Human Security and Civil Society

Concepts and Implications in Dark Continent

Dr. Rakesh Kumar
1
2
Dedicated
to
My Parents
3
4
My present dissertation work is my earnest approach towards
perfection and it would not have been possible without the
admirable support, kind co-operation, and active participation of my
teachers, friends and well wishers who have made this research
work a reality.

I am extremely grateful to my respected supervisor Dr. A. .
!aringum whose able guidance, intellectual ingenuity and avid
suggestion helped me in completing this academic exercise.
I am also indebted to all the faculty members of our Department
who shaped my thought and knowledge. I also got support from Dr.
"ribhuwn #rasad, Dr. uresh $umar, Dr. %ashmi $apoor and all the
faculty members of our department. I am also thankful to our
Department sta& for their cooperation.
May 'od relieve my parents( pain that shaped my destination in a
positive direction without whose support it would not have been
possible for me to arrive at this highest centre of excellence.
I am thankful to all sta& of Delhi )niversity *ibrary, +awaharlal
,ehru )niversity *ibrary, Indian -ouncil of .orld A&airs and
Institute of Defence tudies and Analysis /IDA0 library, without
whose support this work would not have been completed.

I am thankful to my Abhishek, hailesh, Dharmendra, Dibya,
Arshad, %a1endra, Duregsh, ankar, Ashok, %obinson, $anhiya, who
always extended all kinds of support in every possible way in my
endeavour to complete this work.
2aving been privileged in receiving such love and support, I own
responsibility for all the errors or omissions that might have crept
into the work.

Dr. %akesh $umar
5


6
CONTENTS

Chapter Pae No

!. "ntroduction !!#$%
&. "ntroduction o' Human Security and Civil Society $!#((
$. Human Security and Civil Society in )'rica (*#!&(
+. Human Security and Civil Society in ,ots-ana !&*#!*.
/. Human Security as Human Development in ,ots-ana !*0#&%+
(. Conclusion &%/#&!!
7
8
1ist o' )22reviations
ADF------------------Allied Democratic Forces (Uganda)
AGOA --------------Arican Gro!t" and O##ort$nit% Act
A&'( ----------------Arican &$man 'ec$rit% (nitiati)e
A*+, ---------------Arican *eer +e)ie! ,ec"anism
AU -------------------Arican Union
-A.A----------------ots!ana Ad$lt .d$cation Association
--D/----------------o0onong -rigades De)elo#ment /r$st
-11------------------ots!ana 1"ristian 1o$ncil
-1D------------------ots!ana 1o$ncil or t"e Disa0led
-F/U----------------ots!ana Federation o /rade Union
-GGA---------------ots!ana Girl G$ides Association
-231---------------ots!ana 2ational 3o$t" 1o$ncil
-O1A(*------------ots!ana 1"ristian A(D' (nter)ention *rogram
-O11(,-----------ots!ana 1onederation o 1ommerce4 (nd$str% and ,an#o!er
-O1O2GO--------ots!ana 1o$ncil o 2onGo)ernmental Organi5ations
-O2A'O-----------ots!ana 2et!or6 o A(D' 'er)ice Organi5ations
-O2.7A-----------ots!ana 2et!or6 on .t"ics4 7a! and &(89A(D'
-:O-----------------ots!ana :or6cam# Organi5ation
1O+D.------------1o-o#eration or +esearc"4 De)elo#ment and .d$cation
1+D.---------------1oo#erati)e or +esearc"4 De)elo#ment and .d$cation
1'&DO-----------1omm$nit% 'el-&el# De)elo#ment Organi5ation o -ots!ana
1'O -----------------1i)il 'ociet% Organisation
D1':--------------De#artment o 1$lt$re and 'ocial :elare
DF(D ---------------De#artment or (nternational De)elo#ment (U;)
D+1 ----------------Democratic +e#$0lic o 1ongo
.-:A--------------.mang -asadi :omen<s Association
.1O:A' ---------.conomic 1omm$nit% o :est Arican 'tates
FO2'AG----------For$m on '$staina0le Agric$lt$re
(1+1 ---------------(nternational 1ommittee o t"e +ed 1ross
(GAD ---------------(ntergo)ernmental A$t"orit% on De)elo#ment
;-D/--------------;an%e -rigade De)elo#ment /r$st
;1'-----------------;ala"ari 1onser)ation 'ociet%
;D*----------------;$r$ De)elo#ment /r$st
=
7+A ----------------7ord<s +esistance Arm% (Uganda)
7U+D --------------7i0erians United or +econciliation and Democrac%
,FD*--------------,inistr% o Finance and De)elo#ment *lanning
,7&A--------------,inistr% o 7a0o$r and &ome Aairs
,OA----------------,inistr% o Agric$lt$re
,OD.7 ------------,o)ement or Democrac% in 7i0eria
,*1( ---------------,o)ement *atrioti>$e de 1?te d<()iore
,'F -----------------,edecins 'ans Fronti@res
,:(1---------------,et"aestsile :omen<s (normation 1entre
2A/O ---------------2ort" Atlantic /reat% Organisation
2D*-----------------2ational De)elo#ment *lan
2.*AD -------------2e! *artners"i# or Arica<s De)elo#ment
2GO -----------------2onGo)ernmental Organisation
ODA ----------------O)erseas De)elo#ment Assistance
*'(-------------------*o#$lation 'er)ices (nternational
+D1-----------------+$ral De)elo#ment 1o$ncil
+UF -----------------+e)ol$tionar% United Front
'AD1-12GO------'o$t"ern Arican De)elo#ment 1omm$nit% 1o$ncil
o 2onGo)ernmental Organisation
'*DF----------------'$dan *eo#le<s Deence Force
'*7,9A ------------'$dan *eo#le<s 7i0eration ,o)ement9Arm%
U2(/A --------------UniAo 2acional #ara a (nde#endBncia /otal de Angola
:F&-----------------:omen<s Finance &o$se
:21-----------------:omen<s 2GO 1oalition
3O&O---------------3o$t" &ealt" Organi5ation
CA2U(*F) ----------Cim0a0!e Arican 2ational Union *atriotic Front
1D
Chapter3 One
"ntroduction
11
12
"ntroduction
&$man 'ec$rit% is #o#$lari5ed 0% instit$tions s$c" as t"e United 2ation
De)elo#ment *rogramme (U2D*)4 0% t"e go)ernments o so called middle #o!ers
(1anada4 Ea#an and 2or!a%) and 0% a 2o0el *ri5e !inning academic s$c" as
Amart%a 'enF &$man sec$rit% conce#t4 rame!or64 area o st$d%4 or #olic% agenda
remains #oorl% consens$all% deined or delineatedF .ac" actor and academic
#roesses "is o!n deinition4 !"ic" leads +oland *aris to #roess t"at Gt"e content o
"$man sec$rit% reall% is in t"e e%e o t"e 0e"olderHF DrF ,a"0$0 $l &a> irst dre!
glo0al attention to t"e conce#t o "$man sec$rit% in t"e United 2ations De)elo#ment
*rogrammeIs 1==4 &$man De)elo#ment +e#ort and so$g"t to inl$ence t"e U2Is
1==5 :orld '$mmit on 'ocial De)elo#ment in 1o#en"agenF /"e U2D*Is 1==4
&$man De)elo#ment +e#ortIs deinition o "$man sec$rit% arg$es t"at t"e sco#e o
glo0al sec$rit% s"o$ld 0e eJ#anded to incl$de t"reats in se)en areasK .conomic
sec$rit%4 Food 'ec$rit%4 &ealt" 'ec$rit%4 1omm$nit% 'ec$rit%4 *olitical 'ec$rit%4
.n)ironmental 'ec$rit%4 and *ersonal 'ec$rit% 4S. Neil 5ac6ralane and 7en 6oon
Khon8 &%%(9.
&$man sec$rit% is an emerging #aradigm or $nderstanding glo0al )$lnera0ilities
!"ose #ro#onents c"allenge t"e traditional notion o national sec$rit% 0% arg$ing t"at
t"e #ro#er reerent or sec$rit% s"o$ld 0e t"e indi)id$al rat"er t"an t"e stateF &$man
sec$rit% "olds t"at a #eo#le-centered )ie! o sec$rit% is necessar% or national4
regional and glo0al sta0ilit%F /"e conce#t emerged rom a #ost-1old :ar4 m$lti-
disci#linar% $nderstanding o sec$rit% in)ol)ing a n$m0er o researc" ields4
incl$ding de)elo#ment st$dies4 international relations4 strategic st$dies4 and "$man
rig"tsF /"e United 2ations De)elo#ment *rogrammeIs 1==4 &$man De)elo#ment
+e#ort is considered a milestone #$0lication in t"e ield o "$man sec$rit%4 !it" its
arg$ment t"at ins$ring Lreedom rom !antL and Lreedom rom earL or all #ersons
is t"e 0est #at" to tac6le t"e #ro0lem o glo0al insec$rit%F Fre>$entl% reerred to in a
!ide )ariet% o glo0al #olic% disc$ssions and sc"olarl% Mo$rnals4 "$man sec$rit% is
oten ta$g"t in $ni)ersities as #art o international relations4 glo0ali5ation4 or "$man
rig"ts st$diesF
&istoricall%4 t"e idea o ci)il societ% ta6es t!o )er% im#ortant ormsF (n t"e irst4 ci)il
societ% is #olitical comm$nit% encom#assing a state $ndierentiated rom societ%F
&ere4 ci)il societ% is cotermino$s !it" t"e stateN t"at is #o!er relations ordered
13
t"ro$g" la! and instit$tions !it" t"e o0Mecti)e o ens$ring social "armon%F (n t"e
second4 ci)il societ% is a sel reg$lating4 sel-go)erning 0od% o$tside and oten in
o##osition to t"e state4 re#resented 0ot" as t"e neJ$s o societal associations eJ#ected
to generated ci)ilit%4 social co"esion and moralit%4 and as t"e state o reci#rocal
economics relations among indi)id$als engaged in mar6et eJc"ange acti)it%F
1i)il societ% is not onl% one o t"e most im#ortant #illars or smoot" $nctioning o
#olitical s%stem o a co$ntr% 0$t it also #ro)ides energ% or )i0rant societ%F 1i)il
societ% in Arican continent is )er% !ea6 and in nascent stageF 1olonial regime in
Arica co$ld not gi)e s#ace or ci)il societ% to gro!F O$tside o Arica4 ci)il societ%
de)elo#ment "as oten #receded democrati5ation and #ro)ided t"e im#et$s or
esta0lis"ing elections4 as !ell as t"e leaders"i# and reso$rces or #olitical #arties
contesting t"ese electionsF :it" t"e eJce#tion o 'o$t" Arica and Cim0a0!e4 t"e
emergence o ci)il societ% "as t"$s ar 0een minimal in AricaF 'ocial organi5ations
are too !ea6 to 0ring do!n a$t"oritarian regimesF &o!e)er4 t"e recent
democrati5ations are #ro)iding ne! o##ort$nities or gro$# inl$ences relati)e to t"e
stateF /"e res$lt is t"at ci)il societ% is coming into eJistence at t"e same time as t"e
"olding elections4 t"e organi5ation o com#etiti)e #olitical #arties and t"e reorming
o legislati)e assem0liesF (n eect4 t"e de)elo#ment o ci)il societ% and democrac%
are occ$rring in m$c" o Arica as #arallel and related #rocessF
1i)il societ% reers to an associations o citi5ens (o$tside t"eir amilies4 riends and
0$sinesses) entered into )ol$ntaril% to ad)ance t"eir interests4 ideas and ideologies)F
/"e term does not incl$de #roit-ma6ing acti)it% (t"e #ri)ate sector) or go)erning
(t"e #$0lic sector)F /"e conce#t o ci)il societ% "as 0een or a long #art o t"e
!estern intellect$al traditionF (t "as 0een associated !it" c"anges in societ%4 s$c" as
t"e emergence o sec$lar a$t"orit%4 t"e de)elo#ment o instit$tion o #ri)ate #ro#ert%4
t"e a##earance o an $r0an c$lt$re4 t"e demise o a0sol$tist states4 t"e rise o
democratic mo)ements o t"e nineteent" cent$r% and modern constit$tionalism4 t"e
r$le o la!F -$t as a conce#t4 ci)il societ% emerged as a serio$s #olitical disco$rse
d$ring eig"teent" to nineteent" cent$r% in .$ro#eF (n recent %ears t"e notion o ci)il
societ% "as come 0ac6 into circ$lation and deined !"at t"e% "ad 0een de#ri)ed o
and !ere str$ggling to recreate a !e0 o a$tonomo$s associations4 inde#endent o t"e
state !"ic" 0o$nds citi5ens toget"er in matters o common concern and 0% t"eir mere
eJistence or action co$ld "a)e an action on #$0lic #olic%F
/"e ci)il societ% lies in 6e% #"ase o modernit% in t"e late eig"teent" and earl%
nineteent" cent$riesF /"e !riters in classical #"iloso#"% and #olitical econom% 0egan
to disting$is" s%stematicall% 0et!een t"e s#"ere o state and societ%F (n e$dal
societ%4 t"e same social relations 0et!een s$#eriors and ineriors "ad em0raced 0ot"
14
#rod$ction and amil% lie on t"e one "and4 and #olitical and militar% a$t"orit%4 on
t"e ot"er "andF :it" t"e dissol$tion o e$dal relation4 t"ese t!o areas o social lie
0ecome more clearl% demarcated in modern conditions as Osociet%< and Ostate<F /"e
term ci)il societ% !as irst $sed to disting$is" a s#"ere in !"ic" social relation !ere
0ased on t"e ree association o indi)id$als rat"er t"an a iJed "ierarc"% o legal
instit$tionF For classical !riters li6e t"e #"iloso#"er Georg &egal and t"e
re)ol$tionar% t"eorist ;arl ,arJ4 ci)il societ% !as an incl$si)e conce#t o Osociet%
min$s t"e state<F 1i)il societ% !as declined 0% t"e emergence o a distinct #olitical
econom% in !"ic" indi)id$al related to eac" ot"er as inde#endent agents rat"er t"an
as #eo#le !"o illed #rescri0ed social rolesF
1i)il societ% is a conce#t o im#ortant strategicall% at t"e cross-section o im#ortant
strands o intellect$al de)elo#ment in t"e social scienceF 1i)il societ% reers to arena
o $norced collecti)e action aro$nd s"ared interests4 #$r#ose and )al$esF (n t"eor%4
its instit$tional orms are distinct rom t"ose o t"e state4 amil% and mar6et t"o$g" in
#ractice4 t"e 0o$ndaries 0et!een state4 ci)il societ%4 amil% and mar6et are oten
com#leJ4 0l$rred and negotiatedF 1i)il societ% commonl% em0races a di)ersit% o
s#ace4 actors and instit$tional orms )ar%ing in t"eir degree o ormalit%4 a$tonom%
and #o!erF 1i)il societies are oten #o#$lated 0% organi5ation s$c" as registered
c"arities de)elo#ment non go)ernment organi5ations4 comm$nit% gro$#s4 !omen<s
organi5ation4 ait" 0ased organi5ations4 #roessional associations4 trade $nions4 sel-
"el# gro$#s4 s#ecial mo)ements4 0$siness association4 collection and ad)ocac% gro$#F
/"e :orld -an6 $ses t"e term ci)il societ% to t"e reer to t"e4 !ide arra% o non-
go)ernmental and not-or-#roit organi5ations t"at "a)e a #resence in #$0lic lie4
eJ#ressing t"e interests and )al$es o t"eir mem0ers or ot"ers4 0ased on et"ical4
c$lt$ral4 #olitical4 scientiic4 religio$s or #"ilant"ro#ic considerationsF 1i)il 'ociet%
Organi5ations (1'Os) t"ereore reer to a !ide o arra% o organi5ationsK comm$nit%
gro$#s4 non-go)ernmental organi5ations (2GOs)4 la0or $nions4 indigeno$s gro$#s4
c"arita0le organi5ations4 ait"-0ased organi5ations4 #roessional associations4 and
o$ndations (http3::---.-orld2ank.or9.
The ;NDP<s de'inition o' civil society
1i)il societ% is toget"er !it" state and mar6et one o t"ree s#"eres t"at interace in
t"e ma6ing o democratic societiesF 1i)il societies is t"e s#"ere in !"ic" social
mo)ement 0ecome organi5edF /"e organi5ations o ci)il societ% !"ic" re#resent
man% di)erse and some time contradictor% social interests are s"a#ed to it t"eir
social 0ase4 1onstit$enc%4 t"ematic orientations (eFgF en)ironment4 gender4 "$man
rig"ts) and t%#es o acti)it%F /"e% incl$de c"$rc" related gro$#s4 trade $nions4
15
coo#erati)e4 ser)ice organi5ations4 comm$nit% gro$#s and %o$t" organi5ations as
!ell as academic instit$tions and ot"er (http3::---.undp.or9.
O$tside o Arica4 ci)il societ% de)elo#ment "as oten "as oten #receded
democrati5ation and #ro)ided t"e im#et$s or esta0lis"ing elections4 as !ell as t"e
leaders"i# and reco$rses or #olitical #arties contesting t"ese electionsF :it" t"e
eJce#tion o 'o$t" Arica and #ossi0le Cim0a0!e4 t"e emergence o ci)il societ% "as
t"$s ar 0een minimal in AricaF 'ocial organi5ations are too !ea6 to 0ring do!n
a$t"oritarian regimesF 1olonial r$le did not c"ange t"e relations"i# 0et!een
-ots!ana state and ci)il societ%F /"e -ritis" #ercei)ed t"e c"ie and "eadman as t"e
#rimar% re#resentati)es o /s!ana #o#$lation4 e)en incor#orating t"e c"ie on an
ad)isor% co$ncil at one #ointF /"e traditional a$t"orities also ser)ed as go)ernment<s
main )e"icle or #olic% im#lementation at t"e grass roots le)elF /"is str$ct$re
eecti)el% eJcl$ded t"e ed$cated class !"ic" go)ernment and missionar% sc"ools
!ere creatingF /o o0tain some inl$ence4 t"is ne! class ormed a small n$m0er o
social organi5ations inde#endent o t"e traditional and colonial "ierarc"F ,ost
signiicant !ere -ots!ana /eac"ers Union4 -ots!ana 1i)il 'er)ants Association4 t"e
+ed 1ross and 3o$ng :omen 1"ristian AssociationF /"e irst t!o associations arose
0eca$se t"eir mem0ers elt eJ#loited 0% .$ro#ean colleag$es and t"e colonial
go)ernmentF /"e t!o emerged to deal !it" crisis o dro$g"t and #o)ert%4 !"ic" t"e
-ritis" !ere slo! to ta6e serio$sl%F /"e ormation o t"ese o$r gro$#s esta0lis"ed or
t"e irst time in /s!ana "istor% t"at social organi5ations co$ld 0e created t"e
traditional a$t"orit% str$ct$re to deal !it" collecti)e #ro0lemsF /"$s roles o ci)il
societ% 0ecame signiicant or ostering "$man sec$rit% in -ots!anaF
Human Security in ,ots-ana
-ots!ana is a landloc6ed co$ntr% s$rro$nded to t"e so$t" 0% t"e +e#$0lic o 'o$t"
Arica4 to t"e !est and nort" 0% 2ami0ia4 and to t"e east 0% Cim0a0!eF (t is 57D4DDD
s>$are 6ilometres a0o$t t"e si5e o France or ;en%aF /"e en)ironment is mostl% arid
and 84P o t"e co$ntr% is ;ala"ari sand4 s$##orting t"orn 0$s" sa)annas )egetationF
8DP o t"e #o#$lation li)es in a long stri# in t"e east o t"e co$ntr% along t"e line o
rail !"ic" lin6s 'o$t" Arica !it" Cim0a0!e and !as originall% 0$ild 0% +"odes
-ritis" 'o$t" Arica 1om#an%F A0o$t 4P o all t"e land can 0e easil% c$lti)atedN t"e
0$l6 o land4 incl$ding t"e desert areas4 is rangeland s$ita0le or seasonal gra5ingF
/"e ancestors o t"e modern /s!ana tri0es migrated into t"e area o modern da%
-ots!ana in t"e eig"teent" cent$r% rom t"e so$t"-east (modern 'o$t" Arica) and
are closel% related to t"e -asot"o o modern da% 7esot"o (ant"ro#ologists reer to
/s!ana-'ot"o lang$age and c$lt$re)F /"e% con>$ered t"e indigeno$s 'an and ot"er
tri0es !"o !ere 0asicall% amalgamated into t"e /s!anaF -% 18DDs se)eral related
16
/s!ana societies !ere esta0lis"ed and o)er time ne! ones !ere created as gro$#s
0ro6e a!a% rom t"e eJisting onesF For instance4 t"e -ang!ato res$lted rom a s#lit
in t"e -a6!ena and t"e -ata!ana !as created as a res$lt o a s#lit in t"e -ang!atoF
'e)eral eat$res o /s!ana #olitical and economic organi5ation stand o$tF /"e c"ie
!as t"e central #olitical ig$re in t"ese societies !it" #o!er to allocate land or
gra5ing cro#s and residencesF &is a$t"orit% !as eJercised t"ro$g" a "ierarc"% o
relati)es and oicials and !ard "eadmenF A s#ecial t%#e o !ard !as or o$tsiders
!"o t"e /s!ana amalgamated into t"eir tri0al str$ct$resF Alongside t"is "ierarc"%
!as a series o #$0lic or$msF /"e 6gotla !as an assem0l% o ad$lt males in !"ic"
iss$es o #$0lic interest !ere disc$ssedF -ot" !ards and t"e !"ole societ% itsel "ad
6gotlas and t"o$g" t"e% !ere s$##osed to 0e ad)isor% t"e% seem to "a)e 0een an
eecti)e !a% or commoners to critici5e t"e 6ingF /"e% also !ere t"e )en$e !"ere
t"e 6ing "eard co$rt cases and la! !as dis#ensedF
/o stim$late ind$str%4 t"e go)ernment introd$ced in 1=7D t"e -ots!ana De)elo#ment
1or#oration and in 1=82 t"e% created t"e Financial Assistance *olic% to s$0sidi5e
ind$strial )ent$resF /"o$g" t"ese "a)e not led to large scale ind$striali5ation it is
signiicant t"at man$act$ring as 5P4 !"ic" >$ite an ac"ie)ement is gi)en t"e
dominance o reso$rces in t"e econom%F As 7eit" notes Gt"e gro!t" o t"e -ots!ana
econom% is not sim#l% a stor% o a mineral encla)e !it" an e)er gro!ing
Go)ernment4 attac"ed to a stagnating traditional econom%FH (n general nearl% e)er%
as#ect o -ots!ana economic #erormance is s#ectac$larF (nlation "as rarel% 0een
a0o)e 1DP4 in)estment "as 0een 0et!een 2DP and 3DP o GD*4 and t"ere "as 0een
"$ge in)estment in "$man ca#italF /"e 0alance o #a%ments "as t%#icall% 0een in
s$r#l$s and t"ere are large acc$m$lated reser)esF /"e go)ernment "as not needed t"e
ser)ices o t"e (nternational ,onetar% F$nd or :orld -an6F /"o$g" t"is gro!t" #at"
"as 0een $elled 0% diamonds4 t"e income rom !"ic" "as largel% accr$ed directl% to
t"e go)ernment4 t"ese reso$rces rents "a)e 0een in)estedF
Political Security
*olitics o -ots!ana ta6es #lace in a rame!or6 o a #residential re#resentati)e
democratic re#$0lic4 !"ere0% t"e *resident o -ots!ana is 0ot" "ead o state and
"ead o go)ernment4 and o a m$lti-#art% s%stemF .Jec$ti)e #o!er is eJercised 0% t"e
go)ernmentF 7egislati)e #o!er is )ested in 0ot" t"e go)ernment and t"e *arliament
o -ots!anaF 'ince inde#endence t"e #art% s%stem is dominated 0% t"e -ots!ana
Democratic *art%F /"e E$diciar% is inde#endent o t"e eJec$ti)e and t"e legislat$reF
-ots!ana is ormall% a m$lti#art% constit$tional democrac%F .ac" o t"e elections
since inde#endence in 'e#tem0er 1=66 "as 0een reel% and airl% contested and "as
0een "eld on sc"ed$leF /"e co$ntr%Is small !"ite minorit% and ot"er minorities
17
#artici#ate reel% in t"e #olitical #rocessF /"ere are t!o main ri)al #arties and a
n$m0er o smaller #artiesF &o!e)er4 -ots!ana is also a dominant #art% state in t"at
t"e -ots!ana Democratic *art% "as ne)er lost #o!er since inde#endenceF 'ome
arg$e t"at t"e o#enness o t"e co$ntr%Is #olitical s%stem "as 0een a signiicant actor
in -ots!anaIs sta0ilit% and economic gro!t"F General elections are "eld at least e)er%
i)e %earsF /"ere are a n$m0er o o##osition #arties and dissenting )oices are "eard
and )isi0le in t"e mediaF .lections in t"e co$ntr% are re#orted to meet international
standards o ree and air elections4 t"o$g" t"ere !ere some com#laints made 0%
o##osition mem0ers a0o$t $ne>$al access to state o!ned tele)ision d$ring t"e
cam#aigning #rocess in t"e electionF /"ere is a )i0rant comm$nit% o ci)il societ%
organi5ations in -ots!anaF /"ese organi5ations are come $nder -ots!ana 1o$ncil o
2on-Go)ernment Organi5ationsF Alt"o$g" ci)il societ% is >$ite acti)e4 )ocal
criticism o t"e go)ernment is relati)el% rareF (n recent %ears4 it "as 0ecome
increasingl% diic$lt or non-go)ernment organi5ation to o0tain international
$nding4 d$e to t"e de#art$re o donors as a res$lt o co$ntr%<s ran6ing as middle
income co$ntr%F -ots!ana is generall% considered to "a)e a good "$man rig"ts
recordF A sta0le go)ernment and t"e a0sence o ci)il !ar or )iolent re#ression means
t"at t"e co$ntr% "as 0een s#ared t"e large scale "$man rig"ts a0$se t"at "a)e #lag$ed
ot"er co$ntries in t"e regionF -ots!ana is considered to "a)e a relati)el% ree
#ri)atel% o!ned #ress and a some!"at restricted state mediaF /"e co$ntr% "as one
go)ernment tele)ision station alt"o$g" 'o$t" Arican satellite tele)ision is also
a)aila0le to s$0scri0ersF Freedoms o eJ#ression are generall% res#ected in -ots!anaF
Economical Security
'ince inde#endence4 -ots!ana "as "ad one o t"e astest gro!t" rates in #er ca#ita
income in t"e !orldF -ots!ana "as transormed itsel rom one o t"e #oorest
co$ntries in t"e !orld to a middle income co$ntr% !it" a #er ca#ita GD* o Q16445D
in 2DD7F .conomic gro!t" a)eraged o)er =P #er %ear rom 1=66 to 1===F /"e
go)ernment "as maintained a so$nd iscal #olic%4 des#ite consec$ti)e 0$dget deicits
in 2DD2 and 2DD34 and a negligi0le le)el o oreign de0tF (t earned t"e "ig"est
so)ereign credit rating in Arica and "as stoc6#iled oreign eJc"ange reser)es
amo$nting to almost t!o and a "al %ears o c$rrent im#ortsF -ots!anaIs im#ressi)e
economic record "as 0een 0$ilt on t"e o$ndation o !isel% $sing re)en$e generated
rom diamond mining to $el economic de)elo#ment t"ro$g" #r$dent iscal #olicies
and a ca$tio$s oreign #olic%F De0s!ana4 t"e largest diamond mining com#an%
o#erating in -ots!ana4 is 5DP o!ned 0% t"e go)ernment and generates a0o$t "al o
all go)ernment re)en$esF (n 2DD74 signiicant >$antities o Urani$m !ere disco)ered4
18
and mining is #roMected to 0egin 0% 2D1DF 'e)eral international mining cor#orations
"a)e #ros#ected in -ots!ana or diamonds4 gold4 $rani$m4 co##er4 and e)en oilF
Health Security
&o!e)er4 economic de)elo#ment s#ending !as c$t 0% 1DP in 2DD2-2DD3 as a res$lt
o rec$rring 0$dget deicits and rising eJ#endit$re on "ealt"care ser)icesF -ots!ana
"as 0een "it )er% "ard 0% t"e A(D' e#idemicN t"e a)erage lie eJ#ectanc% in
-ots!ana at 0irt"4 1==DK 64 %ears4 2DD5K 34 %earsF /"is is 0arel% "al t"e 5=-%ear
a)erage or lo!-income co$ntries4 and -ots!ana residents4 along !it" t"ose o
'!a5iland4 "a)e t"e s"ortest a)erage lies#an in t"e !orldF A##roJimatel% one in siJ
-ats!ana "as &(84 gi)ing -ots!ana t"e second "ig"est &(8 inection rate in t"e
!orld ater '!a5ilandF /"e go)ernment recogni5es t"at &(89A(D' !ill aect t"e
econom% and is tr%ing to com0at t"e e#idemic4 incl$ding ree Anti-retro)iral dr$g
treatment and a nation-!ide *re)ention o ,ot"er to 1"ild /ransmission #rogramF
-ots!ana "as made Mo0 creation a to# #riorit% o go)ernment #lanning in t"e #ast e!
