection. Q J Eng Geol Wang HF, Anderson MP. Introduction to groundwater modeling: nite difference and
Hydrogeol 2003;36:197206. nite element methods. New York: W.H. Freeman & Co; 1982. p. 237.
Trowsdale SA, Lerner DN. A modelling approach to determine the origin of urban ground Wang Y, Xiao D, Li Y, Li X. Soil salinity evolution and its relationship with dynamics of
water. J Contam Hydrol 2007;91:17183. groundwater in the oasis of inland river basins: case study from the Fubei region of
Tsihrintzis VA, Hamid R, Fuentes HR. Use of geographic information systems (GIS) in Xinjiang Province, China. Environ Monit Assess 2008;140:291302.
water resources: a review. Water Resour Manag 1996;10:2517. Weissmann GS, Zhang Y, LaBolle EM, Fogg GE. Dispersion of ground water age in an allu-
Tuteja NK, Beale G, Dawes W, Vaze J, Murphy B, Barnett P, et al. Predicting the effects of vial aquifer system. Water Resour Res 2002;38(10):1198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/
land use change on water and salt balance a case study of a catchment affected 2001WR000907.
by dryland salinity in NSW, Australia. J Hydrol 2003;283:6790. Werner AD, Bakker M, Post VEA, Vandenbohede A, Lu C, Ataie-Ashtiani B, et al. Seawater
Tyagi NK. Optimal water management strategies for salinity control. J Irrig Drain Eng intrusion processes, investigation and management: recent advances and future chal-
ASCE 1986;112:817. lenges. Adv Water Resour 2013;51:326.
Tyagi NK, Tyagi KC, Pillai NN, Willardson LS. Decision support for irrigation system im- Williams WD. Salinization of rivers and streams: an important environmental hazard.
provement in saline environment. Agric Water Manag 1993;23:285301. Ambio 1987;16:1805.
Tyson HN, Weber EM. Use of electronic computer in the simulation of dynamic behaviour Wilson CB, Valdes JB, Rodriquez-Iturbe I. On the inuence of the spatial distribution of
of groundwater basin. Proc. ASCE Water Resources Conference, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, rainfall on storm runoff. Water Resour Res 1979;15(2):3218.
USA; 1964. Wondzell SM, LaNier J, Haggerty R. Evaluation of alternative groundwater ow models for
United Nations. World Population Prospects: 2012 Revision Population Database online. simulating hyporheic exchange in a small mountain stream. J Hydrol 2009;364(12):
http://www.un.org/esa/population/unpop.htm, 2012. [accessed on 19th July 2013]. 14251.
Upadhyaya A, Chauhan HS. Water table rise in sloping aquifer due to canal seepage and Workman SR, Skaggs RW. Comparison of two drainage simulation models using eld
constant recharge. J Irrig Drain Eng ASCE 2002;128:1607. data. Trans ASAE 1989;32:19338.
Water productivity of irrigated crops in Sirsa district, India: integration of remote sensing, Wu JC, Hu BX, Zhang DX, Shirley C. A three-dimensional numerical method of moments
crop and soil models and geographical information systems. In: van Dam JC, Malik RS, for groundwater ow and solute transport in a nonstationary conductivity eld.
editors. WATPRO nal report; 2003. [173 pp]. Adv Water Resour 2003;26(11):114969.
van Dam JC, Huygen J, Wesseling JG, Feddes RA, Kabat P, van Walsum PEV, et al. Theory of Xu X, Huang G, Qu Z, Pereira LS. Using MODFLOW and GIS to assess changes in ground-
SWAP version 2.0. Simulation of water ow, solute transport and plant growth in the water dynamics in response to water saving measures in irrigation districts of the
soilwateratmosphereplant environment. Report 71, sub department of Water upper Yellow River basin. Water Resour Manag 2011;25(8):203559.
Resources, Wageningen University, Technical document 45, Alterra Green World Xu X, Huang G, Zhan H, Qu Z, Huang Q. Integration of SWAP and MODFLOW-2000 for
Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands; 1997. p. 167. modeling groundwater dynamics in shallow water table areas. J Hydrol 2012;
van Dam JC, Singh R, Bessembinder JJE, Leffelaar PA, Bastiaanssen WGM, Jhorar RK, et al. 412413:17081.
Assessing options to increase water productivity in irrigated river basins using Yang C-C, Chang L-C, Chen C-S, Yeh M-S. Multi-objective planning for conjunctive use of
remote sensing and modeling tools. Int J Water Resour Dev 2006;22:11533. surface and subsurface water using genetic algorithm and dynamics programming.
van Walsum PEV, Veldhuizen AA. Integration of models using shared state variables: Im- Water Resour Manag 2009a;23:41737.
plementation in the regional hydrologic modelling system SIMGRO. J Hydrol 2011; Yang ZP, Lu WX, Long YQ, Li P. Application and comparison of two prediction models for
409(12):36370. groundwater levels: a case study in Western Jilin Province, China. J Arid Environ
Vanderborght J, Kasteel R, Herbst M, Javaux M, Thiery D, Vanclooster M, et al. A set of an- 2009b;73(45):48792.
alytical benchmarks to test numerical models of ow and transport in soils. Vadose Zhang ZY, Koren V, Smith M, Reed S, Wang D. Use of next generation weather radar data
Zone J 2005;4:20621. and basin disaggregation to improve continuous hydrograph simulations. J Hydrol
Vanegas Chacon EA. Using SaltMod to predict desalinization in the Leziria Grande Polder, Eng 2004;9(2):10315.
Portugal [M.Sc. Thesis] The Netherlands: Wageningen Agricultural University; 1993. Zhang L, Potter N, Hickel K, Zhang Y, Shao Q. Water balance modeling over variable time
p. 1174. scales based on the Budyko framework model development and testing. J Hydrol
Varni M, Carrera J. Simulation of groundwater age distributions. Water Resour Res 1998; 2008;360:11731.
34:327181. Zhao X, Fritzel TLB, Quinodoz HAM, Bethke CM, Torgersen T. Controls on the distribution and
Vermulst JAPH, De Lange WJ. An analytic-based approach for coupling models for unsat- isotopic composition of helium in deep ground-water ows. Geology 1998;26:2914.
urated and saturated groundwater ow at different scales. J Hydrol 1999;226: Zhu Y, Shi L, Yang J, Wu J, Mao D. Coupling methodology and application of a fully inte-
26273. grated model for contaminant transport in the subsurface system. J Hydrol 2013;
Verruijit A. Solution of transient groundwater ow problems by the nite dement meth- 501:5672.
od. Water Resour Res 1972;8:7257.