%earsF Alt"o$g" em#lo%ment rates "a)e gro!n4 $nem#lo%ment is ormall% estimated
at 21P4 0$t is closer to 4DP in $noicial estimates in 2DD2F /"e go)ernment "as a
long-standing #olic% o #romoting "$man ca#ital de)elo#ment and "ealt" careF All
ed$cation t"ro$g" t"e $ni)ersit% le)el is ree4 0$t 3DP o t"e #o#$lation o)er 15 in
2DD2 !as illiterateF Great im#ortance is #laced on t"e de)elo#ment o r$ral areas so
as to red$ce r$ral-$r0an migrationF (n lig"t o t"e limited reso$rces4 -ots!anaIs
go)ernment no! ollo!s Lood sec$rit%L agric$lt$ral #olic% o #romoting onl% t"ose
oodst$s !"ic" can 0e gro!n economicall%F
-ots!anaIs long-term economic #ros#ects are "ig"l% de#endent on 'o$t" Arica and
its ot"er 'o$t"ern Arican neig"0o$rsF /"e go)ernment "as 0een a strong #ro#onent
o economic integration among t"e o$rteen mem0ers o t"e 'o$t"ern Arican
De)elo#ment 1omm$nit% ('AD1)F /"e organi5ationIs 2DDD /rade *rotocol called or
t"e elimination o all tari and nontari 0arriers to trade 0% 2D12 among t"e 11
co$ntries signing t"e #rotocolF -ots!ana "as 0een rated t"e least-corr$#t co$ntr% in
Arica4 according to /rans#arenc% (nternationalF /"e co$ntr% aims to di)ersi% its
econom% a!a% rom minerals4 and ecoto$rism is 0eing #romotedF -ots!ana "as 0een
a )ictim o t"e &(89A(D' #andemic4 and t"e go)ernment "as ta6en ste#s to tac6le t"e
)ir$s t"ro$g" #re)ention #rograms and t"e #ro)ision o ad)anced dr$g t"era#ies to
t"ose inectedF (n 2DD34 t"e 2ational De)elo#ment *lan 2ine !as ort"coming4 $nder
!"ic" economic de)elo#ment #roMects !ere d$e to 0e t$rned o)er to t"e #ri)ate
sectorF
Community Security
1=
/raditional )ie!s o male dominance are #er)asi)e in -ots!anaF 1$stomar% la!
allo!s men to #"%sicall% #$nis" t"eir !i)es or !rongdoings and s#o$sal a0$se is
commonF 'eJ$al "arassment4 ra#e4 and ot"er )iolence against !omen are !ides#readF
:omen are accorded t"e same ci)il rig"ts as men4 0$t $nder traditional marriage
la!s4 t"e% re>$ire t"eir "$s0andsI consent to 0$% or sell #ro#ert%4 o0tain a loan4 or
sign a contractF /"ere are legal #ro)isions4 "o!e)er4 t"at allo! !omen to marr% Lo$t
o common #ro#ert%L and t"ere0% retain t"eir legal rig"tsF *ol%gam% is legal4 0$t is
not !idel% #racticedF :"ile et"nic minorities are not s$0Mect to discrimination4 some
gro$#s remain marginali5ed and $nderre#resented in go)ernmentF &$man rig"ts are
generall% res#ected in -ots!anaF &o!e)er4 t"ere are still re#orts o a0$si)e #olice
tactics4 and #rison conditions remain #oorF
Personal and 6ood Security
.ac" %ear since 1==D t"e &$man De)elo#ment +e#ort "as #$0lis"ed t"e "$man
de)elo#ment indeJ !"ic" loo6s 0e%ond GD* to a 0roader deinition o !ell-0eingF
/"e &D( #ro)ides a com#osite meas$re o t"ree dimensions o "$man de)elo#mentK
li)ing a long and "ealt"% lie (meas$red 0% lie eJ#ectanc%)4 0eing ed$cated
(meas$red 0% ad$lt literac% and enrolment at t"e #rimar%4 secondar% and tertiar%
le)el) and "a)ing a decent standard o li)ing (meas$red 0% #$rc"asing #o!er #arit%4
***4 income)F /"e indeJ is not in an% sense a com#re"ensi)e meas$re o "$man
de)elo#mentF (t does not4 or eJam#le4 incl$de im#ortant indicators s$c" as gender or
income ine>$alit% and more diic$lt to meas$re indicators li6e res#ect or "$man
rig"ts and #olitical reedomsF :"at it does #ro)ide is a 0roadened #rism or )ie!ing
"$man #rogress and t"e com#leJ relations"i# 0et!een income and !ell-0eingF /"e
&D( or -ots!ana is DF6544 !"ic" gi)es t"e co$ntr% a ran6 o 124
t"
o$t o 177
co$ntries 4;NDP Human Development Report &%%*:%.9.
Revie- o' 1iteratures
Shahr2anou Tad=2akhsh8 )nuradha 5 Chenoy8 4&%%(98 Human Security
Concepts and Implications, Routlede8 1ondon and Ne- 7ork.
/"is 0oo6 traces t"e 6e% e)ol$tions in t"e de)elo#ment o t"e conce#t o "$man
sec$rit%4 t"e )ario$s deinitions and criti>$es4 "o! it relates to ot"er conce#ts4 and
!"at it im#lies or #olities4 #olitics4 and #olic%F &$man sec$rit% is an im#ortant
s$0Mect or t"e !"ole !orld4 in #artic$lar Asia4 as it deals !it" interactions among
ields o social c"ange4 s$c" as de)elo#ment4 conlict resol$tion4 "$man rig"ts4 and
"$manitarian assistanceF (n a glo0ali5ing !orld4 in !"ic" t"reats 0ecome trans-
national and states lose #o!er4 sec$rit% can no longer 0e st$died in a one-dimensional
2D
as"ionF :ritten 0% a$t"ors !"o are eJ#erts in t"is ield and !it" case st$dies rom
dierent regions #resented t"ro$g"o$t4 t"is 0oo6 contri0$tes to t"is ne!
m$ltidimensional conce#tion o sec$rit%4 anal%5es its strengt"s and !ea6nesses4 and
oc$ses on its im#lications or anal%sis and actionF
Heather Deaar8 4&%%098 Africa Today: culture, economic, religion, security8
Rouutlede8 1ondon and Ne- 7ork.
/"is 0oo6 disc$ssed a0o$t t"e contem#orar% #ro0lems acing AricaF /"e 0oo6
contains detail disc$ssion a0o$t t"e de)elo#ment4 democrac%4 terrorism as !ell as
diseases and "$man sec$rit%F /"e 0oo6 "as $se de)elo#ment indicators rom
international organisations li6e United 2ationsF One o t"e c"a#ter o t"is 0oo6 ga)e
s#ecial em#"asis on "$man sec$rit%4 !"ic" is )er% inormati)eF /"e 0oo6 is )er%
$se$l or m% researc" !or6F
Caroline Thomas and Peter >ilkin 4eds.98 4!00098 Globalisation, Human Security
and the African !perience""" ,oulder3 1ynne Reinner Pu2lications.
/"is 0oo6 aims to eJ#lore sec$rit% rom a "$man #ers#ecti)e (as o##osed to t"e more
ort"odoJ state #ers#ecti)e) and to ill$strate t"is #ers#ecti)e 0% dra!ing on case
material rom s$0-'a"aran AricaL !it" t"e o0Mecti)e to "el# generate Lan alternati)e
de0ate and $nderstanding o sec$rit% in a glo0al econom%F /"e "$man sec$rit%
#ers#ecti)e is #$t or!ard as emanici#ator%4 oc$sing on t"e "o$se"old (as o##osed
to t"e neo-li0eral indi)id$al) and collecti)it% (rat"er t"an indi)id$al mar6et c"oice)F
(t centers on 0ot" 0asic s$r)i)al needs and li0eration rom o##ressi)e str$ct$res as
necessar% or "$man sec$rit%F -roadl% s#ea6ing t"is a##roac" is designed to
encom#ass non-con)entional concerns s$c" as ecolog%4 "$man rig"ts4 and social
ca#italF
Elliot8 Carolyn 5. 4&%%*98 Civil Society and Democracy3 ) Reader8 O?'ord
;niversity Press.
/"is 0oo6 disc$sses t"e idea o ci)il societ% and its relations"i# !it" democrac% and
go)ernance in (ndiaF (t eJ#lores "o! t"e conce#t o ci)il societ% de)elo#ed in
!estern tradition o #olitical t"o$g"t4 and com#ares (ndia<s eJ#erience !it" t"ose
c"ina4 'o$t"east Asia4 7atin America and t"e ,iddle .astF *ro)iding $se$l models
o anal%sis and 0enc"mar6s or (ndia<s de)elo#ment4 t"e 0oo6 !ill 0e $se$l or
#olitical scientists4 sociologists4 non-go)ernmental organi5ations4 )ol$ntar% agencies4
st$dents4 teac"ers and researc"ersF
21
@hils8 Paul8 International Ci#il Society: International $on%go#ernmental
&rgani'ation in the International System, "nternational Social Science Aournal,
Bolume ++8 No.!$$ 4)uust !00&98 pp +!*#+$!
/"is article deals a0o$t t"e role and $nction o international non-go)ernmental
organi5ation in de)elo#ment sectorF /"e article contains a lot o inormation a0o$t
international non-go)ernmental organi5ation regarding t"eir origin4 $nding4
categori5ation4 !or6ing !it" go)ernment and acco$nta0ilit%F /"ese international non-
go)ernmental organi5ations are !or6ing !it" sometime go)ernment and sometime
against go)ernmentF /"is article also #oint o$t t"e contradiction 0et!een
international non-go)ernmental organi5ations !it" local non-go)ernmental
organi5ationF
5olustsi8 Patrick P.C Holm Aohn D.8 De#eloping Democracy (hen Ci#il Society is
(eak: The Case of )ots*ana, )'rican )''airs8 Bolume .08 No.$/( 4Auly!00%98
pp.$&$#$+%
/"is article<s arg$ment is t"at a #l$ralist democrac% cannot emerge in -ots!ana and
in man% #arts o Arica eJce#t t"ro$g" a #eriod o transition4 !"ic" most #ro0a0l%
!ill 0e meas$red in decadesF -ots!ana<s #ro0lems o a$t"oritarian c$lt$re4 a
#o!er$l state str$ct$re4 an a0sence o organi5ed and #oliticall% oriented gro$#s4
#aternalistic re#resentation4 a s$0missi)e mass media4 and elitist #art% str$ct$res are
not $ni>$eF /"e% are to 0e o$nd in e)en t"ose co$ntries !"ic" are la0eled more
#rogressi)e s$c" as /an5ania and 'enegalF 1o#ing !it" t"ese #ro0lems is a realit% o
democratic de)elo#ment in AricaF
Holm8 Aohn DC 5olusti8 Patric PC Somolekae8 @loria8 The De#elopment of Ci#il
Society in a Democratic State: The )ots*ana +odel, )'rican Studies Revie-8
Bolume $08 No.&. 4Septem2er !00(98 pp +$#(0
/"is article "as !ritten a0o$t4 #olitics in t"e #re-colonial4 colonial and #ost
inde#endence #eriod re)ol)ed aro$nd elite com#etition oc$sed on #ersonal4
comm$nal and intra- 0$rea$cratic str$ggles t"is conlict !as not dri)en 0%
a$tonomo$s social organi5ation co$ld organi5e to inl$ence go)ernment #olic%F 1i)il
societ% in -ots!ana can 0est 0e descri0ed as mo)ing rom intermittent acti)it% to
instit$tionali5ed str$ct$resF /"is de)elo#ment is more ad)anced in gro$#s enMo%ing a
geogra#"ic concentration o mem0ers"i#4 #ermanent sta4 reg$lar circ$lation o
leaders"i#4 close association !it" similar organi5ation in neig"0oring states and
minimal go)ernment reg$lationF Gro$#s !it"o$t t"ese c"aracteristics are more li6el%
to oc$s on rec$rring re)i)als o dormant str$ct$resF
22
Terrance CarrollC ,ar2ara >ake Carroll8 The rapid emergence of ci#il society in
)ots*ana, Common-ealth D Comparative Politics, Bolume +&8 "ssue $
4Novem2er &%%+98 pp.$$$#$//
1i)il societ% !as almost noneJistent in -ots!ana in t"e late 1=8Ds4 0$t it de)elo#ed
eJtraordinaril% ra#idl% in si5e and inl$ence in t"e decade t"at ollo!edF -% t"e t$rn
o t"e cent$r%4 -ots!ana "ad an acti)e4 )i0rant and inl$ential ci)il societ%F /"ere are
t!o im#ortant modiications to t"e con)entional conce#tion o ci)il societ% t"at
increase its $tilit% in -ots!ana4 and in man% ot"er de)elo#ing co$ntriesF (t t"en
identiies actors t"at #ermitted t"e ra#id emergence o ci)il societ% in t"at co$ntr%4
and it anal%ses t"e conse>$ences o s$c" a ra#id gro!t"F /"e $t$re #ros#ects o ci)il
societ% in -ots!ana4 and a disc$ssion o t"e eJtent to !"ic" its eJ#erience ma% 0e
rele)ant to ot"er de)elo#ing co$ntriesF
)rea o' Study
/"e researc" !o$ld anal%sis o "$man sec$rit% and ci)il societ% o Arican continent
in general and #artic$lar o -ots!anaF /"e researc" "as co)ered t"e t"eoretical
as#ects o &$man 'ec$rit% and 1i)il 'ociet%F :"% Arica "a)e #oor &$man 'ec$rit%
and !ea6 ci)il societ%R :"at is t"e stat$s o &$man 'ec$rit% in Arica in general and
-ots!ana in #artic$larR /"e area o researc" !ill co)er Arica in general and main
oc$s !ill on -ots!anaF
Relevance and Scope o' Study
/"ese da%s "$man sec$rit% is )er% signiicant in nation state de0ateF -eca$se o
democrati5ation t"e co$ntr%4 #ro0lem o "$mans are not sol)eF 'o t"ese da%s "$man
sec$rit% is more im#ortant in com#arison to inde#endence4 so)ereignt%F /"e main aim
o an% st$d% is to gat"ering inormation a0o$t o &$man 'ec$rit% and 1i)il 'ociet%
in Arica in general and !it" #artic$lar to -ots!anaF /"en t"e inormation ma% 0e
$se as $rt"er st$d% as !ell as #ro)iding #ro#er sol$tions i t"ere eJits some t%#e o
#ro0lemsF (n t"is st$d%4 m% aim is to searc" a0o$t -ots!ana<s &$man 'ec$rit% and
1i)il 'ociet%F :"% -ots!ana de)elo#ed in s"ort s#an o timeR -ots!ana got
inde#endence on 3Dt" 'e#tem0er 1=66 rom -ritis" #rotectorateF General #erce#tion
is t"at4 main reasons o de)elo#ment o -ots!ana are #olitical sta0ilit%4 diamond
dri)en econom% as !ell as eJ#ort o 0eeF ( !ant to eJamine "ere4 t"e role o ci)il
societ% in t"e de)elo#ment o &$man 'ec$rit% in -ots!anaF
23
Hypothesis
(n centrali5ed state li6e -ots!ana4 t"e roles o acti)e ci)il societ% are
signiicant or ostering &$man 'ec$rit%F
(n s#ite o #olitical sta0ilit% in -ots!ana4 t"e stat$s o "$man sec$rit% is not in
good #ositionF
(n international #olitics "$man sec$rit% iss$e is $se as 0argain #olitical !ea#on
or Arican co$ntries 0% !estern co$ntriesF
&$man sec$rit% is more im#ortant or Arican co$ntries in com#arison to
national sec$rit%F
Research O2=ectives
1F /o anal%sis t"e reasons 0e"ind Arican co$ntries "a)e #oor national sec$rit% as
!ell as "$man sec$rit%R
2F :"% "as -ots!ana !ea6 "$man sec$rit%4 in s#ite o strong national sec$rit%
eJits t"ereR
3F /"e "$man sec$rit% concern initiated !it" t"e emergence o ci)il societ% in
late 1==D<s in -ots!anaF
4F /"e acco$nta0ilit% is t"e maMor #ro0lem ci)il in t"e societ% in -ots!anaF
5F ,ost o t"e Arican states are ailed in #ro)iding social ser)ices so t"e roles o
ci)il societ% 0ecome signiicantF
6F /o st$d% t"e stat$s o &$man 'ec$rit% in Arica in general and in -ots!ana in
#artic$larR
7F /o anal%sis t"e role o 1i)il 'ociet% in ostering t"e &$man 'ec$rit% in
-ots!anaF
8F /o anal%sis t"e dierent model o "$man sec$rit% modelsF
24
Research 5ethodoloy
/"e st$d% "as 0een 0ased on #rimaril% 0ased on secondar% so$rces o inormationF
/"e inormation "as gat"er t"ro$g" dierent 0oo6s4 articles4 Mo$rnals4 go)ernment
!e0sites4 dissertation as !ell as t"esisF /"e st$d% "as also anal%5ed t"e data o United
2ation De)elo#ment *rogramme +e#ort as !ell as Glo0al 1i)il 'ociet% +e#ort
!"ic" is #$0lis"ed rom 7ondonF &istorical4 anal%tical4 descri#ti)e met"ods "a)e also
a##lied in t"is st$d%F /"is anal%sis o t"ese so$rces s"all 0e done 0% 0ot" ind$cti)e
and ded$cti)e met"odsF
ChapterEiation
!. "ntroduction
/"is c"a#ter !ill disc$ss a0o$t t"e origin o &$man 'ec$rit% since t"e re#ort
o United 2ations De)elo#ment *rogramme 1==4 to 1ontem#orar% #eriodF (t
also ela0orates o "$man sec$rit% in dierent sc"ool o t"o$g"ts li6e U2D*
and 1anadian 'c"oolF &o! "$man sec$rit% is dierent rom traditional
sec$rit%F /"is c"a#ter !ills also anal%sis t"e origin o ci)il societ% in t"ird
!orld co$ntriesF :"at are t"e dierent #erce#tions o #olitical t"in6ers a0o$t
ci)il societ%R :"at are its relations"i#s !it" stateR :"at are t"e nat$res o
ci)il societ%R (s ci)il societ% #ro)iding de)elo#ment s$##ort to stateR /"is
c"a#ter !ill deal t"eoretical as#ects o "$man sec$rit% as !ell as ci)il societ%F
&. Human Security and Civil Society in )'rica
/"is c"a#ter !ill st$d% a0o$t t"e general stat$s o "$man sec$rit% and ci)il
societ% in Arican continentF :"% Arican states "a)e !ea6 ci)il societ% as
!ell as "$man sec$rit%R /"e c"a#ter !ill disc$ss a0o$t ci)il societ% in Arica
rom dierent #ers#ecti)e li6e colonial and #rotectorate s%stemF (n t"is section4
st$d% !ill relate t"e role o international organi5ations and regional
organi5ations in #romoting "$man sec$rit% in AricaF
$. Human Security and Civil Society in ,ots-ana
(n t"is c"a#ter4 t"e main oc$s !ill on "$man sec$rit% and ci)il societ% in
-ots!anaF -ots!ana is "ig"l% centrali5ed and #olitical sta0le co$ntr%N in s#ite
o t"at t"e role o ci)il societ% in ostering "$man sec$rit% is signiicantF (n t"is
section4 st$d% !ill relate t"e role o international organi5ations and regional
organi5ations in #romoting "$man sec$rit% in -ots!anaF /"e role non-
25
go)ernmental organi5ation !ill also co)er in t"is section in ostering "$man
sec$rit%F
+. Human Security as Human Development in ,ots-ana
-ots!ana "as m$c" 0etter #osition in Arican states in terms o social4
economic and #olitical de)elo#mentF /"e social and economic indicators are
)er% m$c" im#ressi)e or $sF (n s#ite o t"at t"ere "a)e #ro0lems li6e
&(89A(D'4 en)ironment degradation4 dis#lacement4 centrali5ed #olitical
instit$tions4 $nem#lo%ment and one #art% domination r$leF /"is c"a#ter !ill
co)er on *olitical +ig"ts4 *olitical De)elo#ment and democrati5ations t"ro$g"
)i0rant o ci)il societ% in -ots!anaF
/. Conclusion
/"is c"a#ter !o$ld "a)e o)er all anal%sis o "$man sec$rit% and ci)il societ%
in Arica in general and -ots!ana in #artic$larF
26
Re'erences
,ooks
1F 1aroline /"omas and *eter :il6in (edsF)4 (1===) Glo0alisation4 &$man
'ec$rit% and t"e Arican .J#erienceFFF -o$lderK 7%nne +einner *$0licationsF
2F 1"and"o6e4 2eera (1==5)4 'tate and 1i)il 'ociet%K .J#lorations in *olitical
/"eor%4 'age4 Del"iF
3F 1la%ton4 Andre! (edF) (1==6)4 2GOs4 1i)il 'ociet% and t"e 'tateK -$ilding
Democrac% in /ransitional 'ocieties4 OJord Uni)ersit% *ress4 U;F
4F 1omaro4 EoMn 7F and Eean 1omaro (1===)4 1i)il 'ociet% and t"e *olitical
(magination in AricaK 1ritical *ers#ecti)es4 Uni)ersit% o 1"icago *ress4
1"icagoF
5F Deagar4 &eat"er4 (2DD=)4 Arica /oda%K c$lt$re4 economic4 religion4 sec$rit%4
+o$$tledge4 7ondon and 2e! 3or6F
6F .lliott4 ,F 1arol%nm (ed) (2DD7)4 1i)il 'ociet% and Democrac% A +eader4 2e!
Del"iK OJord Uni)ersit% *ressF
7F ;a0iraM4 '$di#ta and ;"ilnani4 '$nil4 (2DD6)4 1i)il 'ociet% &istor% and
*ossi0ilit%, 2e! Del"iK 1am0ridge Uni)ersit% *ressF
8F ,cgre!4 Ant"on% and *o6$4 2ana ;F (eds)4 (2DD7)4 Glo0ali5ation4
De)elo#ment and &$man 'ec$rit%4 *olit% *ress4 U;F
=F '"a"r0ano$ /adM0a6"s" and An$rad"a , 1"eno%4 (2DD6)4 &$man 'ec$rit%
1once#ts and (m#lications, +o$tledgeF
1DF'F 2eil ,acFralane and 3en Foong ;"ong4 (2DD6)4 &$man 'ec$rit% and t"e
U2K A 1ritical &istor%4 -loomingtonK (ndiana Uni)ersit% *ressF
11F Osler &am#son4 .en (2DD2)4 ,adness in t"e ,$ltit$deK &$man 'ec$rit% and
:orld Disorder4 OJord Uni)ersit% *ress4 7ondonF
)rticles
1F -a%art4 Eean-Francois (1=86)4 O1i)il 'ociet% in Arica4< in *atric6 1"a0al (edF)4
*olitical Domination in Arica4 1am0ridge Uni)ersit% *ress4 U;F
27
2F -ratton4 ,F (1==4)4 1i)il 'ociet% and *olitical /ransition in Arica<4 in EF-F
&ar0eson4 DF +ot"c"ild and 2F 1"a5an (edsF)4 1i)il 'ociet% and t"e 'tate in
Arica4 -o$lder4 1OK 7%nne +einner4 64-71F
3F -aM#ai4 ;antiF G&$man 'ec$rit%K 1once#t and ,eas$rementF /"e Eoan -F ;roc
(nstit$te or (nternational *eace 't$dies4 Uni)ersit% o 2otre Dame4 Occasional
*a#er S1= (A$g$st 2DDD)
4F -ald!in4 Da)id AF (1==7)4 G/"e 1once#t o 'ec$rit%FH Review of International
Studies4 )olF 234 ##F 5-26F
5F G"ils4 *a$l4 (nternational 1i)il 'ociet%K (nternational 2on-go)ernmental
Organi5ation in t"e (nternational '%stem4 International Social Science Journal,
8ol$me 444 2oF133 (A$g$st 1==2)4 ## 417-431
6F Good4 ;ennet"4 1orr$#tion and ,ismanagement in -ots!anaK A -est 1ase
.Jam#leR The Journal of Modern African Studies4 8ol$me 324 2oF3F
('e#tem0er 1==4)4 ##F 4==-521
7F &a>4 ,a"0$0 $lF (1==4)4 2e! (m#erati)es o &$man 'ec$rit%4 +G(1' *a#er
2oF 174 +aMi) Gand"i (nstit$te or 1ontem#orar% 't$diesF 2e! Del"iK +aMi)
Gand"i Fo$ndationF
8F &a>4 ,a"0$0 $lF (1==4)4 G2e! (m#erati)es o &$man 'ec$rit%K -ar0ara :ard
7ect$re4 1=72FH Development4 )olF 24 ##F 4D-43F
=F &olm4 Eo"n DN ,ol$sti4 *atric *N 'omole6ae4 Gloria4 /"e De)elo#ment o 1i)il
'ociet% in a Democratic 'tateK /"e -ots!ana ,odel4 African Studies Review,
8ol$me 3=4 2oF2F ('e#tem0er 1==6)4 ## 43-6=
1DF7e!is4 *F (1==2)4 G*olitical /ransition and t"e Dilemma o 1i)il 'ociet% in
Arica4 Journal of International Affairs, )olF464 2oF14 ##31-54
11F ,a$ndeni4 CF (1==6)4 -ots!ana 'till at 1rossroads4 Africa Quarterly4 8ol$me
364 2oF34 2e! Del"iF
12F,ol$stsi4 *atric6 *FN &olm Eo"n DF (1==D)4 De)elo#ing Democrac% :"en 1i)il
'ociet% is :ea6K /"e 1ase o -ots!ana4 African Affairs, 8ol$me 8=4 2oF3564
E$l%4 ##F323-34D
13FO0assi4 (F2F and /F/F ,ori0ameF (2DD5)4 (n)estigation o t"e inl$ence o 2GOs
in *$0lic #olic% ma6ing and (m#lementation in -ots!anaF *$laK Botswana
Journal of African Studies, 1=(1)F
28
14F/errance 1arrollN -ar0ara :a6e 1arroll4(2DD4)4 The rapid emerence of civil
society in Botswana, !ommonwealth " !omparative #olitics, 8ol$me 424 (ss$e
34 2o)em0er4 ##F333-355
15F/sie4 -alei4 /"e *olitical 1onteJt o -ots!ana<s De)elo#ment *erormance4
Journal of Southern African Studies, 8ol$me 224 2oF 4F (Decem0er 1==6)4 ##
5==-616
Reports
$% United 2ations De)elo#ment *rogramme (U2D*) (1==3)4 &uman
Development Report $''(4 *eo#le<s *artici#ation 2e! 3or6K OJord
Uni)ersit% *ressF
)% United 2ations De)elo#ment *rogramme (U2D*) (1==4)4 &uman
Development Report$''*, 2e! Dimension o &$man 'ec$rit%4 2e! 3or6K
OJord Uni)ersit% *ressF
(% United 2ations De)elo#ment *rogramme (U2D*) (2DDD)4 &uman
Development Report )+++, &$man +ig"ts and &$man De)elo#ment4 2e!
3or6K OJord Uni)ersit% *ressF
*% An"eier4 &elm$t4 ,arlies Glasi$s and ,ar% ;aldor (edsF) (2DD1)4 ,lo-al !ivil
Society )++$, 7'.4 7ondonF
.% &uman Security /ow4 +e#ort 0% t"e 1ommission on &$man 'ec$rit%4 2DD3
0% A more secure world4 +e#ort o t"e 'ecretar%-GeneralIs &ig" 7e)el *anel on
/"reats4 1"allenges and 1"ange4 2DD4
1% In 2arer 3reedom4 +e#ort o t"e 'ecretar%-General4 2DD5
4% &uman Security for All5 Interated Responses to #rotect and 6mpower #eople
and !ommunities4 O1&A &$man 'ec$rit% Unit4 2DD6
'% The &uman Security 3ramewor7 and /ational &uman Development Reports4
+ic"ard Eoll%4 Dee#a%an -as$ +a%4 U2D* 2DD6F
2=
3D
Chapter3 T-o
Human Security
and Civil Society
31
32
Human Security and Civil Society
One o t"e #rimar% roles o t"e state is to #ro)ide #eace and sec$rit% or its
citi5ens 0ot" !it"in t"e nation state and to ens$re t"eir #rotection against t"reats rom
o$tsideF A maMor so$rce o militar% conlict t"at #ro)ided oc$s or t"e !estern
!orld<s #erce#tion o t"e t"reat to "$man sec$rit% !as remo)ed !"en t"e cold !ar
came to an endF 8ario$s attem#ts "a)e 0een made to #ro)ide an ade>$ate
conce#t$ali5ation o "$man sec$rit%F &$man sec$rit%<s contri0$tion to sec$rit%
st$dies is to designate t"e indi)id$al rat"er t"an t"e state as t"e reerent o0Mect o
sec$rit%4 alt"o$g" t"is does not a0rogate t"e sec$rit% o state4 !"ic"4 in t$rn4 can
#rotect its indi)id$alsF /"$s4 t"e comm$nit%4 t"e nation4 and ot"er gro$#s are
reerents o sec$rit% as long as t"e sec$rit% tric6les do!n to #eo#leF &$man sec$rit%
#romises a oc$s on indi)id$als and #eo#les4 0$t more !idel%4 on )al$es and goals
s$c" as dignit%4 e>$it% and solidarit%F -$t t"is ne! #aradigm in)ol)es more t"an M$st
setting t"e indi)id$al $# t"e centre o a constellation o t"reats4 actors and
#rogrammesF /"$s4 "$man sec$rit% is com#rised o a m$ltit$de o dierent t"reats
militar% or traditional sec$rit% ris6sF
'ocio-economic t"reats are t"ose !"ic" #ertain to sec$rit% o em#lo%ment and
income or access o indi)id$als to maMor #$0lic ser)ices s$c" as "ealt" care4 ade>$ate
"o$sing4 and ed$cationF -e%ond t"e more traditional t"reats o $nderde)elo#ment eFgF
#o)ert%4 "$nger4 access to ood4 disease4 #oll$tion and str$ct$ral )iolence is also
incl$ded in t"e deinition o insec$rit%F Food sec$rit%4 deined as not onl% t"e
a)aila0ilit% o ood4 0$t also t"e ca#acit% to gain access to it t"ro$g" li)eli"oods
co$ld also 0e in t"is categor%F /"is dimension4 !"ic" can 0e meas$red >$antitati)el%4
is generall% associated !it" reedom rom !ant in t"e 0roadest senseF
*ersonal sec$rit% t"reats are t"ose !"ic" are attri0$ted 0e%ond criminalit%4 to
indi)id$al #erce#tions and earsN or eJam#le4 ear o losing access to "ealt" ser)ices
in t"e #rocess o "ealt" ins$rance reorm or ear o losing a Mo0 in t"e #rocess o
restr$ct$ring contri0$te to #ersonal le)els o insec$rit%F /"e% encom#ass t"reats rom
t"e state t"ro$g" #"%sical tort$re4 t"reats rom ot"er states4 rom international or
cross-0order terrorism4 rom ot"er gro$#s and rom indi)id$als or gangs4 domestic
)iolence4 )iolence against c"ildren and e)en )iolence against one<s selF
.n)ironment t"reats are deined in t"is rame!or6 as not onl% t"reats to t"e
en)ironment 0$t "o! t"ese im#acts on #eo#le and increase t"eir )$lnera0ilit% eFgF
#oll$tion and manmade or nat$ral disasters s$c" as loods eart">$a6esF *olitical
t"reats incl$de ci)il and "$man rig"ts )iolations4 )iolence stemming rom conlicts4
as !ell as ar0itrar% 0e"a)io$r4 a corr$#t ci)il ser)ice4 t"e $n#redicta0ilit% o
33
instit$tional settings4 a #oorl% $nction M$diciar%4 t"e lac6 o enorcement o t"e r$le
o la!4 etc4 generall% associated !it" reedom rom earF (n t"is categor% co$ld also
0e incl$ded t"e U2D* 1==4 deinition o comm$nit% sec$rit% dimension4 !"ic"
designates 0ot" t"e sec$rit% o t"e comm$nit% as regards its identit% and #ractices4
and t"e sec$rit% o t"e indi)id$al against #ossi0le t"reats rom t"e comm$nit% s$c" as
discriminator% #racticesF
/"e 1==4 U2D* &$man De)elo#ment +e#ort s%nt"esi5ed t"reats to "$man sec$rit%
in se)en com#onentsK economic4 ood4 "ealt"4 en)ironmental4 #ersonal4 comm$nit%
and #olitical sec$rit% as ollo!s 4S. Neil 5ac6ralance and 7en 6oon8 &%%(93
6conomic security, !"ere t"e main t"reat is #o)ert%4 re>$ires an ass$red 0asic income
eit"er rom #rod$cti)e and rem$nerati)e !or6 or rom go)ernment inanced social
saet% netsF
3ood security re>$ires t"at all #eo#le at all times "a)e 0ot" #"%sical and economic
access to 0asic oodF According to t"e United 2ations4 t"e o)erall a)aila0ilit% o ood
is not a #ro0lemN rat"er t"e #ro0lem oten is t"e #oor distri0$tion o ood and a lac6
o #$rc"asing #o!erF (n t"e #ast4 ood sec$rit% #ro0lems "a)e 0een dealt !it" at 0ot"
national and glo0al le)elsF &o!e)er4 t"eir im#acts are limitedF According to U24 t"e
6e% is to tac6le t"e #ro0lems relating to access to assets4 !or6 and ass$red incomeF
&ealth Security, !"ere t"e t"reats incl$de inM$r% and disease4 re>$ires access to
"ealt" care and "ealt" ser)ices4 incl$ding sae and aorda0le amil% #lanningF /"e
t"reats to "ealt" sec$rit% are greater or #oor #eo#le in r$ral areas4 #artic$larl%
!omen and c"ildren4 !"o are eJ#osed to diseaseF
6nvironmental security aims to #rotect #eo#le rom t"e s"ort- and long-term ra)ages
o nat$re4 man-made t"reats in nat$re4 and deterioration o t"e nat$ral en)ironmentF
(n de)elo#ing co$ntries4 lac6 o access to clean !ater reso$rces is one o t"e greatest
en)ironmental t"reatsF (n ind$strial co$ntries4 one o t"e maMor t"reats is #oll$tionF
Glo0al4 ca$sed 0% t"e emission o green"o$se gases4 is anot"er en)ironmental
sec$rit% iss$eF
#ersonal security aims to #rotect #eo#le rom #"%sical )iolence4 !"et"er rom t"e
state or eJternal states4 rom )iolent indi)id$als and s$0-state actors4 rom domestic4
or rom #redator% ad$ltsF For man% #eo#le4 t"e greatest so$rce o anJiet% is crime4
#artic$larl% )iolent crimeF
34
!ommunity security, !"ere t"e t"reat is to t"e integrit% o c$lt$ral di)ersit%4 re>$ires
sec$rit% rom o##ressi)e traditional #ractice4 treating !omen "ars"l%4 discriminating
against et"nic or indigeno$s gro$#s and re$gee4 gro$# re0ellion and armed conlictsF
#olitical security, !"ere t"e t"reat is #olitical re#ression4 re>$ires res#ect or "$man
rig"ts4 #rotection rom militar% dictators"i#s or a0$se4 rom #olitical or state
re#ression4 rom t"e #ractice o tort$re4 ill treatment or disa##earance4 and rom
#olitical detention and im#risonmentF
T-o Schools o' Thouht on Human Security
/"e "$man sec$rit% agenda "a)e led to t"e emergence o t!o maMor sc"ools o
t"o$g"t on "o! to 0est #ractice "$man sec$rit% Freedom rom Fear and Freedom
rom :antF :"ile t"e U2D* 1==4 re#ort originall% arg$ed t"at "$man sec$rit%
re>$ires attention to 0ot" freedom from fear and freedom from want, di)isions "a)e
grad$all% emerged o)er t"e #ro#er sco#e o t"at #rotection (eFgF o)er !"at
t"reats indi)id$als s"o$ld 0e #rotected rom) and o)er t"e a##ro#riate mec"anisms
or res#onding to t"ese t"reatsF
6reedom 'rom 6ear
/"is sc"ool see6s to limit t"e #ractice o &$man 'ec$rit% to #rotecting indi)id$als
rom )iolent conlicts !"ile recogni5ing t"at t"ese )iolent t"reats are strongl%
associated !it" #o)ert%4 lac6 o state ca#acit% and ot"er orms o ine>$ities
4http3::---.humansecurityreport.in'o9. /"is a##roac" arg$es t"at limiting t"e
oc$s to )iolence is a realistic and managea0le a##roac" to!ards &$man 'ec$rit%F
.mergenc% assistance4 conlict #re)ention and resol$tion4 #eace-0$ilding are t"e
main concerns o t"is a##roac"F 1anada4 or eJam#le4 !as a critical #la%er in t"e
eorts to 0an landmines and "as incor#orated t"e Freedom rom Fear agenda as a
#rimar% com#onent in its o!n oreign #olic%F &o!e)er4 !"et"er s$c" narro!
a##roac" can tr$l% ser)e its #$r#ose in g$aranteeing more r$it$l res$lts remains to
0e an iss$eF For instance4 t"e conlicts in Dar$r are oten $sed in >$estioning t"e
eecti)eness o t"e +es#onsi0ilit% to *rotect4 a 6e% com#onent o t"e Freedom rom
Fear agendaF
6reedom 'rom >ant
/"e sc"ool ad)ocates a "olistic a##roac" in ac"ie)ing "$man sec$rit% and arg$es t"at
t"e t"reat agenda s"o$ld 0e 0roadened to incl$de "$nger4 disease and nat$ral disasters
0eca$se t"e% are inse#ara0le conce#ts in addressing t"e root o "$man insec$rit%

and
t"e% 6ill ar more #eo#le t"an !ar4 genocide and terrorism com0inedF Dierent rom
35
Freedom rom Fear4 it eJ#ands t"e oc$s 0e%ond )iolence !it" em#"asis on
de)elo#ment and sec$rit% goalsF
Fig$reK &$man sec$rit% as t"e neJ$s 0et!een reedom rom ear4 !ant and r$le o
la! 4Tad=2askhash8 Shahr2anou and Chenoy8 )nuradha 58 &%%*9
Human Security and State Security
&$man sec$rit% com#lements state sec$rit% in o$r res#ectsK
(ts concern is t"e indi)id$al and t"e comm$nit% rat"er t"an t"e stateF
,enaces to #eo#le<s sec$rit% incl$de t"reats and conditions t"at "a)e not
al!a%s 0een classiied as t"reats to state sec$rit%F
/"e range o actors is eJ#anded 0e%ond t"e state aloneF
Ac"ie)ing "$man sec$rit% incl$des not M$st #rotecting #eo#le 0$t also
em#o!ering #eo#le to end or t"emsel)esF
Comparison o' the Human Security and State Security
"ssue Human Security State Security
'ec$rit% or
!"om
*rimaril%4 t"e indi)id$al *rimaril%4 t"e state
'ec$rit% o
!"at )al$es
*ersonal saet% and indi)id$al
reedom
/erritorial integrit% and
national
inde#endence
'ec$rit% rom
!"at t"reats
Direct t"reats rom states and
non-state actors T indirect
Direct t"reats rom ot"er
states
36
t"reats
'ec$rit% 0%
!"at means
Force as a secondar%
instr$ment4
to 0e $sed #rimaril% or
cosmo#olitan ends and
collecti)el%N sanctions4 "$man
de)elo#ment4 and "$mane
go)ernance as 6e% instr$ments
o indi)id$al centered sec$rit%
-alance o #o!er is o limited
$tilit%N sot #o!er is
increasingl% im#ortant
1oo#eration 0et!een states4
international organi5ations and
2GOs can 0e eecti)e and
s$stained
2orms and instit$tions matterN
democrati5ation and
re#resentati)eness in
instit$tions en"ance t"eir
eecti)eness
+etaliator% orce or t"reat o its
$se4 0alance o #o!er4 militar%
means4 strengt"ening o
economic mig"t4 little attention
#aid to res#ect or la! or
instit$tionsF
Force as t"e #rimar%
instr$ment o sec$rit%4 to 0e
$sed $nilaterall% or a state<s
o!n saet%
-alance o #o!er is
im#ortantN #o!er is e>$ated
!it" militar% ca#a0ilities
1oo#eration 0et!een states
is ten$o$s 0e%ond alliance
relations
2orms and instit$tions are
o
limited )al$e4 #artic$larl% in
t"e sec$rit%9militar% s#"ere
*romoting "$man
de)elo#mentK 0asic needs
#l$s e>$it%4 s$staina0ilit%4
and greater democrati5ation
and #artici#ation at all
le)elsF
*romoting "$man rig"tsF
*romoting #olitical
de)elo#mentK glo0al norms
and instit$tions #l$s
collecti)e $se o orce as
!ell as sanctions in case o
genocide4 coo#eration
0et!een states4 reliance on
international instit$tions4
37
net!or6 and coalitions and
international organisationsF
Source3 4"ndependent Commission on "nternational Development "ssues3
,rand Report8 !0.%3!$9
The )pproaches o' Human Security
5ah2u2 ul HaG )pproach
/"e idea o "$man sec$rit% is generall% t"o$g"t to go 0ac6 to t"e United 2ations
De)elo#ment *rogramme +e#ort o 1==4F 1losel% associated !it" t"e idea rom t"e
late ,a"0$0 $l &a>4 !"o "ad earlier #la%ed a 6e% role in t"e constr$ction o t"e
&$man De)elo#ment (ndeJ (&D() and !"o !as s$0se>$entl% t"e mo)ing orce
0e"ind t"e more recent &$mane Go)ernance (ndeJF &a> ans!ers t"e >$estion o
sec$rit% or !"om >$ite sim#l%F &$man sec$rit% is not a0o$t states and nations4 0$t
a0o$t indi)id$als and #eo#leF /"$s4 "e arg$es t"at t"e !orld is entering a ne! era o
"$man sec$rit% in !"ic" t"e entire conce#t o sec$rit% !ill c"ange and c"ange
dramaticall%F (n t"is ne! conce#tion4 sec$rit% !ill 0e e>$ated !it" t"e sec$rit% o
indi)id$als4 not M$st sec$rit% o t"eir nations or4 to #$t it dierentl%4 sec$rit% o
#eo#le4 not M$st sec$rit% o territor%F
F$ndamentall%4 "$man sec$rit% !ill 0e ac"ie)ed t"ro$g" Gde)elo#ment4 notU
t"ro$g" armsFH (n #artic$lar4 i)e rat"er radical ste#s are necessar% to gi)e lie to t"e
ne! conce#tion o sec$rit%K a "$man de)elo#ment conce#tion !it" em#"asis on
e>$it%4 s$staina0ilit%4 and grassroots #artici#ationN a #eace di)idend to $nder!rite t"e
0roader agenda o "$man sec$rit%N a ne! #artners"i# 0et!een 2ort" and 'o$t" 0ased
on M$stice4 not c"arit% !"ic" em#"asi5es e>$ita0le access to glo0al mar6et
o##ort$nities and economic restr$ct$ringN a ne! rame!or6 o glo0al go)ernance
0$ilt on reorm o international instit$tions s$c" as t"e (,F4 :orld -an64 and United
2ationsN and inall%4 a gro!ing role or glo0al ci)il societ%F
,a"0$0 $l &a> o$tlines a long list o tr$l% ar-reac"ing #ro#osals or glo0al "$man
sec$rit%F
:"ic" are as ollo!ingK
DevelopmentallyK s$staina0ilit%N e>$it% o o##ort$nities (0etter distri0$tion o
#rod$cti)e assets4 incl$ding land and creditN o#en access to mar6et o##ort$nitiesN Mo0
creationN social saet% nets)N and glo0al M$stice )ia a Ga maMor restr$ct$ringH o t"e
!orld<s income4 cons$m#tion4 and liest%le #atterns
38
MilitarilyK red$cing arms eJ#endit$resN closing all militar% 0asesN con)erting militar%
aid to economic aidN sto##ing arms transersN eliminating arms eJ#ort s$0sidiesN
retraining !or6ers in deence ind$stries
/orth8South restructurinK e>$ita0le access to glo0al mar6ets or t"e #oor co$ntries
0$ilt on t"e remo)al o trade 0arriers (es#eciall% in teJtiles and agric$lt$re)N inancial
com#ensation rom t"e ric" co$ntries in ret$rn or immigration controls and or
o)er$se o glo0al en)ironmental reso$rcesN and a glo0al #a%ment mec"anisms or
)ario$s ser)ices rendered (eFgF en)ironmental ser)ices4 control o narcotics and
disease)4 or GdamagesH in cases o economic inM$r%4 and or 0ad economic cond$ct
(eFgF enco$raging t"e 0rain drain4 restricting migration o lo!-s6ill la0o$r4 eJ#ort
restrictions)
InstitutionallyK t"e res$scitation and restr$ct$ring o t"e (,F4 :orld -an64 and U2 to
oc$s more on "$man de)elo#mentN economic adM$stments !"ic" target t"e ric" more
t"an t"e #oorN ne! go)ernance #atterns e)er%!"ere !"ic" em#o!er t"e #oorN ne!
instit$tions s$c" as a !orld central 0an64 a glo0al taJation s%stem4 a !orld trade
organi5ation4 an international in)estment tr$st4 a !orld treas$r%4 and a0o)e all4 a
re#resentati)e and )eto-less .conomic 'ec$rit% 1o$ncil in t"e U2 !"ic" !o$ld 0e
t"e "ig"est decision ma6ing or$m to deal !it" all iss$es conronting "$manit%H
incl$ding ood and en)ironmental sec$rit%4 #o)ert% and Mo0 creation4 migration and
dr$g traic6ing
The evolution of a lo-al civil society5 all o t"e a0o)e !o$ld re>$ire grassroots
#artici#ation and a c"ange rom a$t"oritarian to democratic go)ernmentF
;NDP )pproach
/raditional notions o sec$rit% !ere concerned !it" sec$rit% o territor% rom eJternal
aggression4 or as #rotection o national interests in oreign #olic%4 or as glo0al
sec$rit% rom t"e t"reat o n$clear "oloca$stF (t "as 0een related more to nation-states
t"an to #eo#leF :"at t"is conce#tion o)erloo6ed !as t"e legitimate concerns o
ordinar% #eo#le !"o so$g"t sec$rit% in t"eir dail% li)esF &$man sec$rit%4 on t"e ot"er
"and4 is #eo#le-centredF /"$s4 t"e &$man De)elo#ment +e#ort (1==4) insists4 as did
&a>4 t"at t"e reerent o0Mect o "$man sec$rit% is indi)id$al or #eo#leF (n s$##ort o
t"is contention4 t"e re#ort cites t"e o$nding doc$ment o t"e U2 and its original
delineation o sec$rit% as Greedom rom earH as also Greedom rom !antH and Gt"e
e>$al !eig"t to territories and to #eo#leH t"at t"at distinction im#liedF Unort$natel%4
d$ring t"e cold !ar4 sec$rit% t"in6ing "ad tilted o)erl% to!ards t"e #rotection o
3=
territor%N ater t"e cold !ar4 t"e re#ort #ro#oses4 it is time to redress t"e 0alance and
incl$de t"e #rotection o #eo#leF
/"e &$man De)elo#ment +e#ort<s treatment o sec$rit% )al$es is in t!o #artsF (t4
irst o all4 ma6es a n$m0er o rat"er general statements a0o$t )al$es !"ic"
em#"asi5e t"e saet%4 !ell 0eing4 and dignit% o indi)id$al "$man 0eings in t"eir
dail% li)esF /"$s4 reminiscent o &a>4 t"e re#ort notes t"at t"e traditional conce#tion
o sec$rit%4 in oc$ssing on territorial integrit%4 t"e ad)ancement o t"e national
interest4 and n$clear deterrence4 ignored clear and more #resent dangers aced at
e)er% t$rn 0% ordinar% men and !omenF For man%Usec$rit% s%m0oli5ed #rotection
rom t"e t"reat o disease4 "$nger4 $nem#lo%ment4 crime4 social conlict4 #olitical
re#ression4 and en)ironmental "a5ardsF 7ess a0stractl%4 "$man sec$rit% is a c"ild !"o
did not die4 a disease t"at did not s#read4 a Mo0 t"at !as not c$t4 an et"nic tension t"at
did not eJ#lode in )iolence4 a dissident !"o !as not silencedF &$man sec$rit% is not
a concern !it" !ea#onsN it is a concern !it" "$man lie and dignit%F (t is concerned
!it" "o! #eo#le li)e and 0reat"e in a societ%4 "o! reel% t"e% eJercise t"eir man%
c"oices4 "o! m$c" access t"e% "a)e to mar6et and social o##ort$nities and !"et"er
t"e% li)e in conlict or in #eaceF &$man sec$rit% also encom#asses a sense o
#ersonal c"oice and s$ret% a0o$t t"e $t$re and o #ersonal eicac% and o##ort$nit%F
/"$s4 in dra!ing attention to t"e dierence 0et!een "$man sec$rit% and its cognate4
"$man de)elo#ment4 t"e +e#ort arg$es t"at t"e latter is a 0roader conce#t and reers
to a #rocess o !idening t"e range o #eo#le<s c"oices4 !"ile t"e ormer im#lies t"at
#eo#le can eJercise t"ese c"oices sael% and reel% and t"at t"e% can 0e relati)el%
conident t"at t"e o##ort$nities t"e% "a)e toda% are not totall% lost tomorro!F Along
!it" a sense o c"oice and s$ret% a0o$t t"e $t$re4 #eo#le s"o$ld 0e eicacio$s and
em#o!ered eno$g" to 0e a0le to ta6e care o t"emsel)esF All #eo#le s"o$ld "a)e t"e
o##ort$nit% to meet t"eir most essential needs and to earn t"eir o!n li)ingF
-e%ond t"ese generalities4 t"e +e#ort lists se)en com#onents or se)en s#eciic )al$es
o "$man sec$rit%K economic sec$rit%4 ood sec$rit%4 "ealt" sec$rit%4 en)ironmental
sec$rit%4 #ersonal sec$rit%4 comm$nit% sec$rit%4 and #olitical sec$rit%F .conomic
sec$rit% reers to an indi)id$al<s enMo%ment o a 0asic income4 eit"er t"ro$g" gain$l
em#lo%ment or rom a social saet% netF Food sec$rit% reers to an indi)id$al<s access
to ood )ia "is or "er assets4 em#lo%ment4 or incomeF &ealt" sec$rit% reers to an
indi)id$al<s reedom rom )ario$s diseases and de0ilitating illnesses and "is or "er
access to "ealt" careF .n)ironmental sec$rit% reers to t"e integrit% o land4 air4 and
!ater4 !"ic" ma6e "$man "a0itation #ossi0leF *ersonal sec$rit% reers to an
indi)id$al<s reedom rom crime and )iolence4 es#eciall% !omen and c"ildren !"o
are more )$lnera0leF 1omm$nit% sec$rit% reers to c$lt$ral dignit% and to inter-
4D
comm$nit% #eace !it"in !"ic" an indi)id$al li)es and gro!sF Finall%4 #olitical
sec$rit% reers to #rotection against "$man rig"ts )iolationsF
According to t"e +e#ort4 t"e more locali5ed t"reats can 0e $nderstood in relation to
t"e se)en )al$es o "$man sec$rit%F /"ese are s$mmari5ed 0elo!K
/"reats to economic sec$rit%K lac6 o #rod$cti)e and rem$nerati)e
em#lo%ment4 #recario$s em#lo%ment4 a0sence o #$0licl% inanced saet%
netsF
/"reats to ood sec$rit%K lac6 o ood entitlements incl$ding ins$icient
access to assets4 !or64 and ass$red incomesF
/"reats to "ealt" sec$rit%K inectio$s and #arasitic diseases4 diseases o t"e
circ$lator% s%stem and cancers4 lac6 o sae !ater4 air #oll$tion4 lac6 o access
to "ealt" care acilitiesF
/"reats to en)ironmental sec$rit%K declining !ater a)aila0ilit%4 !ater
#oll$tion4 declining ara0le land4 deorestation4 desertiication4 air #oll$tion4
nat$ral disasters
/"reats to #ersonal sec$rit%K )iolent crime4 dr$g traic6ing4 )iolence and
a0$se o c"ildren and !omenF
/"reats to comm$nit% sec$rit%K 0rea6do!n o t"e amil%4 colla#se o
traditional lang$ages and c$lt$res4 et"nic discrimination and strie4 genocide
and et"nic cleansingF
/"reats to #olitical sec$rit%K go)ernment re#ression4 s%stematic "$man rig"ts
)iolations4 militari5ationF
(n addition to t"e more locali5ed t"reats listed a0o)e4 t"e +e#ort cites a n$m0er o
more glo0al or transnational t"reats !"ose s#read or eects go !ell 0e%ond an%
gi)en national 0o$ndariesF /"ese are gro$#ed into siJ areasK
*o#$lation gro!t" !"ic" increases t"e #ress$re on non-rene!a0le reso$rces
and is lin6ed intimatel% to glo0al #o)ert%4 en)ironmental degradation4 and
international migrationF
Gro!ing dis#arities in glo0al income leading to o)ercons$m#tion and
o)er#rod$ction in t"e ind$striali5ed co$ntries and #o)ert% and en)ironmental
degradation in t"e de)elo#ing !orldF
41
(ncreasing international migration as a $nction o #o#$lation gro!t"4 #o)ert%4
and t"e #olicies o t"e ind$strial co$ntries "a)e contri0$ted to t"e lo! o
international migrants as also an increase in re$gees and internall% dis#laced
#ersonsF
8ario$s orms o en)ironmental deca% (t"at among ot"er t"ings ca$se acid rain4
s6in cancer4 and glo0al !arming) as !ell as red$ced 0iodi)ersit%4 and t"e
destr$ction o !etlands4 coral rees4 and tem#erate orests as !ell as tro#ical
rainorests
Dr$g traic6ing4 !"ic" "as gro!n into a glo0al4 m$ltinational ind$str%F
(nternational terrorism !"ic" "as s#read rom 7atin America in t"e 1=6Ds to a
glo0al #"enomenon
The Canadian and 5iddle Po-ers< )pproach
/"e 1anadian led middle #o!ers< a##roac" to "$man sec$rit% o)erla#s
!it" t"e U2D* a##roac" 0$t o)er t"e %ears "as dierentiated itsel rom itF
Disentangling t"e 0asics o Otta!a<s a##roac" on t"e 0asis o o$r o$r orienting
>$estions re)eals t"at t"e t!o sc"ools are >$ite distinct in some res#ectsF 1anada "as
made t!o maMor statements o its #osition 4!00*8 !0009 and along !it" 2or!a%
organi5ed a middle #o!ers< conerence in 1ysoen in Nor-ay 4!0009 !"ic" largel%
airmed its )ie!#ointF For 1anada4 as m$c" as t"e U2D*4 "$man sec$rit% im#lies
sec$rit% or t"e indi)id$al4 a #eo#le-centred )ie! o sec$rit%4 -e%ond sec$rit% or
!"om is t"e iss$e o sec$rit% o !"at )al$esF As noted a0o)e4 "$man sec$rit% )al$es
incl$de Gan acce#ta0le >$alit% o lie4H and Ga g$arantee o $ndamental "$man
rig"tsHF ,inimall%4 it im#lies 0asic needsU4 s$stained economic de)elo#ment4
"$man rig"ts and $ndamental reedoms4 t"e r$le o la!4 good go)ernance4
s$staina0le de)elo#ment and social e>$it%F /"e 1ysoen declaration arg$es t"at t"e
$ndamental )al$es o "$man sec$rit% are reedom rom ear4 reedom rom !ant4
and e>$al o##ort$nitiesF /"e core )al$e o a "$man sec$rit% conce#tion t"o$g" is
reedom rom #er)asi)e t"reats to #eo#le<s rig"ts4 t"eir saet% or t"eir li)es4 t"at is4
!"at t"e declaration calls reedom rom earF /"e 1anadian #a#er is less eJ"a$sti)e
and less s%stematic t"an t"e U2D* re#ort4 0$t ne)ert"eless #resents a rat"er
im#ressi)e list o t"reatsF /"e 1==7 #a#er cites among ot"ers t"e income ga# 0et!een
ric" and #oor co$ntries4 internal conlict and state ail$re4 transnational crime4 t"e
#rolieration o !ea#ons o mass destr$ction4 religio$s and et"nic discord4
en)ironmental degradation4 #o#$lation gro!t"4 et"nic conlict and migration4 state
re#ression4 t"e !ides#read $se o anti-#ersonnel landmines4 c"ild a0$se4 economic
42
$nderde)elo#ment4 and a $nsta0le4 #rotectionist international trading s%stemF
Glo0ali5ation is anot"er actor4 !"ic" "as 0ro$g"t in its !a6e )iolent crime4 dr$g
trade4 terrorism4 disease and en)ironmental deteriorationH and internal !ar o$g"t 0%
irreg$lar orces o et"nic and religio$s gro$#s e>$i##ed !it" small armsF /"e decline
o state control and t"e gro!t" o organi5ed crime4 dr$g traic6ing4 and #ri)ate
sec$rit% orces4 all t"ese "a)e increased )iolence against indi)id$alsF (n addition4 a
0roadening range o transnational t"reats renders indi)id$als more )$lnera0leK
economic glo0ali5ation and 0etter comm$nications and trans#ortation increase
#oll$tion4 disease )ectors4 and economic insta0ilities !orld!ideF
(n 1==74 1anada s$ggested t"at #eace0$ilding4 #eace6ee#ing4 disarmament es#eciall%
t"e a0olition o anti-#ersonnel landmines4 saeg$arding t"e rig"ts o c"ildren4 and
economic de)elo#ment t"ro$g" r$les-0ased trade !ere 6e% areas o t"e "$man
sec$rit% endea)o$r or Otta!aF /o mo)e t"is agenda or!ard4 1anada !o$ld "a)e to
rel% increasingl% on sot #o!er4 t"e art o disseminating inormation in s$c" a !a%
t"at desira0le o$tcomes are ac"ie)ed t"ro$g" #ers$asion rat"er t"an coercionF 1anada
and )ario$s ot"er middle #o!ers !ere ideall% s$ited to net!or64 0$ild coalitions4 and
0ring ot"ers ro$nd to $nderstand t"e im#ortance o "$man sec$rit%F Go)ernments4
2GOs4 academics4 0$sinesses and ordinar% citi5ens !ere all #otential #artners in t"is
endea)o$rF
/"e 1=== 1anadian #a#er am#liies t"e 1==7 a##roac" 0% listing siJ 0roader
#rinci#les t"at mig"t g$ide actionsF 1om0ined4 t"ese 0oil do!n to t"ree maMor
#rinci#lesF
First4 t"e international comm$nit% m$st consider coercion incl$ding t"e $se o
sanctions and orce i necessar%F 'econd4 national sec$rit% #olicies t"emsel)es m$st
0e altered4 to gi)e d$e consideration to t"e #romotion o "$man sec$rit% goalsF
(ntegral to t"e ne! sec$rit% #olic% agenda m$st 0e t"e #romotion o norms o
instit$tions and t"e $se o de)elo#ment strategies norms9instit$tions (eFgF "$man
rig"ts4 "$manitarian and re$gee la!) !o$ld set standards o cond$ctN and
de)elo#ment strategies !o$ld4 #res$ma0l%4 0ring a0o$t conditions !it"in !"ic" it
!o$ld 0e easier or states and non-state actors to o0ser)e t"ose normsF /"e 1ysoen
declaration4 !"ic" 1anada "el#ed drat4 lists ten areas in !"ic" norms !ere re>$iredK
anti-#ersonnel landmines4 small arms4 c"ildren in armed conlict4 international
criminal co$rt #roceedings4 eJ#loitation o c"ildren4 saet% o "$manitarian
#ersonnel4 conlict #re)ention4 transnational organi5ed crime4 and reso$rces or
de)elo#mentF Also im#ortant t"o$g" are im#ro)ements in go)ernance ca#acities4
0ot" !it"in states and internationall%F /"e ormer im#lies democrati5ation and t"e
43
latter a more eecti)e U2 str$ct$reF A t"ird #rinci#le o eecti)e action on 0e"al o
"$man sec$rit% is to constr$ct a coalition o states4 international organi5ations4 and
2GOs t"at !o$ld #romote de)elo#ment and "el# enorce agreed-$#on normsF
Comparison o' the ;NDP and Canadian Schools o' Human Security
;NDP School Canadian School
'ec$rit%
or !"om
*rimaril% t"e indi)id$al *rimaril% t"e indi)id$al4 0$t state
sec$rit% also is im#ortant
'ec$rit%
o !"at
)al$es
*ersonal saet%9!ell-
0eing and indi)id$al
reedom
*ersonal saet%9!ell-0eing and
indi)id$al reedom
'ec$rit%
rom
!"at
t"reats
Direct and indirect
)iolenceN greater
em#"asis on indirect
)iolence4 es#eciall%
economic4
en)ironmental actors
Direct and indirect )iolenceN
greater em#"asis on direct
)iolence at t!o le)els V
national9societal and
international9glo0al
'ec$rit%
0% !"at
means
*romoting "$man
de)elo#mentK 0asic
needs #l$s e>$it%4
s$staina0ilit%4 and
greater democrati5ation
and #artici#ation at all
le)els o glo0al societ%
*romoting #olitical de)elo#mentK
glo0al norms and instit$tions
(go)ernance) #l$s collecti)e $se
o orce as !ell as sanctions i
and !"en necessar%
6ear >ant Dinity
#ositivist analytic /ormative operational
minimalist9narrow ma:ima9-road
traditional security human rihts focused
fi:ed definition postmodern
44
6iure3 The de'initional mappin tool o' Human Security o' di''erent school.
/"e sim#lest deinition o "$man sec$rit% is a0sence o insec$rit% and t"reats4 iFeF
reedom rom 0ot" ear and !antF &$man sec$rit%4 t"ereore4 deals !it" dierence
t"e ca#acit% to identi% t"reats4 or a)oid t"em !"en #ossi0le4 and mitigate t"eir
eects !"en t"e% do occ$rF /"is 0roadened $se o t"e !orld sec$rit% encom#asses
t!o ideasK one is t"e notion o saet% t"at goes 0e%ond t"e conce#t o mere #"%sical
sec$rit% in t"e traditional sense4 and t"e ot"er4 t"e idea t"at #eo#le<s li)eli"ood s"o$ld
0e g$aranteed against s$dden disr$#tionsF Deining "$man sec$rit% t"ereore 0egins
!it" its M$Jta#osition !it" t"e traditional state centric deinition o sec$rit% rom t"e
realist and neo-realist sc"oolF /"e most minimalist a##roac" to "$man sec$rit%4 iFeF
reedom rom ear see6s to ens$re indi)id$als< saet% rom direct t"reat4 t"eir #"%sical
integrit% and satisaction o 0asic needsF /"reats to 0e addressed remain relati)el%
traditionalK armed conlict4 "$man rig"ts a0$ses4 #$0lic insec$rit% and organised
crimeF '$c" a narro! deinition is M$stiied 0% its anal%tical >$alit% and its #olic%
a##lica0ilit%4 in o##osition to t"e all encom#assing deinition o "$man sec$rit% t"at
is deemed to 0e a $seless s"o##ing list o t"reats 4Krause8 &%%+9.
1anada endorses t"is $nderstanding o "$man sec$rit% and deends reedom rom
#er)asi)e t"reats to #eo#le<s rig"ts4 saet% or li)esF /"e 0roadest categor% o
deinitions adds a lie o dignit% to reedom rom !ant and earF Deended 0% t"e
"$man sec$rit% net!or6 as !ell as U2D*4 t"e com0ination o sec$rit%4 de)elo#ment
and dignit% encom#asses 0ot" material and >$antitati)e as#ects o "$man sec$rit%F
/"e rationale 0e"ind t"e Ea#anese )ie! o "$man sec$rit%4 de)elo#ment and dignit%
encom#asses 0ot" material and >$antitati)e as#ects o "$man sec$rit%F /"e rationale
0e"ind t"e Ea#anese )ie! o "$man sec$rit%4 or eJam#le4 #reser)ation and #rotection
o t"e lie and dignit% o indi)id$al "$man 0eings<4 is t"e essential indi)isi0ilit% o
"$man sec$rit% com#onents4 t"e #re sense o a !ide range o non classical iss$es
aecting indi)id$als and interconnectedness o t"reatsF
Civil Society
/"e ci)il societ% lies in 6e% #"ase o modernit% in t"e late eig"teent" and earl%
nineteent" cent$riesF /"e !riters in classical #"iloso#"% and #olitical econom% 0egan
to disting$is" s%stematicall% 0et!een t"e s#"ere o state and societ%F (n e$dal
societ%4 t"e same social relations 0et!een s$#eriors and ineriors "ad em0raced 0ot"
#rod$ction and amil% lie on t"e one "and4 and #olitical and militar% a$t"orit%4 on
t"e ot"erF :it" t"e dissol$tion o e$dal relations4 t"ese t!o areas o social lie
0ecome more clearl% demarcated in modern conditions as societ% and state
4Chandhoke8 Neera !00/9. /"e term ci)il societ% !as irst $sed to disting$is" a
45
s#"ere in !"ic" social relations !ere 0ased on t"e ree association o indi)id$als
rat"er t"an a iJed "ierarc"% o legal instit$tionF For classical !riters li6e t"e
#"iloso#"er George &egel and t"e re)ol$tionar% t"eorist ;arl ,arJ4 ci)il societ% !as
an incl$si)e conce#t o societ% min$s t"e stateF 1i)il societ% !as declined 0% t"e
emergence o a distinct #olitical econom% in !"ic" indi)id$al related to eac" ot"er as
inde#endent agents rat"er t"an as #eo#le !"o illed #rescri0ed social rolesF
1i)il societ% is a conce#t o im#ortant strategicall% at t"e cross section o im#ortant
strands o intellect$al de)elo#ment in t"e social sciencesF 1i)il societ% reers to arena
o $nco)ered collecti)e action aro$nd s"ared interests4 #$r#ose and )al$esF (n t"eor%4
its instit$tional orms are distinct rom t"ose o t"e state4 amil% and mar6et t"ro$g"
in #ractice4 t"e 0o$ndaries 0et!een state4 ci)il societ%4 amil% and mar6et are oten
com#leJ4 0l$rred and negotiatedF 1i)il societ% commonl% em0races a di)ersit% o
s#aces4 actors and instit$tional orms )ar%ing in t"eir degree o ormalit%4 a$tonom%
and #o!erF 1i)il societies are oten #o#$lated 0% organisation s$c" as registered
c"arities4 de)elo#ment nongo)ernmental organisation4 comm$nit% gro$#s4 !omen<s
organisation4 ait" 0ased organisations4 #roessional associations4 trade $nions4 sel-
"el# gro$#s4 social mo)ements4 0$siness associations4 collection and ad)ocac% gro$#F
1i)il societ% !as central to t"e !or6 o some o t"e most im#ortant #olitical t"in6ers
rom t"e se)enteent" centa$r% on!ardsF Among ot"ers4 &o00es4 7oc6e and e)en
&egel disting$is"ed 0et!een state and ci)il societ%4 t"at is t"e organised societ% o)er
!"ic" t"e state r$lesF '$c" a distinction is not entirel% )alidN since t"e state is itsel
#art o societ%F &o!e)er4 !e a!are t"at4 as !ell as instit$tions 0o$nd $# !it" ormal
a$t"orit% and #olitical control4 t"ese eJists a set o interlin6ed and sta0le social
instit$tions !"ic" "a)e m$c" inl$ence on4 or control o)er4 o)er li)esF /"e
distinction4 and t"e conse>$ent im#ortance o ci)il societ% as a conce#t4 originates
!it" t"e state o nat$re t"eorists4 es#eciall% &o00es and 7oc6eF /"e% "eld t"at
#olitical a$t"orit% !as at least "%#ot"etical dis#ensa0leN t"at is4 t"e% arg$ed as t"o$g"
it !as #ossi0le not "a)e a state4 and t"e% t"ereore needed a conce#t to descri0e t"e
remaining instit$tionsF 1i)il societ%4 t"en4 is t"e rame !or6 !it"in !"ic" t"ose
!it"o$t #olitical a$t"orit% li)e t"eir li)es economic relations"i#4 amil% and 6ins"i#
str$ct$res4 religio$s instit$tions and so onF (t is a #$rel% anal%tic conce#t 0eca$se ci)il
societ% does not eJist inde#endentl% o #olitical a$t"orit%4 nor )ice )ersa4 and4 it is
generall% 0eli)ed4 neit"er co$ld long contin$e !it"o$t t"e ot"erN t"ereore4 no )er%
clear 0o$ndar% can 0e dra!n 0et!een t!oF
/"e neglect o ci)il societ% in recent decades "as t!o main ca$sesF One is t"e act
t"at t"e state itsel "as 0een disc$ssed less4 "a)ing 0een re#laced4 inade>$atel%4 0%
notions li6e t"e #olitical s%stemF /"e ot"er is t"at t"e gro!ing trend to!ards $sing
46
sociological models in #olitical t"in6ing "as tended to aect t"e 0arriers 0et!een
#olitical acti)it% and social acti)it%N 0ot" are treated as maniestations o $nderl%ing
ideological4 c$lt$ral or e)en economic #atternsF (n act4 t"e >$estion o t"e
inter#enetration o state and societ% in t"is sense mig"t more sensi0l% 0e treated as an
em#irical >$estion to 0e sol)ed in eac" #artic$lar caseF *er"a#s t"e real $se o t"e
conce#ts is to stress t"at #olitical s%stems are normall% i not sociologicall%4
secondar% to4 and o$g"t to 0e relections o direct and sometimes )ol$ntar% "$man
relationsF .)en t"is #oint !o$ld 0e denied 0% some4 es#eciall% t"ose inlations 0% t"e
classical Gree6 #olitical tradition4 !"o arg$e t"at t"e state creates ci)il societ%4 rat"er
t"an itsel 0eing a##ended to t"e latterF
/"e eJistence o ci)il societ% organisations in mar6et econom% is $ndo$0tedl% a
$ni>$e #"enomenonF /"e $ndamental ass$m#tion in"erent in s$c" organisations is
t"at #roit or #ersonal economic gain is not t"e sole moti)ation or determining t"e
economic 0e"a)io$r o "$man 0eingsF /"ere are certain needs o indi)id$als in
modern societ% !"ic" cannot 0e satisied t"ro$g" t"e sel-interested #$rs$it o #roit
in mar6et relationsF ,an% a time mar6ets do not res#ond or are sim#l% not interested
in #rod$cing goods or ser)ices !"ic" are not economicall% re!arding to #rod$cersF
'ometimes4 t"e s#ecial nat$re o goods or ser)ices re>$ires s$c" small scales o
#rod$ction as are not #roita0le at allF .)en at times4 mono#ol% o mar6et o mar6et
#rod$ces goods or ser)ices o s$0standard >$alit% or t"e ca#ti)e clientsN "ence t"ere
is al!a%s a cra)ing or >$alit% goodsF On t"e ot"er "and4 t"ere are al!a%s man% areas
or ser)ices or goods !"ic" $s$all% remain $nattended or ignored 0% a modern stateF
(n s$c" a sit$ation interested #eo#le come toget"er and esta0lis"ed ci)il societ%
organi5ations to #rod$ce goods or ser)ices eit"er or t"e 0eneit o its mem0ers or or
!ider $se o comm$nit% or societ%F 1i)il societ% organi5ations !"ic" #rod$ce goods
or more or less4 eJcl$si)el%4 or t"e 0eneits o its mem0ers are ca6ed m$t$al-0eneit
organi5ationsF /"e ot"ers4 !"ic" ser)e t"e 0roader interest o comm$nit% or some
)$lnera0le sections o societ%4 are called #$0lic 0eneit organi5ationsF
The >orld ,ank uses the term civil society to re'er to the3
;ide array of non8overnmental and not for profit orani<ations that have a
presence in pu-lic life, e:pressin the interests and values of their mem-ers or others
-ased on ethical, cultural, political, scientific reliions or philanthropic
considerations% !ivil society orani<ations therefore refer to a wide of array of
orani<ations5 community roups, charita-le orani<ations, faith -ased
orani<ations, professional associations and foundations
4http:,,*eb"*orldbank"org-"
47
The ;NDP<s de'inition o' civil society3
!ivil society is toether with state and mar7et one of three spheres that
interface in the ma7in of democratic societies% !ivil society is the sphere in which
social movement -ecome oranised% The oranisations of civil society which
represent many diverse and some time contradictory social interests are shaped to fit
their social -ase, constituconary, thematic orientations =e%% environment, ender,
human rihts> and type of activity% They include church related roups, trade unions,
cooperative, service oranisations, community roups and youth oranisations as
well as academic institutions and other%
The 1ondon School o' Economics Centre 'or Civil SocietyHs -orkin de'inition
o' civil society is as 'ollo-K
!ivil society refers to the arena of uncoerced collective action around
shared interests, purposes and values% In theory, its institutional forms are distinct
from those of the state, family and mar7et, thouh in practice, the -oundaries
-etween state, civil society, family and mar7et are often comple:, -lurred and
neotiated% !ivil society commonly em-races a diversity of spaces, actors and
institutional forms, varyin in their deree of formality, autonomy and power% !ivil
societies are often populated -y orani<ations such as reistered charities,
development non8overnmental orani<ations, community roups, women?s
orani<ations, faith8-ased orani<ations, professional associations, trade unions,
self8help roups, social movements, -usiness associations, coalitions and advocacy
roups" .I>hat is civil societyJI Centre 'or Civil Society8 1ondon School o'
Economics. &%%+#%$#%!. Retrieved &%%(#!%#$%9
@lo2al Civil Society
1ritical allo$t o glo0alisation "as 0een t"e erosion o so)ereignt% o modern nation
statesF 2on-state instit$tions "a)e 0$ilt trans0order lin6s and are o#erating relati)el%
inde#endent o statesF /rans!ord acti)ities are no more ta6ing #lace !it"in t"e
eJcl$si)e M$risdiction o inter-state relationsF +at"er4 man% s$#er state instit$tions4
mar6et agencies4 m$ltilateral instit$tions and ci)il societ% organisations are no!
$nctioning 0e%ond t"e direct control o modern stateF /"e United 2ations and its
s$0sidiar% 0odies "a)e considera0l% enlarged t"eir tas6s and s$0stantiall% inl$encing
!orld aairsF Originall% esta0lis"ed or intergo)ernmental cons$ltations and
48
coordination4 t"ese 0odies ma% no! 0e easil% designated as glo0al go)ernance
agenciesF (nternational ,onetar% F$nd and :orld -an6 are #$rs$ing t"eir inancial
and de)elo#ment agendas !"ic" at times are not consistent !it" t"e )ie!s o modern
nation statesF ,ar6et instit$tions are #la%ing increased role in !orld aairs illing in
t"e ga#s let $nattended 0% #$0lic sector agencies o modern states4 glo0al iss$es and
concerns related to s$staina0le de)elo#ment4 ecological degradation4 "$man rig"ts4
gender e>$it% and t"e li6e are increasingl% coming $nder t"e #$r)ie! o non-state
instit$tions and organisationsF A nota0le conse>$ence o glo0alisation #ertains to t"e
emergence o non-state4 non-#roit t"ird sector o glo0al ci)il societ%F 1iti5ens all
o)er t"e !orld "a)e mo0ilised to orm )ol$ntar% organisations to s"a#e glo0al
#olicies and dee#er str$ct$res o relations among dierent societies4 irres#ecti)e o
nation statesF /"ese ci)ic associations are glo0al in nat$re4 since t"e% address
trans!orld #ro0lems and #$rs$e de)elo#mental "$manitarian and ot"er ca$ses 0%
"arnessing t"e in"erent #otential o glo0alisationF /"e #rec$rsors o contem#orar%
trans0order )ol$ntar% organisations date 0ac6 to t"e nineteent" cent$r%N "o!e)er4
t"eir c$rrent acti)ities in)ol)e a ar larger n$m0er o #eo#le4 greater instit$tional
reso$rces and 0igger im#acts in t"e glo0al arenaF 'ome o t"e )ol$ntar% ci)ic
mo)ements are glo0al in t"e sense t"at t"e% !or6 t"ro$g" trans!ord net!or6s li6e
Amnest% (nternational4 OJam4 1are4 and De)elo#ment Alternati)es !it" :omen in
2e! .raF
(n contrast4 ot"er ci)ic gro$#s t"in6 glo0all% 0$t act locall%4 iFeF t"e% ad"ere to glo0al
orientation !"ile o#erating at grassroots le)el in dierent societiesF 'ome ci)ic
gro$#s !or6 in isolation !"ile man% ot"ers #$rs$e t"eir agendas t"ro$g" large
coalitions o glo0al ci)ic 0odiesF Glo0al ci)il societ% acti)ities incl$de 0ot" s#oradic
amate$r inter)entions and long term #roessional and instit$tional #rogrammes o t"e
6ind s$stained 0% Green#eace and 1"ristian AidF F$rt"er4 ci)ic gro$#s "a)e ado#ted a
)ariet% o strategies in t"eir glo0all% str$ct$red o#erationsF 'ome "a)e considered it
it to !or6 !it" oicial agencies and #ri)ate 0$siness concernsN !"ile man% ot"ers
"a)e iercel% g$arded t"eir inde#endence and a$tonomo$s eJistenceF /"e% regard an%
colla0oration !it" state esta0lis"ments or #ri)ate 0$siness "o$ses as an $nacce#ta0le
com#romise o t"eir )ision and #"iloso#"%F Glo0al ci)ic associations "a)e eJerted
considera0le inl$ence to #romote t"e contem#orar% concerns o de)elo#ing
societiesF /"e% "a)e s$staina0l% contri0$ted to #olic% inno)ations in area s$c" as
s$staina0le de)elo#ment4 ecological s$staina0ilit%4 "$man rig"ts #rotections4 disaster
relie4 !elare #ro)isions and comm$nit% de)elo#ment all o)er t"e !orldF ,an%
glo0al ci)ic associations "a)e #la%ed im#ortant roles 0ot" in ad)ising t"e oicial
instit$tions o de)elo#ed co$ntries and in "el#ing t"em to im#lement de)elo#ment
#olicies and #rogrammes in t"ird co$ntriesF Glo0al ci)il societ% "as stri)ed to c"ange
4=
oicial #olicies and "as s$0stantiall% contri0$ted to t"e reconstr$ction o #rogressi)e
and enlig"tened glo0al de)elo#ment agendaF /"e eJ#ansion o glo0al ci)il societ%
"as "el#ed to ma6e #o#$lar #artici#ation in !orld aairs more direct and eJtensi)e
t"an t"e earlier eras o "egemonic statesF Glo0al ci)il societ% "as also emerged as a
relia0le medi$m to sec$re democrac% in t"e contem#orar% glo0alised !orldF
6eatures o' Civil Society Oranisations
/"e c"aracteristics o ci)il societ% organisations )ar% rom co$ntr% to co$ntr%F /"e
constit$tion4 legal4 and M$dicial s%stem4 taJ and reg$lator% instit$tions o a co$ntr%
inl$ence t"e nat$re and c"aracter o ci)il societ% organisationsF F$rt"er4 actors s$c"
as social )al$e4 c$lt$ral attit$des4 religio$s traditions and #eo#le<s dis#osition to!ards
state also s"a#e t"e o)erall eJistence o ci)il societ% in societ%F Democratic societies
"a)e long-esta0lis"ed #"ilant"ro#ic and )ol$ntar% traditions4 la!s and #olicies !"ic"
generall% enco$rage #ri)ate non#roit initiati)es to en"ance #$0lic interest and
general !ell 0eing o #eo#leF /"e $ndamental tenet o ci)il societ% !as )er% !ell
in"erent in traditional #"ilant"ro#% and c"arita0le #$rists in "istor%F /"e role o
traditional #"ilant"ro#% and c"arities mostl% remained limited to eJtending "el# to
#oor4 destit$te4 disa0led and so on or #ro)iding relie d$ring times o nat$ral disasterF
1i)il societ% organi5ations ac>$ired inno)ati)e c"aracteristics s$c" as #rod$ction or
distri0$tion o goods4 )al$e-state and ca#italist mode o #rod$ctionF
/"ere are ollo!ing eat$res o ci)il societ% organi5ationsK
/"e% are #redominantl% engaged in entre#rene$rial acti)ities and
#rod$ction o goods and ser)icesF
:"ile organi5ing a #rod$cti)e acti)it% t"e% generated t"eir reso$rces rom
)ol$nteers4 donations4 #$0lic $nds and ot"er so$rces4 and are mar6et
orientedF
/"e% dis#la% inno)ations !"ile #ro)iding social ser)ices and #rod$ction o
goods as or instance4 rendering ser)ices to marginali5ed and )$lnera0le
sections4 em#o!erment o s$##ressed strata o societ%F
/"e% contri0$te to t"e creation o Mo0s and training o##ort$nities es#eciall%
or $nem#lo%ed %o$t"F
/"e% esta0lis"ed strong lin6ages !it" !ell deined local comm$nities and
stri)e or t"e $#litmentF
5D
(n #rinci#le4 t"e% do not distri0$te #roitsF &o!e)er4 t"e% do not 0ecome
0lind )ictims o non distri0$ti)e constraints !"ile stri)ing to ac"ie)e clearl%
deined social goalsF /"e% gi)e e>$al re#resentations to sta6e"olders and
im#ortance to democratic management and control o organisationF
,ore inde#endent and dis#la% a$tonom% since t"e% de#end $#on #l$ralit%
o reso$rces4 and relate !it" t"e state t"ro$g" contracts as inde#endent
organisationsF
,ore sensiti)e to generate em#lo%ment o##ort$nities or disad)antage
sectionsN 0eca$se o t"ese reasons t"e% $s$all% dis#la% 6een interest in
colla0orations !it" or #roit 0$siness organisationsF
Alert to democratic o!ners"i#4 "ence ens$ring t"e in)ol)ement o mem0ers
in sel managementF
Us$all% small in si5e and com#letel% em0edded in local comm$nitiesF
(nterested in t"e creation o ne! ser)ices and !illing to inno)ate to meet
t"e social needsN and
2ot inclined to!ards ad)ocac%4 or consider ad)ocac% as a secondar%
$nctionF
/"e most signiicant inno)ation o contem#orar% non #roit organi5ation is t"e
creation o m$lti-sta6e"older orm o organi5ationF /"e administration are s"ared 0%
)ol$nteers4 !or6ers4 cons$mers and e)en re#resentati)es o #$0lic a$t"orities4
considering t"e dierent interests in)ol)ed in #rod$ction o goods and ser)icesF
&ence ci)il societ% organi5ations "a)e transormed not onl% in res#ect to t"eir goals
0$t also in terms o o#erational met"ods and management o organi5ationsF
State and Civil Society OraniEations
/"e rise o !elare state in :estern .$ro#e im#inged on t"e eJistence o ci)il societ%
organi5ationsF 'ince t"e late 1=4Ds state #olicies !ere generall% orm$lated aro$nd
t"e conce#t o $ni)ersal !elare o societ%F (t !as 0asicall% a s%stem in !"ic" state
a$t"orities #la%ed a maMor role in deli)ering o collecti)e goods and #$0lic ser)icesF
'ince t"e s%stems and instit$tions designed 0% state #la%ed a leading role in t"e
!elare o societ%4 t"e not or #roit organi5ation came $nder serio$s #ress$re to
c"ange t"eir 0asics or s$r)i)alF /"e im#ortance o ci)il societ% organi5ations
decreasedF /"e% increasingl% stared to concentrate t"eir acti)ities in ields "a)ing
51
decreasedF /"e% increasingl% started to concentrate t"eir acti)ities in ields "a)ing
decreasedF /"e% increasingl% started to concentrate t"eir acti)ities in ields "a)ing
least economic or distri0$ti)e im#licationsF A large n$m0ers o ci)il societ%
organi5ations c"anged t"eir c"aracter )is-a )is t"eir original nat$re since t"e% !ere
com#elled to eJists !it"in t"e #$0lic sectorF 'ome ci)il societ% organi5ations !ere
incor#orated in t"e !elare s%stemF /"e% ormall% and legall% remained #ri)ate
organi5ations 0$t !ere s$0Mect to administrati)e and 0$rea$cratic controls4 "ence
losing t"eir econom%F 1i)il societ% organi5ations !"ic" "ad not 0ecome a #art o
!elare s%stem !ere #re)ented rom engaging in #rod$cti)e acti)ities4 iFeF #rod$ction
and distri0$tion o #$0lic goods or ser)icesF &ence4 role o ci)il societ% organi5ations
!as red$ced and remained more or less ad)ocac% $nctionsF
Theoretical )pproaches to Civil Society OraniEations
/"e t"eoretical interest in ci)il societ% organi5ations is relati)el% recent #"enomenonF
/ill t"e end o 1=7Ds4 t"ere !ere "ardl% an% s%stemic st$dies on t"e dimensions o
non#roit sectorF /"e initial t"eoretical interest stemmed rom t"e reali5ation t"at non-
#roit "ad its o!n s#eciic d%namics and considera0le #resence in t"e #rocess o
#rod$ction o goods and ser)ices4 and generated em#lo%ment o##ort$nities in societ%F
'ince t"en attem#ts "a)e 0een made to anal%se sector in )ario$s societiesF
Economic )pproaches
/"e eJisting economic a##roac"es to non-#roit organisation can 0e 0roadl%
classiied in to t!o categories 0ased on t"e conce#ts o state ail$re and contact
ail$reF
State 6ailure
/"e conce#t o state ail$re as t"e 0asis or t"e emergence o non-#roit organisation
is considered in t"e t"eor% de)elo#ed 0% >eis2rod !"ic" is also 6no!n as #$0lic
goods t"eor%F /"e essential arg$ment o :eis0rod is t"at it is generall% not #ossi0l%
or t"e state to s$##l% all t"e #$0lic goods in res#onse to t"e demand in societ%F /"e
state !ill al!a%s ma6e inade>$ate #ro)isions as regarding t"e total >$alit% o goods
re>$ired in societ%F F$rt"er4 state s"all ne)er t"e means4 reso$rces and !"ere!it"al to
#rod$ce a di)erse range o >$alit% goods and ser)ices re>$ired to satis% t"e tastes4
#reerences and c"oices o indi)id$als in societ%F -asicall%4 state can #ro)ide too e!
#$0lic goods and an ins$icient range o t"em since t"e state is s$0Mect to )ario$s
social4 #olitical and economic constraints and limitationsF For instance4 t"e ca$se o
s"ortall is identiied in t"e #olitical eJ#edienc% o stateF (n order to sta% in oice4 a
go)ernment m$st satis% t"e demand or #$0lic goods and ser)ices o t"e median
52
)oterF /"e go)ernment !ill raise taJes to co)er t"e cost o #$0lic goods and ser)icesF
-$t t"ere !ill al!a%s 0e #eo#le in societ% !"o !ill 0e #a%ing more taJes or t"e
#rod$ction o #$0lic goods and ser)ices t"an t"e% act$all% !ant to meet t"eir needsF
On ot"er "and4 t"ere !ill 0e ot"ers or !"om t"ere are ins$icient >$alit% #$0lic
goods or ser)ices a)aila0le to s$it tastes4 #reerences or c"oicesF /"e o)erall scenario
!ill lead to t"e s"ortall in t"e s$##l% o #ri)ate goods rom go)ernmentF According
to :eis0rod4 t"e $nsatisied demand !ill e)o6e a res#onse in #ri)ate sector or t"e
#rod$ction o goods and ser)icesF (n t"e case o #$0lic goods and ser)ices4 it !ill 0e
non-#roit organisation !"ic" re#resents a mec"anism to satis% t"e resid$al demand
0% means o #ri)ate #rod$ction o #$0lic goods4 "ence t"e eJistence o non-#roit
organisations in democratic and ca#italist societiesF On t"e one "and4 t"ere !ill 0e
non-#roit organisations !"ic" ma% #rod$ce goods to satis% t"e demand o mem0ers
onl%F On t"e ot"er "and sociall% moti)ated non-#roit organisations ma% #rod$ce
goods or ser)ices to satis% t"e #artic$lar demands o disad)antage4 #oor or
marginalised section o societ%F
5arket 6ailure
&ansmann !as t"e irst to de)elo# a t"eor% !"ic" too6 into acco$nt t"e contact
ail$re dimensions o mar6etF &ansmann considered contact ail$re as t"e limitation
o cons$mers to ascertain t"e >$alit% o goods t"ro$g" ordinar% contract$al de)icesF
'ince cons$mers are generall% $na0le to monitor and assess t"e s$##l% o goods at
t"e desired le)el o >$alit%4 t"e #"enomenon re#resents a #artic$lar 6ind o mar6et
ail$reF 1ontract ail$re ta6es #lace !"en cons$mers "a)e no means to determine t"e
>$alit% or >$antit% o goods and ser)ices s$##lied to t"emF For instance4 t"e >$alit%
o ser)ices can not normall% 0e ascertained in t"e case o medical care4 n$rsing
"omes4 da% care centres or c"ildren and so onF (n s$c" sit$ations or #roit 0$siness
irms !ill attem#t to s$##l% lo! >$alit% or >$antit% ser)ices or goods or a gi)en
#rice4 "ence creating sco#e or a##ro#riating #roitsF 'ince non-#roit organisation
$nction on t"e $ndamental ass$m#tion t"at no #roits can 0e a##ro#riated 0%
mem0ers or #atrons4 c$stomers eel ass$red a0o$t t"e >$alit% or >$antit% o #rod$ctsF
2on-#roit organisations are not moti)ated 0% an% incenti)e in case o 0$siness irms
to decei)e t"e c$stomersF (n t"is regard4 non-#roit organisations are more
tr$st!ort"% t"an or #roit organisationsF 1ontract ail$re a##roac" "as a direct
0earing on commercial non-#roit organisations !"ic" generate t"eir reso$rces 0%
selling o goods or ser)ices to clientsF F$rt"er4 t"is a##roac" "as a distincti)e a##eal
or donati)es non-#roit organisations !"ic" are eJcl$si)el% de#endent $#on
#"ilant"ro#% and donationsF 2o! donations ma6e sense onl% i t"e donor is ass$red
o t"e act t"at $nds !ill 0e #ro#erl% $tili5ed or ac"ie)ing t"e #$r#ose en)isaged 0%
53
t"e donorF For instance4 i t"e or #roit organisation recei)es donations4 it !ill
nat$rall% 0e tem#ted to a##ro#riate it as #roitF On t"e ot"er "and4 non-#roit
organisation !ill 0e legall% 0o$nd to $tili5e all donations or t"e declared goals o t"e
organisationsF (n t"e case o #"ilant"ro#% and donations4 contract ail$re a##roac"
considers non-#roit organisations as a res#onse to t"e tr$st!ort"% relations"i#
0et!een #rinci#al and agent #rinci#al 0eing t"e donor and t"e agent 0eing t"e entit%
entr$sted to manage t"e $ndsF 1ontract ail$re a##roac" "as a direct 0earing on
commercial non#roits organi5ations !"ic" generate t"eir reso$rces 0% selling o
goods or ser)ice to clientsF F$rt"er4 t"is a##roac" "as a distincti)e a##eal or
donati)es non#roits organi5ations !"ic" are eJcl$si)el% de#endent $#on
#"ilant"ro#% and donationsF 2o! donations ma6e sense onl% i t"e donor is ass$red
o t"e act t"at $nds !ill 0e #ro#erl% $tili5ed or ac"ie)ing t"e #$r#ose or goal
en)isaged 0% t"e donorF For instance4 i t"e non #roit organi5ation recei)es donation4
it !ill nat$rall% 0e tem#ered to a##ro#riate it as #roitF On t"e ot"er "and4 non #roit
organi5ation !ill 0e legall% 0o$nd to $tili5e all donations or t"e declared goals o t"e
organi5ationF (n t"e case o #"ilant"ro#% and donations4 contract ail$re a##roac"
considers non#roits organi5ations as a res#onse to t"e tr$st!ort"% relations"i#
0et!een #rinci#al and agent 0eing t"e donor and agent 0eing t"e entit% entr$sted to
manage t"e $ndsF 2on#roits organi5ations can correct a t%#ical mar6et ail$re4
!"ic" res$lts rom t"e cons$mers< ina0ilit% to eJercise control o)er or #roit
0$siness irmsF 'ince non#roit organi5ations are managed and controlled 0%
mem0ers and #atrons4 t"e clients are ass$red o a s$icientl% "ig" >$alit% o goods or
ser)icesF &o!e)er4 in case !"ere t"e #riorit% is to minimi5e #rices #aid 0% clients4
non #roit organi5ations ac>$ire resem0lance to economic $nctions o coo#erati)esF
On t"e ot"er "and4 t"e maMor regarding maintenance o "ig" >$alit% o #rod$cts is
ac"ie)ed t"ro$g" t"e esta0lis"ment o m$t$al non#roit organi5ationsF
Socioloical )pproaches
'ociological a##roac"es 0% considera0le em#"asis on an indi)id$al<s a0ilit% to #lace
$ne>$i)ocal tr$st in t"e moti)ation and 0e"a)io$r o ot"er ello! indi)id$als in
societ%F (t is arg$ed t"at t"ere is al!a%s #re-rational and #re-eJisting tr$st !"ic" lies
at t"e root o all contractsF (ntrinsic to e)er% contract are a n$m0er o tacit arg$ments
!"ic" are generall% not concreti5ed or gi)en ormal s"a#e in ro$tine contract$al
descri#tionsF '$c" $nstated arg$ments are $s$all% ass$med4 $nderstood and ad"ered
to in contract$al transactions 0% indi)id$alsF &ence a sociological $nderstanding o
tr$st "as an essence o #res$med relia0ilit%4 !"ic" is entirel% dierent rom
rationalistic or ris6% conce#tions o tr$st in"erent in national-c"oice models4 o
economic a##roac"es to non #roit organi5ationF (n economic models t"e conce#tion
54
o rationalit% is merel% a s$0Mecti)e #ro0a0ilit% calc$lation in sit$ation o $ncertaint%F
/"e cons$mers sim#l% tr% to ma6e assessment !"et"er or not s$##liers !ill "ono$r
contract$al commitment and deli)er goods according to t"eir eJ#ectationsF According
to t"ese a$t"ors in sociological #ers#ecti)e4 t"is 6ind o instr$mental calc$lation is
misleading since it de)al$es tr$st to sim#l% an eJercise o ris6 assessment4 t"$s
missing t"e real im#ort o tr$stF (n s$##ort t"e% cite Ant"on% Giddens t"at $ltimatel%
all tr$st is in a certain sense 0lind tr$stF /"is sociological inter#retation "as
signiicant im#lications or t"e $nderstanding o tr$st and non #roit organi5ationsF
/"e e)al$ation o tr$st does not ta6e #lace t"ro$g" m$t$all% 0eneit interactions
medicated m% mar6et #laceF +at"er4 tr$st is seen as rooted in normati)e social
str$ct$reF /"is social distincti)eness rom t"e mar6et is t"e cr$cial dimension !"ic"
acilities t"e gro!t" o tr$stF (n act4 it is t"e a0sence o mar6et logic t"at #ermits t"e
real e)ol$tion and strengt"ening o tr$stF
/r$st is seen as a ta6en or granted ass$m#tion !"ic" determines social relations and
transactions among indi)id$alF /r$st and )ol$ntar% action are essential attri0$tes o
non#roit sector as interest and #roit see6ing are )ital or 0$siness organi5ationsF
According to economic t"eor%4 non#roit organi5ations $s$all% $nction in an
en)ironment inl$enced 0% eJtraneo$s considerations and inormation im0alancesF (n
s$c" a sit$ation4 #re-eJisting tr$st ma% gi)e #reerence to #artic$lar 6ind o #ro)iders
o goods and ser)icesF 1i)il societ% organi5ations t$rn o$t to 0e tr$st!ort"%
intermediaries a)ora0l% #osition 0et!een s$##l% and demandF For instance4 man%
ci)il societ% organi5ations are de#endent $#on religio$s #"ilant"ro#% and c"aritiesF
'$c" organi5ations "a)e an ad)antageo$s #osition to dra! on reso$rces o #re-
eJisting tr$st4 !"ic" is $s$all% not >$estioned in )ario$s transactionsF 'ince tr$st
0ecomes sim#le a ta6en or granted eJ#ectations and elimination t"e calc$lation o
ris6F *otential clients consider s$c" religio$s organi5ation as a #riori tr$st!ort"%F A
sim$ltaneo$s critical dimension associated !it" t"is 6ind o $ne>$i)ocal
tr$st!ort"iness is t"at s$c" ci)il societ% organi5ations are also "ig"l% ragileF /r$st
once )iolated cannot 0e easil% restoredF .)en modest )iolations ma% res$lt in ar-
reac"ing and $nimagina0le conse>$ences or s$c" ci)il societ% organi5ationsF
'ocial relations in traditional societies !ere not eJtensi)el% determined 0% tr$st4 0$t
rat"er !ere str$ct$ral in conidenceF 'ocial and economic relations !ere rooted in an
ela0orate s%stem o 6ins"i# str$ct$reF 'ocial and economic 0e"a)ior !as s$0Mected to
an eJtensi)e s%stem o ormal and inormal sanctionsF /"e s%stem #romoted and
enco$raged #redicta0ilit% !"ic"4 in t$rn4 s$0stantiall% red$ced de#endence $#on
tr$stF (t is lac6 o #redicta0ilit% and a0sence o amiliarit% in social and economic
relations !"ic" osters t"e en"anced signiicance4 rele)ance and need or tr$stF 'ocial
55
relations in modern societ% are more $n#redicta0le t"an in traditional societies since
t"ere is "ardl% an% s%stem o im#osing sanctions and an% common 0asis o amiliarit%
among indi)id$alsF &ence4 modern societ% relies more and more on instit$tional tr$st
and least de#endent $#on c"aracteristics 0ased tr$stF
Relationship 2et-een State and Civil Society
/"e ci)il societ% is ma6ing a s$0stantial contri0$tion to t"e #rocess o de)elo#ment
in man% co$ntries t"ro$g"o$t !orldF /"ere are a large n$m0er o actors !"ic"
inl$ence t"e im#act o ci)il societ% on de)elo#mentF /"e most signiicance
dimension !"ic" 0roadl% inl$ences most o t"ese actors is t"e relations"i# 0et!een
t"e state and ci)il societ%F /"e nat$re o relations"i# 0et!een ci)il societ% and state is
determined 0% actors s$c" as state #olicies and #racticesN state<s commitment to
de)elo#mentN #o)ert% eradicationN social o0Mecti)esN colla0oration 0et!een state and
ci)il societ%N and strengt" o ci)il societ%F -ot" state and mar6et "a)e 0een o$nd
im#erect in meeting t"e demands o societ%F 'tate ma% gi)e #riorit% to de)elo#ment
#rogrammes 0$t it generall% lac6s reso$rces or is conronted !it" inade>$ate
mec"anism or strategies or de)elo#mentF On t"e ot"er "and in t"e mar6et
mec"anism4 #ro)isions and reg$lations "ardl% gi)e #riorit% to )$lnera0le sections o
societ%F (t is ci)il societ% !"ic" is in !ell in 0et!een mar6et and state to address t"e
de)elo#ment needs o societ%F /"e ci)il societ% artic$late t"e needs o !ea6er
sections4 create de)elo#ment a)en$es in remote areas4 enco$rage c"anges in attit$de4
ig"t against discrimination4 address t"e en)ironmental concerns4 #ro)ide ser)ice to
"andica##ed and disa0led #ersons4 and $rnis" s$##ort to landless4 to mention someF
/"e #otential o ci)il societ% is !ell recognised since it enco$rages t"e state to #$rs$e
s$c" #riorities !"ic" are generall% neglectedF (t assists t"e state instit$tions to ac"ie)e
t"e o0Mecti)es o de)elo#mentF A si5ea0le ci)il societ% !"ic" interacts !it" state is
a0le to ac"ie)e an im#ortant m$lti#lier eect on its o!n de)elo#ment eorts and
#rogrammesF /"is 6ind o scaling $# o state de)elo#ment agenda $nder t"e
inl$ences o )ol$ntar% sector "as recei)ed #artic$lar attention in )ario$s st$diesF /"e
literat$re s$ggests t"at in addition to emerging as an alternati)e #ro)ider o !elare
ser)ices or contri0$tor to de)elo#ment4 t"e ci)il societ% can inl$ences mainstream
de)elo#ment agenda o state as ollo!sK
,oti)ating oicial aid agencies or state instit$tions to ado#t s$ccess$l
a##roac"es de)elo#ed !it"in t"e ci)il societ%F
56
'#reading a!areness and sensitising #eo#le a0o$t t"eir rig"ts and #ri)ileges
$nder state #rogrammesF
,o$lding state #rogramme to #eo#le<s need 0% acting as a medi$m o local
o#inions and eJ#eriencesF
.ntering into o#erational colla0orations4 #artners"i#s !it" stat$tor% 0odiesF
.Jercising inl$ences on local de)elo#ment #olicies and strategies o
national and international instit$tionalF
Facilitating state and donor agencies in t"e orm$lation and im#lementation
o eecti)e de)elo#ment strategiesF
The State and Potential o' Civil Society
/raditionall%4 t"e ci)il societ% sector de)oted attention mainl% to s$##l% side o
de)elo#ment #rocess as4 or instance4 deli)er% o ser)ices4 im#lementing
de)elo#ment #rogrammes4 #ro)iding assistance to stat$tor% 0odiesF 7atel%4 t"e ci)il
societ% sector "as started gi)ing serio$s attention to t"e demand side o de)elo#mentF
/"e ci)il societ% organisations are ena0ling comm$nities to artic$late t"eir
#reerences and concerns4 gi)ing )oice to t"e local #eo#le4 strengt"ening t"eir
0argain #osition4 im#arting tec"nical s6ills4 incl$ding inormation tec"nolog%4
net!or6ing and ad)ocac% s6ills4 t"$s em#o!ering #oor and disad)antage sections o
societ%4 )ol$ntar% organisations "a)e emerged as acti)e torc" 0earers o ci)il societ%F
.orts o )ol$ntar% sector at grassroots mo0ilisation "as increasingl% 0ro$g"t iss$es
o trans#arenc%4 acco$nta0ilit%4 reedom o eJ#ression and decision ma6ing to centre
stage in t"e de)elo#ment agenda o t"e stateF /"e s#eciic attri0$tes o ci)il societ%
organi5ations !"ic" en"ance its s$ita0ilit% to t"e de)elo#ment #rocess areK t"e s"ear
scale and si5e o t"e ci)il societ% sectorN ca#acit% to reac" #oor #eo#le in remote
areas4 inno)ati)e met"ods to ac"ie)e targets !"ic" are ot"er!ise diic$lt or
stat$tor% 0odiesN leJi0ilit%N a0ilit% o res#ond to local needs re#resentati)e o #oor
and )$lnera0le sections o societ%4 and enco$raging #artici#ator% a##roac"F 'ince t"e
role o )ol$ntar% sector is com#lementar% to de)elo#ment eorts o state4 it ma6es
t"e !"ole de)elo#ment #rocess more trans#arent acco$nta0le and #artici#ator% in
nat$reF /"e im#lications in relation to state are as ollo!K
-eca$se o t"e reac" and #otential o ci)il societ% organi5ations4 state
instit$tions gi)e #reerence to t"em !"ile addressing iss$es related to
indigeno$s #eo#le4 !omen4 ood insec$rit%4 c"ildren and old #ersons in
need and ot"er )$lnera0le gro$#sF
57
/"e ci)il societ% organi5ations "a)e a com#arati)e ad)antage o)er state
!"ile addressing en)ironmental iss$es in sociall% and #oliticall% sensiti)e
areasF
/"ro$g" #artici#ator% a##roac" and grassroots mo0ili5ation ci)il societ%
organi5ations t"ro!s $# eJ#erienced #ersons and com#eting #ers#ecti)es
or consideration in t"e state le)el de)elo#ment #lanningF
/"e retreat o t"e !elare state 0eca$se o mar6et reorms "as $rnis"ed
more o#erational s#ace or ci)il societ% in t"e #rocess o de)elo#mentF
6unctional Relationship 2et-een State and Civil Society OraniEations
( t"e commitment o state to de)elo#ment is !ee64 ci)il societ% organi5ations ind it
diic$lt to ma6e a meaning$l contri0$tion to t"e #rocess o de)elo#mentF F$rt"er4
re#ressi)e states generall% mistr$st t"e in)ol)ement o ci)il societ% organi5ations
!it" eJ#loited sections o societ%F (n sit$ations !"ere a state dis#la%s strong
commitment to t"e de)elo#ment o all sections o societ%4 t"e ci)il societ% sector
eecti)el% translates its #otential into strong colla0orati)e relations"i# !it" stateF /"e
#redominant trend is t"at more and more ci)il societ% organi5ations are 0$ilding
colla0orati)e relations"i#s and #artners"i# !it" stateF '$c" a relations"i# is
considered "ealt"% i it is 0ased on m$t$al tr$st and a$tonom% o ci)il societ%
organi5ationsF A certain degree o inancial a$tonom% o ci)il societ% sector is cr$cial
or maintain "ealt"% relations"i# !it" stateF 1onse>$entl%4 t"e state gets eJ#osed to
grassroots #ers#ecti)es4 concerns and eJ#eriences o de)elo#mentF 'tate res#onds 0%
in)ol)ing re#resentati)e o ci)il societ% sector in orm$lation o #olicies and
strategies o de)elo#mentF /"e 0asis o gen$ine colla0oration rests not on oering
com#eting alternati)es4 0$t rat"er on ma6ing com#limentar% contri0$tion to t"e
#rocess o de)elo#mentF ,istr$st and $ns"ared o0Mecti)es res$lt in tensions4 riction
and $ltimatel% an ad)erse relations"i# 0et!een state and ci)il societ%F 1ontrar% to
t"at i t"e relations"i# is )er% co5%4 t"e ci)il societ% organisations ace t"e ris6 o
0eing red$ced to t"e stat$s o s$0-contracting #artners in de)elo#mentF /"e ci)il
societ% sector tends to acce#t $ncriticall% state<s de)elo#ment agenda and is $s$all%
content to ill ga#s as desired 0% t"e instit$tions o t"e stateF /"e ci)il societ% sector
loses its ca#acit% to serio$sl% >$estion t"e de)elo#ment #aradigm o state4 and
$ltimatel% ails to inMect grassroots #ers#ecti)es in #olicies4 #lanning and
im#lementation o de)elo#ment #rogramme in societ%F /"e state can create a
cond$cti)e en)ironment or a "ealt"% relations"i# t"ro$g" ollo!ing #olic%
meas$resK
58
'ocial #olicies s"o$ld stri)e to 0$ild a "ealt"% ci)il societ%N
*$0lic acco$nta0ilit% o state instit$tionsN
/aJation #olicies4 #ro)iding incenti)es to ci)il societ% organisationsN
+eg$lation to "el# and acilitate o ci)il societ% organisationsN
.limination o corr$#tion4 restricti)e la!s and #roced$resN
'tate<s colla0oration !it" ci)il societ% organi5ations "a)ing a #ro)en trac6
recordF /"is !a% ci)il societ% organi5ation tr$e to t"eir agenda and
acco$nta0le to t"eir constit$enciesF
Oering a role to ci)il societ% organi5ations4 in)itation to t"eir leaders to
ser)e on oicial commission4 dissemination o inormation and so onN
'tate s"o$ld rame mec"anisms o coordination on t"e 0asis o m$t$al
res#ect and not dominate $nnecessar% t"e ci)il societ% sectorN
*ro)ision o state $nds on t"e 0asis o #erormance !it"o$t com#romising
t"e inde#endence and a$tonom% o t"e ci)il societ% sectorN
Assisting in t"e training o man#o!er re>$ired 0% ci)il societ%
organi5ationsF
O2stacles to State and Civil Society Relationship
/"e main actors !"ic" im#air t"e $nctional relations"i# 0et!een state and ci)il
societ% organi5ationsK
.n)ironment o #olitical mistr$st and ideological dierencesN
1i)il societ% organi5ation<s isolation and $n!illingness to dialog$e !it" stateN
Uno$nded s$s#icion o Mealo$s% o 0$rea$crac% o ci)il societ% organi5ation<s
access to reso$rcesN
Flo! o more $nds to s$ccess$l ci)il societ% organi5ations ma6es t"em laJ
leading to decline in #erormanceN
1i)il societ% organi5ation<s narro! target s#eciic oc$s is sometimes
contradictor% to state<s 0roader goal o o)erall de)elo#mentN
5=
/"e $nso$nd claims o #erormance o )ol$ntar% organi5ationsN
'tate<s !ea6 commitment to de)elo#ment agenda )i5F (m#ro)ing ser)ices4
eradicating #o)ert% and ot"er #ro0lems reinorced 0% corr$#tion and ne#otism
are serio$s im#edimentsN
*olitical s$s#icion and s$0se>$entl% s$##ression o )ol$ntar% sectorN
'$s#icion o oreign donors recei)ed 0% ci)il societ% organi5ationsN
/endenc% o 0$rea$crac% to )ie! t"e ci)il societ% organi5ation as s$0ordinate
to t"em eJ#ect it to t$ne t"eir #rogrammes according to its !is"esF
/"e modern !elare state and ci)il societ% organi5ations toget"er are t"e most
6iure3 State8 market and civil society each has complementary role in
providin8 promotin and protectin the human security.
im#ortant contri0$tion to t"e !elare and de)elo#ment o a societ%F -ot" "a)e
distinct a##roac"es to de)elo#mentF /"e relations"i# 0et!een t"em is )er% com#leJF
/"e >$alit% o t"is relations"i# is #redominantl% determined 0% t"e nat$re and
6D
c"aracter o modern state4 since it is t"e most #o!er$l and dominant #olitical
instit$tion !"ic" eJercises $ne>$i)ocal "egemon% o)er all t"e material and non-
material reso$rces o societ%F
Re'erences
,ooks
1F -lat54 :illiam .rnestF &uman Security5 Some Reflections% 7ondonK
Uni)ersit% o 7ondon *ress4 1=67F
2F -$5an4 -arr%4 Ole :W)er4 and Eaa# de :ildeF Security5 A /ew 3ramewor7
for AnalysisF -o$lderK 7%nne +ienner4 1==8F
3F 1aroline /"omas and *eter :il6in (edsF)4 (1===) Glo0alisation4 &$man
'ec$rit% and t"e Arican .J#erienceFFF -o$lderK 7%nne +einner
*$0licationsF
4F 1"and"o6e4 2eera (1==5)4 'tate and 1i)il 'ociet%K .J#lorations in
*olitical /"eor%4 'age4 Del"iF
5F 1la%4 .d!ard4 and Ola) 'to66eF 3ood Aid and &uman Security% 7ondonK
Fran6 1ass *$0lis"ers4 2DDDF
6F 1la%ton4 Andre! (edF) (1==6)4 2GOs4 1i)il 'ociet% and t"e 'tateK
-$ilding Democrac% in /ransitional 'ocieties4 OJord Uni)ersit% *ress4
U;F
7F .lliott4 ,F 1arol%nm (ed) (2DD7)4 1i)il 'ociet% and Democrac% A +eader4
2e! Del"iK OJord Uni)ersit% *ressF
8F .)ans4 /on%4 and 1aroline /"omasF The #olitics of &uman Rihts5 A
,lo-al #erspective =&uman Security in the ,lo-al 6conomy>% *l$to *ress4
2DD1F
61
=F Gra"am4 Da)id /F4 and 2ana ;F *o6$4 edsF Miration, ,lo-ali<ation and
&uman SecurityF 7ondonK +o$tledge +esearc" in *o#$lation and
,igration4 2DDDF
1DF Eones4 +ic"ard :%nF Security, Stratey, and !ritical Theory% -o$lder4 1OK
7%nne +ienner4 1===F
11F ;a0iraM4 '$di#ta and ;"ilnani4 '$nil4 (2DD6)4 1i)il 'ociet% &istor% and
*ossi0ilit%, 2e! Del"iK 1am0ridge Uni)ersit% *ressF
12F ;a%4 1ristX0al4 edF ,lo-alisation, !ompetitiveness and &uman Security%
7ondonK Fran6 1ass and 1om#an% 7imited4 1==7F
13F ;ra$se4 ;eit"4 and ,ic"ael 1F :illiams4 edsF !ritical Security Studies5
!oncepts and !asesF 7ondonK U17 *ress4 1==7F
14F 7%nn-Eones4 'ean ,F4 and 'te)en .F ,iller4 edsF ,lo-al Daners5
!hanin Dimensions of International Security% 1am0ridge4 ,AK ,(/
*ress4 1==5F
15F ,ats$mae4 /ats$ro4 and 7incoln 1F 1"en4 edsF !ommon Security in Asia @
/ew !oncepts in &uman SecurityF /o6%oK /o6ai Uni)ersit% *ress4 1==5F
16F ,cgre!4 Ant"on% and *o6$4 2ana ;F (eds)4 (2DD7)4 Glo0ali5ation4
De)elo#ment and &$man 'ec$rit%4 *olit% *ress4 U;F
17F ,c+ae4 +o04 and Don &$0ert4 edsF &uman Security and the /ew
Diplomacy5 #rotectin #eople, #romotin #eaceF ,ontrealK ,cGill-
Y$een<s Uni)ersit% *ress4 2DD1F
18F 2e4 EorgeF &uman Security and Mutual Aulnera-ility% 2nd .dF 1anadaK
(nternational +esearc" De)elo#ment 1entre4 1===F
1=F Osler &am#son4 .en (2DD2)4 ,adness in t"e ,$ltit$deK &$man 'ec$rit%
and :orld Disorder4 OJord Uni)ersit% *ress4 7ondonF
2DF *asic4 AmirF !ulture, Identity, and Security5 An BverviewF 2e! 3or6K
+oc6eeller -rot"ers F$nd4 (ncF4 1==8F
21F *o6$4 2ana ;F4 and Da)id /F Gra"am4 edsF Redefinin Security5 #opulation
Movements and /ational Security% :est#ort4 1/K *raeger4 1==8F
62
22F +ag"a)an4 8F+F (ed)4 1i)il 'ociet% and &$man 'ec$rit%K 'o$t" and 'o$t"
.ast Asian .J#eriences4 ,acmillan4 2e! Del"i4 2DD=
23F +isse4 /"omas4 'te#"en 1F +o##4 and ;at"r%n 'i66in64 edsF The #ower of
&uman Rihts5 International /orms and Domestic !haneF 2e! 3or6K
1am0ridge Uni)ersit% *ress4 1===F
24F 'F 2eil ,acFralane and 3en Foong ;"ong4 (2DD6)4 &$man 'ec$rit% and
t"e U2K A 1ritical &istor%4 -loomingtonK (ndiana Uni)ersit% *ressF
25F /andon4 +aMes" and ,o"ant%4 +anMita (eds)4 Does 1i)il 'ociet% ,attersR
Go)ernance in 1ontem#orar% (ndia4 'age *$0lication4 2e! Del"i4 2DD3
26F /adM0a6"s"4 '"a"r0ano$ and 1"eno%4 An$rad"a ,F (2DD6)4 &$man
'ec$rit% 1once#ts and (m#lications, +o$tledgeF
27F 'tedman4 'te#"en Eo"nF International Actors and Internal !onflictsF 2e!
3or6K +oc6eeller -rot"ers F$nd4 (ncF4 1===F
28F 'toett4 *eterF &uman and ,lo-al Security5 An 6:ploration of TermsF
/orontoK Uni)ersit% o /oronto *ress4 1===F
2=F /e"ranian4 ,aMid4 edF ;orlds Apart5 &uman Security and ,lo-al
,overnanceF (n association !it" t"e /oda (nstit$te or Glo0al *eace and
*olic% +esearc"F 7ondonK (F-F /a$ris4 1===F
3DF /"a6$r4 +ames"4 and .d!ard 2e!man4 edsF /ew Millennium, /ew
#erspectives the Cnited /ations, Security, and ,overnance% U2U
,illenni$m 'eriesF /o6%oK United 2ations Uni)ersit% *ress4 2DDDF
31F /"omas4 1arolineF ,lo-al ,overnance, Development and &uman Security5
The !hallene of #overty and IneDualityF 7ondonK *l$to *ress4 2DDDF
)rticles
1F A0ad4 ErF4 ,F1F G/"e 1"allenge o -alancing 'tate 'ec$rit% !it" &$man
'ec$rit%FH Indonesian Quarterly ZZ8((F4 (2DDD)K 4D3-41DF
2F Annan4 ;oiF G&$man 'ec$rit% and (nter)entionFH Aital Speeches of the
Day 66F1 (1===)F
3F Arias 'anc"e54 OscarF G&$man 'ec$rit%K O$r 1ommon +es#onsi0ilit%FH
Disarmament, A #eriodic Review 1=F3 (1==6)
63
4F AJ!ort"%4 7lo%dF 1anada and &$man 'ec$rit%K /"e 2eed or 7eaders"i#F
International Journal 52F2 (1==7)K 183-1=6F
5F -aM#ai4 ;antiF G&$man 'ec$rit%K 1once#t and ,eas$rementF /"e Eoan -F
;roc (nstit$te or (nternational *eace 't$dies4 Uni)ersit% o 2otre Dame4
Occasional *a#er S1= (A$g$st 2DDD)
6F -aM#ai4 ;antiF G/"e (dea o a &$man 'ec$rit% A$ditFH Report 1= (2DDD)K 1-
4F
7F -ald!in4 Da)id AF (1==7)4 G/"e 1once#t o 'ec$rit%FH Review of
International Studies4 )olF 234 ##F 5-26F
8F -$tteda"l4 *a5F G8ie!#ointK /r$e ,eas$res o &$man 'ec$rit%FH IRD!
Reports 22F3 (Octo0er 1==4)K 1-5F
=F 1a#eling-Ala6iMa4 '"aronF G'"ared 8isionK :omen and Glo0al &$man
'ec$rit%FH Development 2 (1==4)K 44-48F
1DF G"ils4 *a$l4 (nternational 1i)il 'ociet%K (nternational 2on-go)ernmental
Organi5ation in t"e (nternational '%stem4 International Social Science
Journal, 8ol$me 444 2oF133 (A$g$st 1==2)4 ## 417-431
11F &aterdorn &F G/"e 'ec$rit% *$55leK /"eor%--$ilding and Disci#line-
-$ilding in (nternational 'ec$rit%FH International Studies Quarterly 35F1
(,arc" 1==1)K 3-17F
12F &am#son4 Fen Osler4 and Dean FF Oli)erF G*$l#it Di#lomac%K a 1ritical
Assessment o t"e AJ!ort"% DoctrineFH International Journal 7(((F3
(1==8)K 37=-4D6F
13F &a>4 ,a"0$0 $lF (1==4)4 G2e! (m#erati)es o &$man 'ec$rit%K -ar0ara
:ard 7ect$re4 1=72FH Development4 )olF 24 ##F 4D-43F
14F &a>4 ,a"0$0 $lF (1==4)4 2e! (m#erati)es o &$man 'ec$rit%4 +G(1'
*a#er 2oF 174 +aMi) Gand"i (nstit$te or 1ontem#orar% 't$diesF 2e!
Del"iK +aMi) Gand"i Fo$ndationF
15F &a>4 ,a"0$0 $l-F G&$man +ig"ts4 'ec$rit%4 and Go)ernanceFH #eace "
#olicy Journal of the Toda Institute for ,lo-al #eace and #olicy Research
3F2 (Fall9:inter 1==8)F
64
16F &a>4 ,a"0$0 $l-F G2e! (m#erati)es o &$man 'ec$rit%K -ar0ara :ard
7ect$re4 1=72FH Development 2 (1==4)K 4D-43F
17F &ein0ec6er4 *a$lF G&$man 'ec$rit%FH !anadian 3orein #olicy 7F1 (1===)K
1=-25F
18F &ein0ec6er4 *a$lF G&$man 'ec$rit%K /"e &ard .dgeFH !anadian Military
Journal 1F1 ('#ring 2DDD)F
1=F ;a$l4 (ngeF GG$est .ditorial V A 2e! .t"ic o Glo0al &$man 'ec$rit%FH
Development 3 (1==5)F
2DF ;a$l4 (ngeF G*eace 2eeds 2o :ea#onsK From ,ilitar% 'ec$rit% to &$man
'ec$rit%FH The 6cumenical Review 47F3 (1==5)F1D
21F ;"ong4 3$en FoongF G&$man 'ec$rit%K A '"otg$n A##roac" to Alle)iating
&$man ,iser%RH ,lo-al Go)ernance (2DD1)K Fort"comingF
22F ;ilgo$r4 Da)idF G/"e U2 and t"e 1"allenge o &$man 'ec$rit%FH Mc,ill
International Review 1F1 (:inter 2DDD)F
23F ;ing4 Gar%4 and 1"risto#"er ,$rra%F G+et"in6ing &$man 'ec$rit%FH
#olitical Science Quarterly (:inter 2DD2)K
24F ;irdar4 UnerF GA /rilog% o -asic &$man 1oncernsK &$man +ig"tsN
'$staina0le &$man De)elo#mentN &$man 'ec$rit%FH #erceptions, Journal
of International Affairs (((F4 (Decem0er 1==8 V Fe0r$ar% 1===)F
25F ;lare4 ,ic"aelF G+edeining 'ec$rit%K /"e 2e! Glo0al 'c"ismsFH !urrent
&istory =5F6D4 (1==6)K 353-358F
26F *ratt4 1ranordF G1om#eting +ationales or 1anadian De)elo#ment
AssistanceK +ed$cing Glo0al *o)ert%4 .n"ancing 1anadian *ros#erit% and
'ec$rit%4 or Ad)ancing Glo0al &$man 'ec$rit%FH International Journal
7(892 ('#ring 1===)K 3D6-323F
27F +ic"mond4 Oli)erF G&$man 'ec$rit%4 t"e O+$le o 7a!< and 2GOsK
*otentials and *ro0lems or &$manitarian (nter)entionFH &uman Rihts
Review 2F4 (2DD1)K
28F 'orenson4 GeorgeF G(ndi)id$al 'ec$rit% and 2ational 'ec$rit%K t"e 'tate
+emains t"e *rinci#al *ro0lemFH Security Dialoue 27F4 (1==6)F
65
2=F '$"r6e4 AstriF G&$man 'ec$rit% and t"e (nterests o 'tatesFH Security
Dialoue 3DF3 (1===)K 265-276F
3DF United 2ations De)elo#ment *rogramme (U2D*)F G+edeining 'ec$rit%K
/"e &$man DimensionFH !urrent &istory =4 (,a% 1==4)K 22=-236F
31F :atson4 Do$glasF GOn &$man 'ec$rit%FH !urrent &istory =5F6D4 (1==6)K
3=2-3=4F
Reports
1F United 2ations De)elo#ment *rogrammeF &uman Development Report
$''' @ ,lo-alisation with a &uman 3aceF 2e! 3or69OJordK OJord
Uni)ersit% *ress4 1===F
2F United 2ations De)elo#ment *rogrammeF &uman Development Report
$''* @ /ew Dimensions of &uman SecurityF 2e! 3or6K OJord Uni)ersit%
*ress4 1==4F
3F United 2ations *anel on *eace O#erationsF Report of the #anel on Cnited
/ations #eace BperationsF A95593D5 V '92DDD98D=F 21 A$g$st 2DDDF
4F United 2ations De)elo#ment *rogramme (U2D*) (1==3)4 &uman
Development Report $''(4 *eo#le<s *artici#ation 2e! 3or6K OJord
Uni)ersit% *ressF
5F United 2ations De)elo#ment *rogramme (U2D*) (1==4)4 &uman
Development Report$''*, 2e! Dimension o &$man 'ec$rit%4 2e! 3or6K
OJord Uni)ersit% *ressF
6F United 2ations De)elo#ment *rogramme (U2D*) (2DDD)4 &uman
Development Report )+++, &$man +ig"ts and &$man De)elo#ment4 2e!
3or6K OJord Uni)ersit% *ressF
7F An"eier4 &elm$t4 ,arlies Glasi$s and ,ar% ;aldor (edsF) (2DD1)4 ,lo-al
!ivil Society )++$, 7'.4 7ondonF
8F &uman Security /ow4 +e#ort 0% t"e 1ommission on &$man 'ec$rit%4 2DD3
=F A more secure world4 +e#ort o t"e 'ecretar%-GeneralIs &ig" 7e)el *anel
on /"reats4 1"allenges and 1"ange4 2DD4
1DF In 2arer 3reedom4 +e#ort o t"e 'ecretar%-General4 2DD5
66
Chapter3 Three
Human Security
and Civil Society
in )'rica
11F &uman Security for All5 Interated Responses to #rotect and 6mpower
#eople and !ommunities4 O1&A &$man 'ec$rit% Unit4 2DD6
12F The &uman Security 3ramewor7 and /ational &uman Development
Reports4 +ic"ard Eoll%4 Dee#a%an -as$ +a%4 U2D* 2DD6F
67
68
Human Security and Civil Society in )'rica
1i)il societ% is a tr$l% international ideaF (ts roots can 0e o$nd in 0ot" t"e
li0eral and ,arJist traditions o .$ro#ean #olitical t"o$g"t4 or eJam#le in de
/oc>$e)illeIs em#"asis on t"e im#ortance o )ol$ntar% associations in #romoting
democratic citi5ens"i# and in GramsciIs em#"asis on t"e role o social instit$tions in
eit"er 0$ttressing or c"allenging state #o!erF /"e emergence o a democratic
o##osition to a$t"oritarian socialist #art%-states in 1entral and .astern .$ro#e
#ro)ided t"e im#et$s to t"e contem#orar% re)i)al o ci)il societ%F /"e decline o ci)ic
)al$es in t"e ad)anced ca#italist co$ntries and "as 0een most recentl% a##lied to
social mo)ements and #olitical transitions in +$ssia4 1"ina and co$ntries in AricaF
1ommon elements in t"e ci)il societ% disco$rse are a criti>$e o state domination o
#$0lic lie4 a #reerence or reorm o)er re)ol$tion4 and a strateg% or #olitical c"ange
0ased $#on negotiations and electionsF /"e conce#t o ci)il societ% oers an
o##ort$nit% to $nderstand4 and inl$ence4 t"e #rocess o democrati5ationF /"e conce#t
o ci)il societ% is $sed $nrelecti)el%F
The Nature o' Civil Society and its Relationships -ith the State
1i)il societ% is deined "ere as a s#"ere o social interaction 0et!een t"e "o$se"old
and t"e state !"ic" is maniest in norms o comm$nit% coo#eration4 str$ct$res o
)ol$ntar% association4 and net!or6s o #$0lic comm$nicationF One m$st
ac6no!ledge t"at ci)il societ%4 li6e t"e state and #olitical societ%4 is a t"eoretical
conce#t rat"er t"an an em#irical oneF (t is a s%nt"etic conce#t$al constr$ct t"at is not
necessaril% em0odied in a single4 identiia0le str$ct$reF
The norms o' civic community
6=
/"e most im#ortant )al$es or t"e constr$ction o ci)il societ% are tr$st4 reci#rocit%4
tolerance4 and incl$sionF /r$st is a #rere>$isite or indi)id$als to associate
)ol$ntaril%N reci#rocit% is a reso$rce or red$cing t"e transaction costs o collecti)e
actionN #olitical tolerance ena0les t"e emergence o di)erse and #l$ral orms o
associationF /"ese )al$es are #romoted 0% citi5ens !"o acti)el% see6 to #artici#ate in
#$0lic aairsF /"e #resence o ci)ic norms can 0e meas$red 0% sam#le s$r)e%s and
#$0lic o#inion #olls and o0ser)ed in )oting4 Moining4 and )arieties o collecti)e
0e"a)io$rF /"ese norms o ci)ic comm$nit% are ta$g"t not onl% in t"e amil% 0$t also
0% ci)ic organi5ations s$c" as sc"ools4 c"$rc"es4 and comm$nit% gro$#sF
The structures o' associational li'e
(n order or ci)ic lie to 0ecome instit$tionali5ed4 it m$st 0e eJ#ressed in
organi5ational ormF /"e most common organi5ational str$ct$re in ci)il societ% is t"e
)ol$ntar% association4 a gro$#ing o citi5ens !"o come toget"er 0% reason o identit%
or interest to #$rs$e a common o0Mecti)eF /"ere are )ario$s t%#es o )ol$ntar%
associations ranging rom t"e locali5ed4 inormal4 and a#olitical on t"e one "and to
national4 legall%-registered4 #olic% ad)ocac% organi5ations on t"e ot"erF :"ile #olic%
ad)ocac% gro$#s ma% "a)e t"e largest and most direct im#act on national #olitical
lie4 t"e% do not eJ"a$st t"e rele)ant organi5ations in ci)il societ%F :"et"er or not
t"e% are eJ#licitl% oriented to ci)ic or #olitical $nctions4 all t%#es o )ol$ntar%
association "el# to #o#$late and #l$rali5e ci)il societ%F
The net-orks o' pu2lic communication
(n order to 0e #oliticall% acti)e4 citi5ens re>$ire means to comm$nicate !it" one
anot"er and to de0ate t"e t%#e o go)ernment t"e% desire or t"emsel)esF 1i)ic
disco$rse can ta6e #lace in )ario$s orms4 t"e most im#ortant o !"ic" are t"e #$0lic
comm$nications media4 0ot" #rint and electronicF 'tate or #ri)ate mono#olies o
media o!ners"i# and #$0lic o#inion are not cond$ci)e to ci)il societ%N ci)il societ% is
al!a%s stronger !"ere t"ere is a di)ersit% o media o$tlets and #olitical )ie!sF 2e!
tec"nologies o #ersonal comm$nication incl$ding cell$lar tele#"ones and aJ and
#"otoco#%ing mac"ines can strengt"en ci)il societ% 0% em#o!ering citi5ens to
comm$nicate inde#endentl% o state s$#er)isionF A "ealt"% ci)il societ% is a m$lti
stranded !e0 o crossc$tting c"annels o comm$nicationF
7D
+o0ert *$tnam em#"asi5es t"at ci)ic comm$nit% is 0$ilt $#on norms and net!or6sK
norms o reci#rocit% t"ro$g" !"ic" social actors learn to tr$st one anot"er and
net!or6s o inter#ersonal comm$nication and eJc"angeF /oget"er4 s$c" norms and
net!or6s com#rise a stoc6 o social ca#ital !"ic" social actors can dra! $#on !"en
t"e% $nderta6e collecti)e actionF ,ic"ael :al5er arg$es t"at ci)il societ% 0reeds
comm$nal men and !omenFFFt"e #ict$re "ere is o #eo#le reel% associating and
comm$nicatingFFForming and reorming gro$#s o all sortsFFF or t"e sa6e o
socia0ilit% itselF (n "is )ie! t"e good lie can onl% 0e li)ed in ci)il societ% !"ere
citi5ens are g$ided 0% s$c" norms o ci)ilit% as social tr$st4 #olitical tolerance4 and
comm$nit% acti)ismF (n a similar )ein4 1o"en and Arato see ordinar% #eo#le as t"e
agents o modern ci)il societ%4 creating it t"ro$g" orms o sel-constit$tion and sel-
mo0ili5ationF 1i)il societ% is4 0% deinition4 #artici#ator%F (t comes into 0eing !"en
#eo#le constr$ct a s#"ere ot"er t"an and e)en o##osed to t"e state almost al!a%s
$ns%stematicall%4 some com0ination o net!or6s o legal #rotection4 )ol$ntar%
association4 and orms o inde#endent eJ#ressionF
Civil society lies 2eyond the household
:"ile acti)it% in ci)il societ% ma% 0e moti)ated 0% a >$est or #ri)ate ad)antage4 it is
not #ri)ate in t"e sense o 0eing conined to t"e domestic arenaF (nstead4 it is
decidedl% #$0lic in t!o sensesK it is collecti)e action in !"ic" indi)id$als Moin to
#$rs$e s"ared goals4 and it ta6es #lace in t"e instit$tional commons t"at lie 0e%ond
t"e 0o$ndaries o t"e "o$se"oldF (n e)er% #olit%4 #eo#le s"are identities and interests
t"at are inade>$atel% eJ#ressed 0% amil% or state instit$tionsF 1i)il societ% itsel is a
#$0lic ormation !"ose #$r#ose is to manage matters o common concern !it"o$t
resort to state inter)entionF
1i)il societ% is t"e cr$ci0le o citi5ens"i# in !"ic" indi)id$als "a)e t"e o##ort$nit%
to !ean t"emsel)es rom de#endence on eit"er amil% or stateF As citi5ens4 #eo#le
deine comm$nit% needs4 assert claims o #olitical rig"ts4 and acce#t #olitical
o0ligationsF /"e% do so #rimaril% 0% cl$stering toget"er in organi5ed gro$#s o li6e-
minded indi)id$als in order to o0tain common o0Mecti)esF
Civil Society Stands apart 'rom the State
/"e state as t"e realm o t"e #olitics o orce 0% !"ic" go)erning elites eJert t"eir
domination o)er societ%F -% contrast4 ci)il societ% is t"e realm o consent t"ro$g"
!"ic" citi5ens ma% c"oose to acce#tor to reMect t"e $se o orce 0% state oicialsF
:"en citi5ens consent4 t"e% #erorm a "egemonic role4 "el#ing to re#rod$ce t"e
#re)ailing social orderF :it"in t"e state4 #olitical action is moti)ated 0% means o
71
command 0ac6ed4 im#licitl% or eJ#licitl%4 0% t"e sanction o )iolenceF (n contrast4
social initiati)es are )ol$ntar% !it"in ci)il societ%4 eit"er 0eca$se actors #ercei)e a
material ad)antage or 0eca$se t"e% are moti)ated 0% commitment to an et"ical or
#olitical )al$eF :"ile t"e state ma% #ossess a legitimate claim to t"e mono#ol% o
)iolence4 it cannot claim eJcl$si)e dominion o)er economic or et"ical lieF 3et
economic interest and moral )al$es are 6e% #oles aro$nd !"ic" #olitical acti)it%
reg$larl% cl$stersF
1i)il societ% is disting$is"a0le not onl% rom t"e amil% and t"e state 0$t also rom
t"e realm o social action 6no!n as #olitical societ%F :"ereas t"e ci)il societ%
contains instit$tions li6e neig"0o$r"ood associations4 #roessional 0odies4 and
organi5ed religions4 #olitical societ% reers to #olitical #arties4 elections and
legislat$resF '#eciicall%4 #olitical societ% reers to t"e instit$tions t"ro$g" !"ic"
social actors see6 to !in and eJercise state #o!erF /"e instit$tions o #olitical societ%
!"ic" are located in societ% and not in t"e state s#eciali5e in #artisan #olitical
contestation and in t"e constr$ction o go)erning coalitionsF :"ile actors in ci)il
societ% learn t"e #$0lic arts o associating toget"er and eJ#ressing collecti)e
interests4 t"e% almost al!a%s see6 a$tonom% rom t"e stateF /"e eJ#ression o ci)ic
interests does not eJtend to eorts to gain and eJercise control o)er state #o!erF
1i)il societ% is an arena or t"e eJ#ression o economic interestN it is not al!a%s
cotermino$s !it" t"e mar6et econom%F /"e mar6et econom% tends to atomi5e societ%
0% treating #eo#le as indi)id$al cons$mers rat"er t"an as mem0ers o solitar% gro$#sF
/"e o#erations o t"e mar6et also tend to #romote ine>$alit% 0et!een ric" and #oor
and t"ere0% to $ndermine t"e "ori5ontal lin6ages among #olitical e>$als t"at are t"e
0asis o )ol$ntar% associationF (n its most eJtreme maniestations4 t"e mar6et#lace
ma% e)en allo! t"e emergence o economic mono#olies t"at s%stematicall%
$ndermine #l$ralism and com#etition in societ%F /"$s mar6et econom% and ci)il
societ% are com#lementar% onl% to t"e eJtent t"at 0ot" sim$ltaneo$sl% #romote
incl$sionar% orms o com#etitionF Under t"ese circ$mstances4 ci)il societ% is t"e
#olitical maniestation o economic interest4 or eJam#le ta6ing t"e orms o
c"am0ers o commerce and ind$str% or o organi5ed la0o$r $nionsF
/"e ci)il societies are "eterogeneo$s entities4 com#osed o di)erse elements4
relecting t"e #olitical clea)ages and conlicts o t"e !ider societies in !"ic" t"e% are
locatedF /"e incidence o social conlict in t"e orms o #olitical o##osition and
economic com#etition can 0e eJ#ected to rise as long-standing #olitical mono#olies
are dissol)ed and re#laced 0% a #let"ora o a$t"entic organi5ations 0ased in societ%F
72
(n dee#l% di)ided societies4 t"e emergence ci)il societ% is li6el% to 0e accom#anied
0% an intensiication o et"nic identit%F
(n #atriarc"al societies4 !omen !"o organi5e on gender lines can eJ#ect to enco$nter
an alternating #rocess o #rogress and 0ac6las"F (n ind$striali5ing societies4 t"e
middle classes are li6el% to 0e t"e #rotagonists o ci)il societ%K on one "and t"e%
artic$late $ni)ersal )al$es and 0$ild 0road4 m$lticlass #olitical coalitionsN on t"e
ot"er "and4 t"e emergence o a 0o$rgeoisie #rom#ts ne! orms o resistance rom
!or6ing #eo#le4 !omen4 and t"e dis#ossessedF (n time4 "o!e)er4 0% allo!ing s#ace
or #artic$lar interests to )ent t"eir as#irations4 ci)il societ% "olds o$t t"e "o#e o
red$cing t"e sta6es o #olitical conlict and e)ent$all% domesticating nationalismF
.)ent$all%4 in t"e 0est o all #ossi0le circ$mstances4 t"e #ractice o #olitical
toleration can lead to an aggregation o #olitical organi5ations and an emerging
consens$s on #olitical )al$esF
/"e state is not going to !it"er a!a%F /"ere are man% 0asic de)elo#mental $nctions
!"ic" m$st 0e #erormed or !"ic" t"e state is $ni>$el% e>$i##ed4 not least t"e
g$ardians"i# o territorial 0o$ndaries and social orderF For t"is reason4 a strong ci)il
societ% is li6el% to 0e associated not onl% !it" a com#etiti)e mar6et econom% 0$t
also !it" an eecti)e and ca#a0le stateF Associational lie !ill 0e st$nted in a conteJt
o #olitical )iolence4 in t"e a0sence o t"e r$le o la!4 or !"ere essential ser)ices are
intermittentF 2et!or6s o #$0lic comm$nication cannot de)elo# $ll% $nless t"e state
esta0lis"es and enorces g$arantees o reedom o s#eec"F (n s"ort4 ci)il societ% needs
an ena0ling en)ironment o legal rig"ts and inrastr$ct$ral s$##ortsF (t cannot o#erate
!"ere #$0lic order or t"e state is colla#sing or o#erating !ell 0elo! ca#acit%F (n s$m4
t"ere is no #ossi0ilit% o c"oosing4 li6e t"e old anarc"ists4 ci)il societ% aloneF (nstead4
ci)il societ% is instit$tionali5ed and generali5ed t"ro$g" la!s es#eciall% s$0Mecti)e
rig"tsF
The Civil Society in )'rica
Arican societies seem to #ossess e! intermediar% organi5ations t"at
occ$#% t"e #olitical s#ace 0et!een "o$se"old and stateF 3et4 on closer eJamination4
one can discern c$lt$ral and religio$s instit$tions t"at eJ#ress collecti)e identities
s$c" as clan4 age-set4 and 0rot"er"ood to !"ic" r$ral ol6 contin$e to grant
allegianceF (n addition4 Aricans constr$cted res" orms o )ol$ntar% association in
res#onse to t"e disr$#ti)e eects o $r0ani5ation and t"e mar6et econom% d$ring t"e
colonial #eriodF 'ometimes t"ese !ere $#dated eJ#ressions o long standing inormal
solidarities li6e et"nic !elare associations4 #ro#"etic mo)ements4 and agric$lt$ral
!or6 #artiesN in ot"er cases t"e% ga)e eJ#ression to ne! occ$#ational and class
73
identities #easant mo)ements4 la0o$r $nions4 teac"ersI associationsF /"ese
associations 0ecame eJ#licitl% #olitical4 irst 0% #rotesting t"e indignities o colonial
r$le and4 later4 0% orming t"e 0$ilding 0loc6s o nationalist #olitical #artiesF Ater
inde#endence4 Arican r$ling elites ga)e to# #riorit% to state so)ereignt% and national
sec$rit% and so$g"t to 0ring a0o$t de#artici#ationF Alt"o$g" t"e% in)ested "ea)il% in
t"e constr$ction o one-#art% and militar% regimes4 elites !ere not al!a%s s$ccess$l
at disco$raging a$tonomo$s organi5ations rom ta6ing root in ci)il societ%F 'ome
leaders ni##ed t"em in t"e 0$d 0% incor#orating t"em $nder t"e !ing o go)erning
#artiesN ot"ers 0anned t"em entirel%F -$t4 in man% #laces4 )ol$ntar% associations
#ro)ed too strong to 0e s$0ordinated and s$r)i)ed as an alternati)e instit$tional
rame!or6 to oicialdomF
Associational lie too6 dierent orms in dierent co$ntriesK 1"ristian c"$rc"es in
;en%a and -$r$ndi4 (slamic 0rot"er"oods in 'enegal and '$dan4 la!%ers and
Mo$rnalists associations in G"ana and 2igeria4 armer organi5ations in Cim0a0!e and
;en%a4 and mine!or6ers $nions in Cam0ia and 'o$t" AricaF -$t e)er%!"ere t"ose
inde#endent associations s$r)i)ed t"e% #ro)ided ordinar% Aricans !it" an o$tlet or
t"e $rge to com0ine in #$rs$it o s"ared goalsF
/"e #oor #erormance o #lanned economies in Arica ga)e an added im#et$s to
a$tonomo$s acti)it% 0e%ond t"e #$r)ie! o t"e stateF As a means o e)ading t"e costs
and ineiciencies o economic reg$lation4 #rod$cers and traders c"ose increasingl% to
#artici#ate directl% in t"at #art o t"e econom% )ario$sl% reerred to as t"e second4
#arallel4 inormal4 $ndergro$nd4 0lac6 or irreg$lar econom%F (n sco#e and ormalit%4
trading net!or6s ranged rom ad "oc )illage mar6ets to organi5ed sm$ggling rings
s#anning international rontiersF -% 1=8D4 t"e si5e o t"e second econom% in se)eral
Arican co$ntries !as estimated to a##roac"4 i not eJceed4 t"e si5e o t"e oicial
gross domestic #rod$ctF
/"e act t"at Arican citi5ens a$tonomo$sl% $ndertoo6 a !ide gam$t o organi5ed
economic acti)it% "ad #roo$nd #olitical im#licationsF As trade s"ited to illegal or
inormal net!or6s4 taJes 0ecame diic$lt to collect and #$0lic re)en$es diminis"ed4
es#eciall% in )al$a0le oreign eJc"ange4 t"ere0% eJacer0ating t"e iscal crisis o t"e
stateF Financiall% de#ri)ed go)ernments "ad little o#tion 0$t to loosen restrictions on
a$tonomo$s net!or6s and organi5ations 0% #ermitting t"em to #erorm some o t"e
$nctions #re)io$sl% mono#oli5ed 0% go)ernmentF -% t"e end o t"e 1=8Ds4
inde#endent associations and alternati)e economic net!or6s toget"er #ro)ided a
recr$iting gro$nd or a #o#$lar $#s$rge against #ost-colonial a$tocrac%F
74
1i)ic actors in Arica deri)ed ne! o$nd energ% rom t"e climate o #olitical
li0erali5ation in t"e 1==DsF (n res#onse to #o#$lar #rotest and donor #ress$re4 Arican
#olitical leaders created #olitical o#enings or eJam#le4 0% releasing #olitical
#risoners and a0andoning one #art% constit$tion t"at im#ro)ed t"e legal en)ironment
or ree eJ#ression and associationF /"ere is considera0le e)idence t"at #re)io$sl%
closed #olitical s#ace !as occ$#ied 0% gen$ine maniestations o ci)il societ%4
namel% 0% str$ct$res o associations4 net!or6s o comm$nication4 and norms o ci)ic
engagementF
AricaIs greatest original contri0$tion to ci)il societ% is t"e national conerence4 a
orm o #olitical association t"at "as 0een con)ened in more t"an "al a do5en
ranco#"one statesF A national conerence is an assem0l% o national elites4 0et!een
se)eral "$ndred and se)eral t"o$sand strong4 !"ic" incl$des re#resentati)es o all
maMor segments o societ% and is oten c"aired 0% a c"$rc" leaderF /"e conerence
meets to address a co$ntr%Is #olitical crisis and to attem#t to orm$late constit$tional
r$les or #olitical transitionF A critical #oint comes !"en t"e conerees demand
so)ereignt% to re)ise t"e constit$tion or4 as in -enin and 1ongo4 to cond$ct a #$0lic
im#eac"ment in !"ic" t"e sitting #resident is acc$sed o corr$#t #ractices and
stri##ed o eJec$ti)e #o!ersF
/"e international s#read o ne! comm$nications tec"nologies4 nota0l% aJ mac"ines
and satellite /84 "as "el#ed #romote #$0lic #olitical disco$rseF A$t"oritarian
go)ernments ind diic$lt% in controlling t"ese decentrali5ed tec"nologies and in
#re)enting t"e dissemination o international ne!s4 inormation4 and #olitical )al$es
!it"in t"eir 0ordersF .s#eciall% in )olatile $r0an areas4 Arican citi5ens o0tain
inormation rom 1a0le 2e!s 2et!or64 +adio France (nternational4 and t"e -ritis"
-roadcasting 1or#oration4 so$rces !"ic" t"e% sa% t"e% tr$st more t"an go)ernment-
o!ned media o$tletsF /"e ledgling o##osition mo)ement in ,ala!i "as 0een
organi5ed #artl% t"ro$g" aJ messages rom eJiled leaders in Cam0iaF And4 in :est
Arica4 t"e #roceedings o t"e national conerence in -enin !ere 0roadcast into
neig"0o$ring /ogo and 2iger4 #er"a#s em0oldening #ro-democrac% orces t"ereF
.)idence or t"e emergence o a consens$s aro$nd norms o democratic #roced$re
and good go)ernance is less tangi0le and more diic$lt to locateF One can #oint to
t"e emergence o #$0lic de0ate a0o$t "$man rig"ts4 a s$0Mect t"at !as almost
noneJistent a decade ago 0$t !"ic" Aricans no! eel com#elled to tal6 a0o$tF Anti-
corr$#tion is anot"er eecti)e message or #olitical mo0ili5ation4 more eecti)e
#ro0a0l% t"an a##eals to m$lti#art% democrac%F And4 !"ere ree and air elections
"a)e 0een cond$cted4 inc$m0ent leaders "a)e $s$all% 0een o$sted4 $s$all% 0% a clear
maMorit% )oteF
75
2e)ert"eless4 )oter t$rno$t in transition elections "as oten 0een remar6a0l% lo!4
s$ggesting t"at citi5ens "ar0o$r dee# le)els o distr$st to!ards #olitics and
#oliticiansF ,oreo)er4 t"e a$tonomo$s s#ace 0e%ond t"e state "as its dar6 sideK !"ile
Linormal economies #ro)ide a criticall% im#ortant so$rce o economic s$r)i)alFFFt"e%
are also #art o $ni)erse in !"ere t"et and )iolence are common c$rrenc%F &ere4 too4
maniestations o s#irit$al #o!er4 li6e religion4 !itc"crat4 and magic4 can $nderc$t
eorts to 0$ild reci#rocal relations"i#s 0$ilt on an $nderl%ing normati)e consens$sF
On t"e 0asis o a)aila0le e)idence4 a #rima acie case can 0e made t"at instit$tions o
ci)il societ% eJist in some Arican co$ntriesF On t"e #ositi)e side4 t"ere are elements
o #olitical c$lt$re in Arican co$ntries t"at are cond$ci)e to 0$ilding strong ci)ic
instit$tionsF -eca$se man% Aricans still dra! t"eir identities rom collecti)e social
$nits li6e amil%4 clan and et"nic gro$#4 t"ere is a irm 0asis o gro$# solidarit% $#on
!"ic" to constr$ct #rimar% associationsF /"e eJ#ansion o associational lie in
Arican co$ntries "as also c$t across class lines4 0eing e>$all% i not more #re)alent
among economicall% marginal gro$#s as among emergent middle classesF
*oliticall% mo0ili5ed gro$#s s"are a !ides#read #erce#tion t"at inc$m0ent leaders
"a)e neglected t"eir #olitical o0ligations to #ro)ide or t"e !elare o t"eir ollo!ersF
/"is #erce#tion "as $eled a res$rgence o demands or #olitical acco$nta0ilit% !"ic"
is "el#$l in t"e constr$ction4 not M$st o ci)il societ%4 0$t also o democrac%F And4
"o!e)er tentati)el%4 organi5ed gro$#s "a)e 0eg$n to #roMect t"eir #reerences into t"e
#olic% #rocessF /"e 0est eJam#les can 0e o$nd in la0o$r $nion re#resentations o)er
state reg$lation o collecti)e 0argaining and armer $nion re#resentations o)er land
reorm and agric$lt$ral #ricingF
On t"e ot"er "and4 ot"er as#ects o t"e economic and c$lt$ral en)ironments o
Arican co$ntries a##ear to 0e inertile gro$nd or n$rt$ring ci)il societ%F As is !ell
6no!n4 most Arican co$ntries are 0ecalmed in a long-term economic crisis
c"aracteri5ed 0% s"rin6ing o$t#$t #er ca#ita4 escalating inde0tedness4 and alling
li)ing standardsF *eo#le !"o are #reocc$#ied !it" meeting dail% needs o economic
s$r)i)al and amil% !elare "a)e neit"er t"e time nor inclination to de)ote
t"emsel)es to ci)ic and comm$nit% aairsF 2or are inanciall% stra##ed go)ernments
a0le to s$stain t"e in)estments in ed$cation and ad$lt literac% necessar% to c$lti)ate a
!e0 o #$0lic comm$nication among !ell-inormed citi5ensF 'ocieties ri)e 0% !ide
and gro!ing ga#s 0et!een ric" and #oor are str$ct$rall% ill-s$ited to t"e c$lti)ation
o norms o reci#rocit% and #artici#ation on !"ic" ci)il societ% is 0asedF (ndeed4 t"e
glo0al association 0et!een sta0le democrac% and ad)anced ind$strial econom%
s$ggests t"at democratic instit$tions are diic$lt to constr$ct $nder conditions o
mass economic #ri)ation and great social ine>$alitiesF
76
+electing t"e #o)ert% o t"eir clienteles4 ci)ic organi5ations in Arica s$er gross
s"ortages o material reso$rcesK t"e% o!n e! organi5ational assets4 o#erate !it" tin%
0$dgets4 and are al!a%s $nderstaedF Fe! #recedents eJist or mo0ili5ing inancial
contri0$tions t"ro$g" cor#orate s#onsors"i#4 $ser ees4 or t"e #a%ment o d$esF
(nstead4 ci)ic organi5ations "a)e $s$all% t$rned to oreign donors to co)er t"e costs
o not onl% ca#ital #roMects 0$t also core o#erating eJ#ensesF O)er-de#endence on
oreign $nding "as se)eral #at"ological conse>$ences or t"e de)elo#ment o
)ol$ntar% organi5ations and4 "ence4 or ci)il societ%F
For eJam#le4 t"e direction o acco$nta0ilit% is re)ersed !it"in t"e organi5ation4 !it"
leaders re#orting to donors rat"er t"an to mem0ers or clientsF ,oreo)er4 reliance on
$nds rom a0road can 0e a #olitical lia0ilit%4 red$cing t"e credi0ilit% o claims 0%
associations to 0e a$t"entic ad)ocates or domestic #olitical constit$encies and
ena0ling "ost go)ernments to dismiss t"em as agents o oreign interestsF
-e%ond economic constraints4 a second consideration is c$lt$reF Arican co$ntries
also #ossess #olitical c$lt$res em0edded $nder a$t"oritarian regimes in t"e #re
colonial4 colonial and #ost-colonial #eriodsF At t"e ris6 o o)ersim#liication4 t"ese
c$lt$res can 0e descri0ed as neo#atrimonialF 2eo#atrimonialism originates in t"e
Arican eJtended amil%4 !it" t"e dominance o older males and strong inter#ersonal
tiesF (t "as 0een rein)ented in t"e orm o t"e 0ig men and #ersonal #olitical
relations"i#s t"at #er)ade #ost-colonial Arican #olitical instit$tions4 incl$ding
go)ernment 0$rea$craciesF At t"e elite le)el4 neo #atrimonialism is maniest in t"e
o)er centrali5ation o #o!er ar0itrar% decision ma6ing and t"e $se o #$0lic
reso$rces or #ersonal ad)ancementF At t"e mass le)el4 neo #atrimonial c$lt$re
re)eals itsel in o0eisance and deerence to #olitical s$#eriors4 in conormit% in gro$#
0e"a)io$r and in economic de#endence $#on !ealt"% indi)id$alsF
As m$c" as contesting t"is illi0eral #olitical c$lt$re4 ci)ic organi5ations in Arica
tend to em0od% and to re#rod$ce itF /"e% are $s$all% led 0% #ersonalit% leaders !"o
$se t"e distri0$tion o material re!ards and ind$cements to 0$ild s$##ort aro$nd an
et"nic4 ling$istic4 or regional coreF Once t"e% "a)e sec$red oice4 s$c" leaders
t%#icall% resort to ar0itrar% decision-ma6ing and resist initiati)es or democratic
control or leaders"i# t$rno)er !it"in t"e organi5ationF /o t"e eJtent t"at s$c" leaders
enco$rage #olitical lin6ages among ollo!ers4 t"e% #romote L)erticalL relations"i#s
0et!een #atron and s$0ordinates rat"er t"an L"ori5ontalL relations"i#s among
#olitical e>$alsF 2eedless to sa%4 it is t"e latter sort o association t"at is most
cond$ci)e to ci)ic comm$nit%F /"is is not to sa% t"at t"e am0itions o #atrons al!a%s
go $nc"allengedF /"e mem0ers o )ol$ntar% associations "a)e sometimes 0een a0le
to eMect corr$#t or $nres#onsi)e leaders or to 0rea6 a!a% to orm s#linter
77
organi5ationsF &o!e)er4 t"e esta0lis"ment o internal democrac% !it"in ci)ic
organi5ations is an im#ortant #rere>$isite to t"eir eecti)eness as a orce or #olitical
acco$nta0ilit% in relation to t"e stateF
1i)il societ% man$act$res #olitical consentN it is t"e so$rce o t"e legitimation o
state #o!erF /"e rig"t o an% elite to eJercise state #o!er is $ltimatel% de#endent
$#on #o#$lar acce#tanceF /"is consens$s is man$act$red 0% t"e instit$tions o ci)il
societ%F (n t"is !a%4 ci)il societ% ser)es t"e L"egemonicL $nction o M$sti%ing state
dominationF For as long as ci)ic actors grant consent4 ci)il societ% eJists in a
com#lementar% relations"i# to t"e stateF O)er time4 "o!e)er4 citi5ens ma% come to
#ercei)e t"at r$ling elites are a0$sing t"e #o!er granted t"emF A e! 0ra)e
indi)id$als ma% la$nc" an o##ositional criti>$e !"ic"4 !"en circ$mstances #ermit4 is
ta6en $# and #o#$lari5ed in inormal social mo)ements and #er"a#s e)ent$all% 0%
leaders o esta0lis"ed instit$tionsF /"is disco$rse can )ar% in de#t" o o##ositionN it
ma% critici5e t"e oi0les o #artic$lar inc$m0ents4 im#licate t"e regime o go)ernance
t"at s$c" leaders re#resent4 or e)en >$estion t"e str$ct$re o state #o!erF -$t4 in all
cases4 t"e $nctions o domination and "egemon% 0ecome se#arated and co$nter
#osedF O##osition ideas gain "egemon% o)er societ% t"e stateIs domination o)er t"e
econom% and4 e)en more4 t"e #olice and t"e arm% remain intactF
/"e legitimac% o a #olitical leaders claim to eJercise state #o!er t"$s deri)es rom
ci)il societ%F *$t anot"er !a%4 res#onsi)e and eecti)e go)ernment can onl% 0e 0$ilt
on a o$ndation o ci)ic comm$nit%F (n t"is essential o0ser)ation lies !"at *$tnam
calls t"e seeds or a t"eor% o democratic go)ernanceF :al5er conc$rsK t"e >$alit% o
o$r #olitical and economic acti)it% and o$r national c$lt$re is intimatel% connected to
t"e strengt" and )italit% o associations named 1o"en and Arato ad)ise t"at #olitical
leaders !o$ld do !ell4 i t"e% )al$e t"eir long-term legitimac%4 to #romote
democratic instit$tion-0$ilding in ci)il societ%4 e)en i t"is seems to increase t"e
n$m0er o social demands on t"emF/"e roles t"at ci)il societ% #la%s )ar% according
to t"e stage o t"e #olitical transition #rocessF
(t is no! c$stomar% to disting$is" at least o$r stages o regime c"angeK #re-
transition4 li0erali5ation4 transition4 and consolidation 4Sorenson8 !00$C OHDonnell
and Schmitter8 !0.(9.
*re-transition descri0es t"e #eriod in !"ic" t"e a$t"oritarian regime "as consolidated
its r$le and aces no signiicant #olitical c"allengeF A$t"oritarian go)ernments
ro$tinel% emasc$late #olitical societ% 0% 0anning #olitical #arties and controlling
electionsF (n res#onse4 #olitical nonconormists4 !"o can no longer o#erate o#enl%4
ta6e re$ge in t"e occ$#ational associations and religio$s and ed$cational
78
organi5ations o ci)il societ%F Free #olitical disco$rse ma% s$r)i)e !it"in t"ese ci)ic
instit$tions d$ring t"e #re-transition #eriod4 0$t it in)aria0l% ass$mes $ndergro$nd or
disg$ised ormsF Artists4 intellect$als4 or religio$s leaders 0ecome t"e sole #$r)e%ors
o #olitical criticism4 !"ic" is $s$all% cloa6ed in #arod%4 Margon4 or allegor%F :"ile
street demonstrations ma% occ$r reg$larl%4 #rotesters $s$all% oc$s on economic
rat"er t"an eJ#licitl% #olitical iss$esF
*olitical li0erali5ation occ$rs !"en a r$ling elite grant #re)io$sl% denied ci)il and
#olitical rig"ts4 mar6ing an im#ortant de#art$re rom a$t"oritarian #ractices and t"e
onset o #olitical transitionF :"ile li0erali5ation ma% occ$r at t"e initiati)e o a
#rogressi)e action t"at s#lits t"e state elite4 more commonl% it is a res#onse to
escalating economic #rotest 4,ratton and van de >alle8 !00$C Cohen and )rato8
!00$8 /%9F
At t"is stage4 #rotest is gal)ani5ed not onl% 0% den$nciations o elite corr$#tion 0$t
also 0% calls or m$lti#art% democrac%F 1i)il societ% comes to 0e dominated 0% loose
social mo)ements !it" an ill-deined reorm agenda t"at oc$s almost eJcl$si)el% on
t"e o$ster o inc$m0entsF D$ring t"is #eriod4 interim national leaders emerge rom
!it"in t"e c"$rc"es4 #roessions4 $nions4 and $ni)ersities to "ead #re#art% LrontsL
li6e national committees4 national conerences4 and general stri6e coalitionsF
A #olitical transition is t"e inter)al 0et!een one regime and anot"erF D$ring a
transition4 #olitical actors str$ggle to esta0lis" #olitical r$les t"at #ro)ide ad)antage4
not onl% in t"e immediate contest o)er state #o!er 0$t also o)er an% $t$re
redistri0$tion o #$0lic reso$rcesF /"e critical moment o t"e transition occ$rs !"en
t"e inc$m0ent regime concedes t"at t"e r$les o #olitical com#etition can 0e c"anged
to allo! t"e ormation o inde#endent #olitical #artiesF From t"is moment on!ard4
and es#eciall% ollo!ing t"e anno$ncement o com#etiti)e elections4 t"e initiati)e in
t"e democrati5ation s"its 0ac6 rom ci)il societ% into a reconstit$ted #olitical
societ%F O##osition #oliticians come o$t o "iding in ci)il societ%4 or international
eJile4 and r$s" to orm #olitical #arties t"ro$g" !"ic" to mo$nt a 0id or state #o!erF
(ndeed4 0eca$se $ll democratic transition re>$ires t"e ormation o organi5ations
aimed at ca#t$ring #o!er4 it m$st in)ol)e #olitical societ%F /"is is not to sa% t"at ci)il
societ% 0ecomes irrele)ant d$ring #olitical transitionF Far rom itK in t"e t$r0$lence o
an election cam#aign4 ci)il societ% 0ecomes "ig"l% mo0ili5ed4 onl% its role c"anges
rom #artisan to ne$tralF (nstead o #ro)iding a re$ge o last resort or dissident
#oliticians4 actors in ci)il societ% are reed to ta6e on tr$l% ci)ic $nctions or !"ic"
t"e% "a)e a more nat$ral a#tit$deF /"e #ros#ect o com#etiti)e elections s$ddenl%
7=
raises a #let"ora o demands or citi5en ed$cation4 #$0lic comm$nication4 ar0itration
0et!een contending #arties4 and #re)ention o electoral ra$dF
(ne)ita0l%4 $nder #re)io$s mono#olistic regimes4 ci)ic organi5ations ne)er eJisted to
#erorm t"ese $nctions or !ere dormantF 2e! organi5ations "a)e to 0e $rgentl%
ormed or re)i)ed in order to ens$re elections are ree and air and t"at citi5ens are
ade>$atel% inormed to #artici#ate in t"emF
*olitical transitions sometimes lead to democrac%4 !"ic" is a set o r$les to g$arantee
#olitical #artici#ation and contestation incl$ding4 at minim$m4 reg$lar elections or
national leadersF Ot"er #ossi0le o$tcomes incl$de li0erali5ed or rein)igorated orms
o a$tocrac%4 or anarc"%F /"e consolidation o a regime 0egins !"en a #olitical
transition ends !"ic"4 in t"e case o a democratic transition4 is mar6ed 0% t"e
installation o a ne! go)ernment as t"e res$lt o a ree and air electionF :"et"er a
democratic regime 0ecomes consolidated de#ends $#on t"e acce#tance 0% all
#olitical actors4 es#eciall% t"e losers o t"e election4 o a ne! and sta0le set o
#olitical r$les incl$ding t"e con)ocation o reg$lar s$0se>$ent electionsF (t ma% ta6e
generations to consolidate a democrac%F +egime consolidation can onl% 0e said to
"a)e occ$rred ater signiicant t"reats o regime re)ersal "a)e 0een eecti)el%
eliminated or containedF /"e instit$tions o ci)il societ% "a)e a cr$cial role to #la% in
t"e consolidation o democrac%F At t"e dee#est le)els o #olitical c$lt$re4 ci)ic
instit$tions incl$de t"e #olitical norms and )al$es t"at $nder#in t"e r$les o
democratic com#etitionF Democrac% de#ends $#on attac"ments among citi5ens to a
matriJ o ci)il li0erties !"ic" t"e% are !illing to deend against encroac"ment 0% t"e
eJec$tors o state #o!erF At a more concrete le)el4 ci)il societ% is t"e arena o
)ol$ntar% associational lieF A "ealt"% democrac% is o$nded on a #l$ralit% o
organi5ed social gro$#s t"ro$g" !"ic" citi5ens learn t"e arts o associating toget"er4
#ractice t"e #roced$res o democratic go)ernance4 and eJ#ress gro$# interests to
#olic% ma6ersF (t is t"ro$g" ci)ic organi5ations t"at #eo#le #artici#ate in #olitics and
de)elo#mentF 1i)il societ% also #ro)ides net!or6s o comm$nication among citi5ens4
and 0et!een citi5ens and t"e stateF (deall%4 t"e media o comm$nication are not
mono#oli5ed 0% t"e r$ling #art% or 0% an% ot"er single interest in societ%4 0$t relect a
di)ersit% o )oices and o#inionsF /"e #rime $nction o t"ese media incl$de ed$cating
citi5ens a0o$t #$0lic #olic% iss$es4 im#ro)ing t"e trans#arenc% o #$0lic decisions4
and "el#ing to "old #$0lic oicials acco$nta0leF
(n #ractice4 ci)il societies do not generall% #erorm !ell in t"e earl% stages o
democratic consolidationF /"e reasons can 0e o$nd in t"e d%namics o t"e
democrati5ation #rocess4 nota0l% in t"e delation o #olitical energies t"at occ$rs
immediatel% ater transitionF /"e ne! regime ma% dra! ci)ic leaders into leaders"i#
8D
#ositions in go)ernment or #art% instit$tions4 t"ere0% eecti)el% co-o#ting and
silencing t"emF Among citi5ens4 t"e intense le)els o #olitical engagement t"at !ere
!"i##ed $# d$ring t"e election cam#aign cannot 0e s$stained $nder normal #olitical
conditionsF (ndeed4 #olitical elites deli0eratel% see6 to de$se and contain t"e
e0$llience and $nrealistic eJ#ectations o citi5ensF (n addition4 #olitical actions !"o
$nited aro$nd t"e common goal o o$sting an a$t"oritarian leader redisco)er
dierences o interest t"at can di)ide4 inca#acitate4 and e)en destro% ci)ic
organi5ationsF And4 in #oor co$ntries4 man% o t"e #eo#le !"o 0ecame #oliticall%
acti)e d$ring t"e transition c"oose to !it"dra! again into t"e "o$se"old realm in
order to address #ressing and neglected needs o economic s$r)i)alF
(n s$m4 t"e re)i)al o #olitical societ% and t"e concl$sion o a #olitical transition can
"a)e demo0ili5ing conse>$ences or ci)il societ%F /"e rein)igoration o ci)il societ%
as a orce or democratic go)ernance o)er t"e long term is a maMor item or t"e #ost-
transition agendaF As instr$ments o #olitical consent4 t"e instit$tions o ci)il societ%
can eit"er #ro)ide #olitical legitimac% to go)ernments4 or !it""old itF An% #olitical
legitimac% !on at t"e #olls is a scarce reso$rce !"ic" is easil% dissi#ated and m$st 0e
constantl% rene!edF Go)ernments t"at are attem#ting a cras" #rogram o
mar6eti5ation are es#eciall% need% o democratic instit$tions in societ% t"at can
ed$cate citi5ens4 0$ild s$##ort4 and di)ert o##osition into constr$cti)e c"annelsF
2o!"ere is t"is c$rrentl% more tr$e t"an in s$0-'a"aran AricaF
The 1eislative Environment 'or Civil Society
(n almost all Arican co$ntries4 #olitical li0eration !as s$##orted eJtensi)el% 0%
#eo#le<s mo)ements4 ait"30ased ormations and )ario$s constellations o ci)il
societ%F /"ere !as a close lin6 0et!een ci)il societ% and #olitical societ%F From 2ort"
to 'o$t"4 :est to .ast4 ci)il societies organi5ed and inormal #la%ed critical roles in
t"e dismantling o colonialism4 a#art"eid and ot"er orms o dominationF /"is !as
not onl% tr$e o Arica it !as also tr$e o ot"er #arts o t"e !orldF (n .astern and
1entral .$ro#e4 ci)il societ% #la%ed a maMor role in t"e all o comm$nist states and
t"e s$0se>$ent !a)e o democrati5ation t"at ollo!edF (ns#ired 0% t"e c"anges t"at
!ere 0ro$g"t a0o$t 0% #eo#le<s #o!er4 a n$m0er o donors and some go)ernments
in)ested "ea)il% on ci)il societ% as an agent o c"angeF (n some >$arters ci)il societ%
!as e)en considered as a Omagic 0$llet< 4Ed-ards and Hulme8 !00*9.
1i)il societ%<s role !as not limited onl% to t"e #olitical and ci)il li0erties arena it !as
also seen as instr$mental in #romoting de)elo#ment4 red$cing #o)ert% and
administering "$manitarian aidF 1i)il societ%4 in #artic$lar4 non3go)ernmental
organisations ass$med maMor roles and 0ecame maMor orces in de)elo#mentF .)en
81
recent st$dies across t"e glo0e "a)e attem#ted to s"o! t"at ci)il societ%4 or !"at is
generall% reerred to as t"e t"ird sector ma6e massi)e contri0$tions to t"e Gross
Domestic *rod$cts o t"eir go)ernmentsF /"ese st$dies !ere cond$cted as a res#onse
to t"e act t"at t"is sector "as more oten 0een sidelined 0% #olic%3ma6ersF (n t"e
!ords o reno!ned sc"olar 7ester 'alamon o /"e Eo"ns &o#6ins Uni)ersit%4 Osocial
and #olitical disco$rse remains "ea)il% dominated 0% a Ot!o3sector model< t"at
ac6no!ledges t"e eJistence o onl% t!o social s#"eres o$tside o t"e amil% $nit t"e
mar6et and t"e state4 or 0$siness and go)ernment< 4Salamon8 &%%$9F And or a long
time4 ci)il societ% contri0$tions !ere 6e#t o$t o t"e oicial statisticsF /"is is still t"e
case in man% co$ntriesF As a res$lt ci)il societ%<s #otential and real contri0$tion in
#olic% de0ates and orm$lation "as 0een ignored or at !orst c"allengedF
&o!e)er as The Johns &op7ins !omparative /on#rofit Sector Studies "a)e s"o!n4
Ot"e t"ird sector is a maMor economic orce<F A st$d% o 35 co$ntries in 2DD3 (16
ad)anced4 14 de)elo#ing and 5 transitional) s"o!ed t"at t"e t"ird sector !as a Q1F3
trillion ind$str% as o t"e late 1==Ds t"is re#resented a0o$t 5F1P o t"e com0ined
GD* o t"e 35 co$ntriesF F$rt"er4 t"e st$d% s"o!ed t"at t"e sector !as t"e se)ent"
!orld largest econom% t"at is i ci)il societ% !as a national econom% it !o$ld 0e t"e
se)ent" a"ead o (tal%4 -ra5il4 +$ssia4 '#ain and 1anada and M$st 0e"ind t"e United
;ingdom and FranceF /"e sector is also a maMor em#lo%er4 em#lo%ing more t"an 3=F5
million $lltime e>$i)alent !or6ers 4Salamon8 &%%$9F
1learl%4 t"e t"ird sector is a maMor orce to rec6on !it" "ence o)er t"e %ears
es#eciall% in de)elo#ed co$ntries4 t"ere "as 0een a mo)e to!ards loo6ing or a
middle !a% as a res$lt o t"e state and t"e mar6etF 1i)il societ% "as 0ecome t"at
middle !a% 0et!een t"e sole reliance on t"e state and sole reliance on t"e mar6et to
co#e !it" #$0lic demands 4Salamon8 &%%$9F /"is is not so "o!e)er in man% o t"e
de)elo#ing or transitional statesF /"ere is still t"e tendenc% to ignore t"e contri0$tions
or e)en roles #la%ed 0% )ario$s constellations o ci)il societies in t"e )ario$s s#"eres
are t"e% #olitical4 economic4 c$lt$ral4 and social or )ario$s com0inationsF (n most
co$ntries as !e disc$ss later4 t"is sector is )ie!ed !it" s$s#icion des#ite t"e act t"at
most o t"ese go)ernments came into #o!er t"ro$g" t"e s$##ort o ci)il societ%
ormations or !ere t"emsel)es ci)il societ% ormations 0eoreF
,ore recentl%4 t"e s#ace or citi5ens< #artici#ation in )ario$s le)els o t"e 0od%
#olitic "as 0een s"r$n6F ,ore and more4 legal instr$ments "a)e emerged to reg$late
"o! gro$#s s"o$ld cond$ct t"eir acti)itiesF /"e recent attem#ts to close t"e s#ace or
citi5ens and t"eir ormations are not #artic$larl% Arican it is a glo0al #"enomenon
s%m#tomatic o t"e gro!ing 0ac6las" and #$s"0ac6 on democrac%F /"e democrac%
82
deicit is a go)ernance >$estion and citi5ens as maMor #la%ers in t"at arena 0ecome
targetsF
(t is t"ereore im#ortant t"at an anal%sis o t"e recent clos$re o #$0lic s#"eres 0%
nation states 0e located in t"e 0roader go)ernance >$estionF /"ere is no dis#$te t"at
reg$lation is necessar% and is an international #ractice "o!e)er most o t"ese la!s do
not meet t"e international standards and #rinci#les t"at #rotect citi5ens< rig"tsF
(ronicall%4 t"ese la!s also )iolate t"eir o!n constit$tions reinorcing t"e )ie! t"at in
t"e maMorit% o t"ese co$ntries t"ere are Oconstit$tions !it"o$t constit$tionalism<F (n
addition to legal instr$ments some o !"ic" are directed #rimaril% at ci)il societ%
ormations in #artic$lar 2GOs o t"e ad)ocac% t%#e and ot"ers are indirect t"ere are
ot"er non3legal tools t"at go)ernments $se to c$rtail t"e acti)ities o t"e t"ird sectorF
/r$e4 some gro$#s "a)e not cond$cted t"emsel)es in trans#arent !a%s4 and some
"a)e 0een in)ol)ed in >$estiona0le acti)itiesN t"e res#onse "o!e)er is
dis#ro#ortionate to t"e 0e"a)io$r dis#la%ed 0% ci)il societ%F
)'rican 1a-s on Civil Society
/"e rise o strong ci)il societ% organisations4 )i0rant and )ocal media instit$tions in
Arica !as not 0esto!ed 0% some 0ene)olent leaders"i#F /"e% relect t"e !ill o t"e
#eo#le to "old t"e leaders"i# o t"eir co$ntries acco$nta0leF (t is t"is )i0ranc% and t"e
need to "old go)ernments acco$nta0le t"at most ci)il societ% organisations "a)e 0een
targeted 0% restricti)e la!s and "ostile #olitical en)ironmentsF /"e res#onse to t"ese
gro$#s )aries rom co$ntr% to co$ntr% de#ending on t"e #olitical en)ironmentF (n
some!"at ena0ling en)ironments li6e 'o$t" Arica4 ci)il societ% is )ie!ed as a
#artner in de)elo#ment and as s$c" man% rig"ts are res#ectedF /"e% "o!e)er ace t"e
c"allenges o $nding4 ragmentation and t"e general ca#acit% and leaders"i#
#ro0lemsF
(t is "o!e)er in restricti)e en)ironments t"at t"is #a#er #$ts a lot o em#"asisF
Generall% most o t"ese la!s in t"eir negati)e nat$re are $sed to c$rtail t"e acti)ities
o ci)il societ% and at t"e eJtreme render citi5ens< action or t"e #$0lic good a
dangero$s acti)it% leading to "arassment4 arrests4 im#risonment4 and at times tort$re
or t"ose in)ol)ed 41arok8 &%%09F /"e :orld ,o)ement or Democrac% "as o$tlined
in t"eir glo0al re#ort on Defendin !ivil Society4 t"e )ario$s met"ods $sed to restrict
ci)il li0ertiesF /"e% remar6 t"at in less t"an a %ear4 more t"an t!ent% co$ntries
glo0all% "a)e introd$ced restricti)e legislation and reg$lations aimed at $ndermining
ci)il societ% and diminis"ing t"e s#ace in !"ic" t"e% o#erateF /"e% $rt"er o0ser)e
t"at t"e ongoing 0ac6las" against democrac% "as 0een c"aracteri5ed 0% a #rono$nced
s"it rom o$trig"t re#ression o democrac%4 "$man rig"ts and ci)il societ% acti)ists
83
and gro$#s to more s$0tle go)ernment eorts to restrict t"e s#ace in !"ic" ci)il
societ% es#eciall% democrac% oriented gro$#s o#erateF /"e )ario$s met"ods $sed )ar%
rom im#risonment4 tort$re4 disa##earances and "arassment to more so#"isticated
meas$res s$c" as legal and administrati)e o0stacles s$c" as 0arriers to entr%4
0$rea$cratic #a#er!or6 and stringent re>$irements or registrationF Ot"er o0stacles
incl$de ar0itrar% dissol$tion o 2GOs4 stringent o)ersig"t and control 0% t"e state4 as
!ell as creation o loo6ali6e Go)ernment #atroni5ed 2GOsF /"e im#act diers rom
co$ntr% to co$ntr% 0$t in general t"e ollo!ing 0arriers are createdK
Narro- De'inition o' N@Os
/"ese la!s are #remised on )er% narro! $nderstanding o !"at ci)il societ% is more
oten t"e% e>$ate 2GOs !it" ci)il societ%F For eJam#le4 t"e Ugandan 2GO 7a!
deines an 2GO as Oan organisation esta0lis"ed to #ro)ide )ol$ntar% ser)ices4
incl$ding religio$s4 ed$cational4 literar%4 scientiic4 social or c"arita0le ser)ices4 to
t"e comm$nit% or an% #art o it<F /"e #ro0lem !it" t"is deinition is t"at it eJcl$des
or rat"er it is silent on go)ernance matters4 #olic% and "$man rig"ts iss$es most o
!"ic" deine t"e #olitical landsca#e in AricaF /"e danger is t"at as long as t"e state
enacts a la! 0ased on t"is narro! deinition4 it can and !"en it deems necessar%
in)o6e t"is la! to c$rtail t"e acti)ities o t"ose gro$#s t"at o#erate in t"e democrac%4
go)ernance and "$man rig"ts ieldsF
Cum2ersome Reistration
/"e registration #rocess in most o t"ese co$ntries is stringent and c$m0ersomeF (t is
also 0$rea$craticF ,ore oten registration ta6es more t"an siJ mont"s4 or eJam#le in
UgandaF
State Centric ,oard
(n most o t"ese co$ntries t"e state "as #$t in #lace a go)erning -oard !"ic" is
dominated 0% go)ernment oicialsF (n Uganda or eJam#le4 t"e 2GO +egistration
-oard does not #ro)ide or re#resentation 0% 2GOsF +at"er it "as re#resentation rom
state sec$rit% o#erati)es (internal sec$rit% organi5ation and eJternal sec$rit%
organi5ation)F 1o$ld t"is 0e a conirmation t"at t"e state )ie!s ci)il societ% as a
sec$rit% t"reatR (n Cam0ia4 t"e 0ill en)isages t"at 1D mem0ers o t"e -oard s"all 0e
ministerial a##ointeesF (n addition4 s$c" 0oards are a##ointed 0% t"e minister
res#onsi0le or t"e registration o 2GOsF /"ese -oards are gi)en $nettered
discretion on 2GO matters and t"eir decisions as s"o!n 0elo! can onl% 0e a##ealed
t"ro$g" t"e minister in c"arge and not t"ro$g" t"e co$rts o la!F
84
No Provision 'or )ppeal
,ost o t"e 2GO la!s do not #ro)ide or an a##eal #rocess in t"e e)ent t"at an 2GO
is aggrie)ed 0% t"e decision o t"e -oardF And !"ere t"ere is an a##eal #rocess4 it is
to t"e minister res#onsi0le or 2GOs and "is or "er decision is inalF /"e minister
0ears so m$c" a$t"orit% and ar0itrar% #o!er o)er t"e ate o 2GOsF And %et in
ena0ling en)ironments 2GOs can a##eal to t"e co$rts o la!F
,arrier to 6reedom o' )ssociation8 )ssem2ly and E?pression
/"ese la!s )iolate t"e reedom o association t"at is ens"rined in constit$tionsF /"is
is also in )iolation o man% international and regional agreements s$c" as t"e
(nternational 1o)enant on 1i)il and *olitical +ig"ts (articles 1=4 21 and 22)4 t"e U2
Declaration on &$man +ig"ts Deenders (article 1= and 2D)4 t"e Arican 1"arter on
&$man and *eo#le<s +ig"ts4 among ot"ersF
,arrier to Riht to 6undraise
,ost o t"ese la!s "a)e restrictions on $ndraisingF For eJam#le4 t"e .t"io#ian
*roclamation re>$ires t"at local 2GOs !or6ing on go)ernance and #olitical areas
mo0ili5e not more t"an 1DP o t"eir reso$rces rom international so$rcesF ( t"e% do
so4 t"e% cease to 0e .t"io#ianF And %et international organisations are not allo!ed to
!or6 on #olitical areasF F$nding is also restricted 0% t"e Cim0a0!e 2GO 0illF :"at
t"is #a#er "as so$g"t to s"o! is t"at t"e legal o#erational en)ironment or ci)il
societ% s"o$ld 0e located !it"in t"e 0roader go)ernance and )ario$s e#oc"s o state
ormationF /"e c"aracter o t"e state and its record in go)ernance determines t"e
nat$re o relations it esta0lis"es !it" t"ose t"at see6 to monitor its acti)itiesF
'econdl%4 t"is #a#er "as s"o!n t"at t"e res$rgence o restrictions on citi5ens<
#artici#ation in #$0lic s#"eres and in t"e 0od% #olitic is a glo0al #"enomenonF (t is a
0ac6las" on democrac% and not necessaril% an attac6 on ci)il societ%N ci)il societ%
"a##ens to 0e collateral damageF &o!e)er !"ere t"ere are good go)ernance
#rinci#les and instit$tions and democrac% is t"ri)ing4 t"e legal en)ironment is
ena0lingF A >$estion t"at needs to 0e #$rs$ed in s$ccessi)e researc" acti)ities is
!"et"er t"e greatest t"reat to ci)il societ%<s o#erating s#ace is t"e reg$lator%
en)ironment or ci)il societ% itselF
5a=or donor )encies 'or civil society in )'rica
85
Donors t"at s$##ort ad)ocac% organisations as #art o a 0roader democratisation
strateg% all into t!o main categoriesF /"e irst gro$# is t"e oicial donors4 !"ic"
incl$de 0ilateral agencies s$c" as t"e United 'tates Agenc% or (nternational
De)elo#ment (U'A(D)4 and m$ltilateral agencies s$c" as t"e :orld -an6F Oicial
donors orm t"e #rinci#al so$rce o s$##ort or ci)il societ%F /"e second categor%
incl$des non-go)ernmental 0odies or o$ndations t"at s#ecialise in "$man sec$rit%
#romotion and oten act as intermediaries or 0ilateral agenciesF 'ome o t"ese
o$ndations are $nded 0% t"e #ri)ate sector4 s$c" as t"e U'-0ased Ford Fo$ndation
!it" its roots in cor#orate #"ilant"ro#%4 0$t t"e maMorit% distri0$te oicial
de)elo#ment assistanceF
Anot"er s#ecialised grant-ma6ing 0od% is t"e U; :estminster Fo$ndation or
Democrac%4 esta0lis"ed in 1==2F (t recei)es t"e 0$l6 o its $nding4 [2F5 million4 rom
t"e Foreign and 1ommon!ealt" OiceF /"e 0l$rring o I#$0licI and I#ri)ateI is
Iact$all% a str$ct$ral eat$re o oreign #olic% in t"e c$rrent eraIF /"is o0ser)ation is
a##lica0le to t"e 0road donor comm$nit% 4>illiam Ro2inson8 !00(3 0(9F
Ea#an4 t"e !orldIs largest 0ilateral donor4 does not incl$de t"e term in its aid
disco$rseF Anot"er im#ortant actor is t"e :orld -an64 a ne! 0$t "ig"l% inl$ential
c"am#ion o ci)il societ% in AricaF (t s"o$ld 0e noted "ere t"at a stri6ing eat$re o
international aid lo!s to ci)il societ% is t"eir smallnessF For eJam#le4 in Uganda and
G"ana4 t"e democrac% 0$dget o t"e U' aid #rogramme acco$nts or some 4 #er cent
o o)erall U' aidN !it"in t"at4 ci)il societ% assistance is M$st one com#onentF (n t"e
case o G"ana4 a0o$t 3 #er cent o U' aid goes s#eciicall% to!ards a ci)il societ%
#rogrammeF (n Uganda4 t"e #ercentage is e)en lessF As !e s"all see4 'o$t" Arica is
an eJce#tionF -eca$se o its #olitical signiicance4 0et!een 2D and 6D #er cent o its
aid is democrac% assistanceF (t is diic$lt to >$anti% eJactl% "o! m$c" aid goes to
ci)il societ% 0eca$se t"ere is no com#re"ensi)e centralised data and it is oten
eJtremel% diic$lt to disaggregate ci)il societ% assistance rom ot"er aidF 1i)il
societ% s$##ort can 0e dis0$rsed in t"o$sands o dollars rat"er t"an millions 0eca$se
it re>$ires no ca#ital eJ#endit$re 4Rooy and Ro2inson8 !00.9F
The ;nited States o' )merica
-% ar and a!a% t"e leading donor in aid to ci)il societ% !orld!ide is t"e United
'tatesF Ban Rooy and Ro2inson 4!00.3 !09 calc$late t"at t"e United 'tates is
res#onsi0le or 85 #er cent o total ci)il societ% assistanceF Anot"er st$d% indicates
t"at t"e United 'tates s#ent o)er Q1DD million on ci)il societ% s$##ort in 1==3 and
1==44 e>$i)alent to one t"ird o its #olitical aid s#endingF /"e United 'tates aid
#rogrammes in 'o$t" Arica and G"ana #artic$larl%4 and to a lesser eJtent in Uganda4
86
relect t"e eJtent to !"ic" t"e United 'tates is t"e "ome to academic disco$rse on
ci)il societ% in Arica4 and t"e degree to !"ic" U'A(D "as dra!n on t"is academic
reser)e to g$ide its aid #rogrammesF 2o ot"er donor $ses t"is t"eoretical rame!or6
o societ% to $nder#in its aid #rogrammeF
At least t!o 6e% actors eJ#lain U' dominance in t"is areaF First is t"e #lace o
democrac% #romotion !it"in t"e international role o t"e United 'tatesF Alt"o$g"
democrac% "as long "ad r"etorical im#ortance in U' oreign #olic%4 it !as not $ntil
t"e 1=8Ds t"at it came to #la% a central role 4>illiam Ro2inson !00(9F :it" t"e end
o t"e 1old :ar and t"e s$rge o democratisation !orld!ide4 t"e -$s" administration
made democrac% one o its t"ree #illars o o)erall oreign #olic%F From 1==3 t"e
1linton administration intensiied :as"ingtonIs commitment to democrac%F (nternal
0$rea$cratic str$ct$res !ere de)elo#ed to instit$tionalise democrac% #romotion
!it"in U'A(D4 an agenc% t"at "ad long oc$sed almost eJcl$si)el% on social and
economic #roMectsF /"e 1entre or Democrac% and Go)ernance !as esta0lis"ed to
centralise democrac% #oliciesF Unli6e an% ot"er oicial donor4 U'A(D missions in
se)eral Arican co$ntries "a)e co$ntr% democrac% ad)isers4 in addition to regional
democrac% ad)isers4 oc$sing solel% on creating t"e instit$tions o li0eral democrac%F
/"e #oint is t"at 0eca$se o its leading international role t"e United 'tates "as no
ot"er c"oice 0$t to engage !it" t"e rest o t"e !orld4 and one o its #rinci#al means
o engagement is t"ro$g" democrac% #romotionF
'econd4 t"ere are im#ortant )ariations in em#"asis among donors in t"eir democrac%
#romotionF /"e -ritis" go)ernment #romotes good go)ernment as one o its core
o0Mecti)es4 %et m$c" o t"is !or6 is directed at #$0lic sector reorm and en"anced
com#etence o go)ernmentF '!eden em#"asises "$man rig"ts !it"in its democrac%
assistanceF (n contrast4 t"e United 'tates em#"asises ci)il societ%F /"ere are se)eral
reasons !"% t"e United 'tates s"o$ld 0e t"e leader in t"is areaF First4 t"e idea o ci)il
societ% resonates eJce#tionall% !ell !it" mainstream U' #olitical #"iloso#"% !it" its
ear o t"e state and its #romotion o #l$ralism 4Rooy and Ro2inson8 !00.3 !*9
The @erman 6oundations
German% "as #ro)ided democrac% assistance since t"e 1=6Ds t"ro$g" its #olitical
o$ndations4 eac" ailiated !it" one o t"e main #olitical #arties in German%F (n t"e
area o democrac% assistance t"is aid is s$0stantial4 amo$nting to a0o$t Q23D million
(D,35D million) in 1==64 4 #er cent o t"e total oreign aid 0$dget 45air N.D.3&9F
/"ese are t"e Friedric" .0ert Fo$ndation ailiated !it" t"e 'ocial Democrats4 t"e
;onrad Adena$er Fo$ndation associated !it" t"e 1"ristian Democrats4 t"e Friedric"
2a$mann Fo$ndation lin6ed to t"e li0eral #art%4 t"e &ans 'eidel Fo$ndation
87
esta0lis"ed 0% t"e -a)arian 1"ristian 'ocial Union4 and4 t"e most recent4 t"e
&einric" -\ll Fo$ndation ormed in 1==7 rom a merger o se)eral organisations
ailiated !it" t"e Green *art%F *olitical aid is di)ided among t"e i)e o$ndations
according to t"eir #arliamentar% strengt"F /"e Friedric" .0ert Fo$ndation and t"e
;onrad Adena$er Fo$ndation4 as t"e o$ndations o German%Is t!o main #olitical
#arties4 eac" distri0$te one t"ird o t"e o$ndationsI 0$dgetF
'o$t" Arica is t"e most im#ortant Arican co$ntr% or t"e o$ndationsF All i)e
o$ndations are acti)e in t"e co$ntr%4 and t"eir largest #rogrammes in Arica are
t"ereF /"e ;onrad Adena$er o$ndation4 or eJam#le4 "ad a Q1F= million (D,3F2
million) co$ntr% #rogramme in 1==7F :it" t"e eJce#tion o t"e ne! &einric" -\ll
Fo$ndation t"e% "a)e 0een closel% in)ol)ed in t"e #olitical de)elo#ment o t"e
co$ntr%F 'ince t"e earl% 1=8Ds4 t"e ;onrad Adena$er Fo$ndation "as s$##orted
-$t"ele5i and t"e (n6at"a ,o)ement4 t"e Friedric" .0ert Fo$ndation "as !or6ed
closel% !it" t"e Arican 2ational 1ongress (A21)4 and t"e Friedric" 2a$mann
Fo$ndation "as strengt"ened t"e li0eral comm$nit% t"ro$g" assistance to 6e%
organisations s$c" as t"e 'o$t" Arican (nstit$te o +ace +elations ('A(++) and t"e
&elen '$5man Fo$ndationF (t is in 'o$t" Arica t"at t"e% "a)e made t"eir largest
im#act t"ro$g" t"eir contacts !it" #olitical elitesF Uganda is t"e t"ird-largest
#rogramme in Arica o t"e ;onrad Adena$er Fo$ndation4 and t"e o$ndationIs !or6
t"ere is set to contin$e to eJ#andF (n 1==7 its 0$dget or #roMect acti)ities in Uganda
!as M$st $nder Q5DD4DDD (D,8DD4DDD)F /"e Friedric" .0ert Fo$ndation "ad a similar
0$dget or Uganda4 o nearl% Q6DD4DDD (D,1 million)F -ot" o$ndations "a)e a long
"istor% in t"e co$ntr% #rior to 1=87 !"en an agreement !it" t"e Ugandan
go)ernment and t"e o$ndations mar6ed t"e oicial reo#ening o t"eir oices in
;am#alaF /"e Friedric" .0ert Fo$ndation !as lin6ed to t"e Uganda *eo#leIs
1ongress (U*1)4 #ro)iding s$##ort or a ,ilton O0ote Fo$ndation4 !"ic" it no
longer doesF /"e ;onrad Adena$er Fo$ndation s$##orted t"e Democratic *art% (D*)4
!it" !"ic" it contin$es to "a)e close4 i indirect lin6s4 t"ro$g" core s$##ort to t"e
Fo$ndation or Arican De)elo#ment (FAD)F (t is onl% t"ese t!o largest o$ndations
t"at "a)e #rogrammes in UgandaF (n G"ana t"e% are Moined 0% t"e li0eral Friedric"
2a$mann o$ndationF /"e ;onrad Adena$er Fo$ndation "as 0een in G"ana since
1=66 and t"e Friedric" .0ert Fo$ndation since 1=7DF :it" t"eir %ears o on-t"e-
gro$nd eJ#erience and "ost o local contacts4 t"e o$ndations are an im#ortant
international #resence !it"in elite-0ased Arican ci)il societ%F Alt"o$g" #olitical
#arties "a)e 0een a traditional oc$s or o$ndation s$##ort in Arica4 and t"e
Friedric" .0ert Fo$ndation "as s#ecialised in $nding trade $nions4 t"e o$ndations
s$##ort a range o ci)il societ% organisationsF /"ese are oten t"e most #rominent and
t"e most #o#$lar actors !it" donorsF (n Uganda4 according to m% calc$lations t"e
88
Friedric" .0ert Fo$ndation "ad t"e second-largest n$m0er o relations"i#s !it"
1'Os ater t"e United 'tatesF Under its #rogramme or strengt"ening ci)il societ%
actors4 t"e o$ndation s$##orts trade $nions and !omenIs 1'OsF /"e latter incl$de
t"e national !omenIs organisation t"e 2ational Association o :omenIs
Organisations in Uganda (2A:OU) and national !omen<s 11 net!or64 t"e Uganda
:omenIs 2et!or6 (U:O2./)F /"e o$ndationIs #rogramme o o#ening $# t"e
#olitical c$lt$re to #$0lic de0ate "as 0een an im#ortant area o colla0oration !it"
1'OsF /"e o$ndation "as recentl% !or6ed !it" o$r main 1'Os in addition to
#arastatals and local go)ernmentF /"e% incl$de #rominent organisations r$n 0%
UgandaIs 6e% ci)il societ% leaders4 li6e t"e For$m or :omen in De)elo#ment
(FO:OD.) and t"e Uganda /"in6 /an6 Fo$ndationF 7i6e!ise in G"ana4 t"e
Friedric" .0ert Fo$ndation !or6s !it" 6e% elite-0ased 1'Os li6e t"e (nternational
Federation o :omen 7a!%ers (F(DA) and t"e G"ana Eo$rnalists AssociationF (n
G"ana t"e Friedric" 2a$mann Fo$ndation s$##orts instit$tions directl% #romoting a
li0eral economic agenda s$c" as t"e (nstit$te or .conomic Aairs ((.A) and t"e
Association o G"ana (nd$stries (AG()F O)er t"e %ears4 in some cases decades4 t"e
o$ndations "a)e 0$ilt $# )er% close relations"i#s !it" t"eir #artners in ci)il societ%F
/"e lengt" and de#t" o contact !it" ci)il societ% are oten $n#aralleled 0% an% ot"er
donorF
The >orld ,ank
Alt"o$g" t"e :orld -an6 is dierent rom ot"er donors4 #rimaril% #ro)iding loans to
mem0er go)ernments4 its lead #osition in t"e donor comm$nit% #ro)ides it !it" a
#otentiall% #o!er$l role in s$##orting ci)il societ%F G"ana is t"e :orld -an6<s
largest #rogramme in AricaF -et!een 1==3 and 1==54 t"e 0an6 #ro)ided one t"ird o
t"e co$ntr%<s total aidF (n Uganda o)er t"e same #eriod4 :orld -an6 lending
acco$nted or nearl% one >$arter o t"e co$ntr%<s o)erall aidF Alt"o$g" t"e :orld
-an6<s lending #rogramme is min$sc$le in 'o$t" Arica4 it "as #la%ed a "ig"l%
inl$ential role at t"e le)el o #olic% in 'o$t" Arica4 and "as an acti)e #rogramme
aimed at !inning o)er elite o#inion on economic li0eralismF (n all t"ese co$ntries4
des#ite its #rotestations o 0eing Oa#olitical<4 t"e :orld -an6 "as a sta6e in seeing an
ena0ling #olitical en)ironment or its economic #olic%F
'ince t"e mid-1==Ds4 #artic$larl% !it" t"e a##ointment o a ne! #resident4 Eames
:olenso"n4 t"e :orld -an6 "as increasingl% em0raced t"e non-go)ernmental sector4
#ercei)ing it as a #otential all% rat"er t"an as a t"reatF As :olenso"n told t"e 0an6<s
ann$al general meeting in 'e#tem0er 1==7K O:e m$st listen to sta6e"oldersF O$r
#artners"i#s m$st 0e incl$si)e in)ol)ing U la0or organisations4 2GOs4 o$ndations
and t"e #ri)ate sectorF<
8=
:it"in t"is conteJt4 t"e 'o$t" Arican oice o t"e :orld -an6 in)ited t"e 2GO
comm$nit% to orm a :orld -an6 2GO For$m in E$ne 1==7F :"en t"e ormer
director o t"e :orld -an64 +o0ert ,c2amara4 )isited Uganda on an anti-corr$#tion
to$r in 1==74 a meeting !it" re#resentati)es rom ci)il societ% !as #art o "is
sc"ed$leF /"ere are t"ree ne! mec"anisms t"ro$g" !"ic" t"e 0an6 #romotes t"e
in)ol)ement o li0eral ci)il societ%F /"ese are its 1o$ntr% Assistance 'trateg%4 t"e
a##ointment o 2GO liaison oicers4 and an international4 #artici#ator% re)ie! o its
adM$stment #oliciesF :"at is interesting a0o$t t"ese initiati)es is t"e eJtent to !"ic"
t"e :orld -an6 "as incor#orated t"e term Oci)il societ%< into 0ot" its !or6 and t"e
disco$rse t"at comes !it" itF Alt"o$g" it is most amiliar !it" ser)ice #ro)ision
de)elo#ment 2GOs4 as a s$0categor% o ci)il societ%4 "a)ing !or6ed !it" t"em
#artic$larl% since t"e earl% 1==Ds on t"e eJec$tion o de)elo#ment #roMects4 it a##lies
t"e 0roader (and arg$a0l%4 more o)ertl% #olitical) term Oci)il societ%< to its ne!
initiati)esF /"e irst mec"anism $sed 0% t"e :orld -an64 its 1o$ntr% Assistance
'trategies4 $sed to 0e internal #rocesses in cons$ltation !it" t"e 0orro!ing
go)ernmentF 'ince t"e mid-1==Ds4 cons$ltation "as 0roadened o$t to incl$de
re#resentati)es o ci)il societ%<F /"is !as t"e case !it" t"e 1==7 Assistance
'trategies in Uganda and G"anaF
&o!e)er4 "o! s$0stantial t"is cons$ltation is4 is "ig"l% >$estiona0leF (t a##ears to 0e
more a case o incl$ding ci)il societ% in order to add legitimac% to t"e strateg% !"ic"
remains $ndamentall% intactF According to one #artici#ant in t"e Ugandan
cons$ltation4 t"e meeting !as called at )er% s"ort notice4 !it" no time or
#re#aration4 and "ad an air o Or$00er-stam#ing< a0o$t itF /"e second mec"anism
t"ro$g" !"ic" t"e :orld -an6 is gi)ing ci)il societ% a "ig"er #roile4 t"e
a##ointment o 2GO liaison oicers4 is 0eing $sed in Uganda4 G"ana and 'o$t"
AricaF All t"ree co$ntries are among t"e more t"an it% o t"e :orld -an6<s eig"t%
local oices t"at no! "a)e sta res#onsi0le or liaising !it" ci)il societ%N t"is
com#ares !it" onl% one oice in 1==5F &o!e)er4 t"e initiati)e t"at 0est re#resents
t"e :orld -an6<s ne!l% o$nd interest in ci)il societ% is its international 'tr$ct$ral
AdM$stment *artici#ator% +e)ie! (nitiati)e ('A*+()4 la$nc"ed in :as"ington4 D1 in
E$l% 1==7F /"e re)ie! aims to eJamine t"e im#act o s#eciic adM$stment meas$res
rom t"e #oint o )ie! o t"ose aected in se)en 0orro!ing co$ntries4 incl$ding o$r
in AricaK Uganda4 G"ana4 ,ali and Cim0a0!eF .ac" co$ntr% eJercise in)ol)es man%
o t"e most #rominent national 1'Os4 t"e maMorit% o !"om are donor-$ndedF
The 1ike#5inded @roup
Alt"o$g" t"e co$ntries o t"e 7i6e-,inded Gro$# o donors are reerred to as maMor
donors in t"is ield4 t"eir aid to ci)il societ% is on a m$c" smaller scale t"an t"at o
=D
t"e United 'tates and German%F (n addition4 t"eir aid "as neit"er t"e conce#t$al
clarit% o t"e U' #rogrammes nor t"e s#ecialised oc$s o t"e German o$ndationsF
As Diamond descri0es t"em4 t"e% are O0road-0ased o)erseas de)elo#ment
organi5ations4 !"ic" "a)e added democrac% #romotion onto more traditional
de)elo#ment assistance 4Diamond8 !00*3 /&#(!9F
Alt"o$g" t"ese donors "a)e a long social democratic tradition o s$##orting
democrac% and "$man rig"ts4 e)en i t"is !as ne)er ormall% descri0ed !it"in a ci)il
societ% rame!or64 ci)il societ% aid is a )er% minor oc$s o t"eir !or6F /"e
o0ser)ations are t"at !"ere it does #la% a role it #redominantl% ta6es t"e orm o
s$##ort to "$man rig"tsF 1once#t$all%4 t"ese co$ntries do not eJ#ress t"emsel)es in
t"e lang$age o ci)il societ%F /"eir #rogrammes are descri0ed in terms o "$man
rig"ts and democrac% s$##ort4 !it" a noticea0le lac6 o reerence to Oci)il societ%< in
doc$mentation and disc$ssionF /"e de)elo#ment o ci)il societ% is ass$med to 0e
integral to democratisation4 0$t "as not 0een #ro0lematical and intellect$all%
interrogatedF /"ere is no e)idence o an% strategic t"in6ing in regard to t"eir
assistance to t"is sector o t"e #olit%4 !"ic" is e)ident in t"e irst t"ree categories o
donorsF
(t is in 'o$t" Arica !"ere t"e 7i6e-,inded Gro$# o donors "as made t"e most
signiicant contri0$tion to ci)il societ%F '!eden #ro)ided more t"an Q4DD million4
0et!een 1=72 and 1==34 to 'o$t" Arica<s $ndergro$nd ci)il societ% )ia t"e anti-
a#art"eid str$ggleF .)en in t"is case4 "o!e)er4 t"e United 'tates #ro)ided Q338
million o)er less t"an "al t"e time4 1=85 to 1==3F Denmar6 and 2or!a% eac"
contri0$ted less t"an "al t"e U' total4 again o)er #eriods t"at stretc" 0ac6 into t"e
1=6Ds and 1=7Ds res#ecti)el% 4Danida !00/3 +9F
Des#ite reoc$sing t"eir aid to t"e ne!l% legitimate go)ernment since 1==44 t"e
2ordic co$ntries and t"e 2et"erlands contin$e to #ro)ide signiicant s$##ort to
1'OsF D$ring t"e middle to late 1==Ds4 t"e 2et"erlands and '!eden "a)e $nded
some se)en 1'Os4 incl$ding t"e 2et!or6 o (nde#endent ,onitors4 t"e 7egal
+eso$rces 1entre and 7a!%ers or &$man +ig"tsF All o$r donors s$##ort (DA'A
and t"e .lectoral (nstit$te o 'o$t" AricaF (n Uganda4 Denmar6 "as t"e largest
#rogramme o s$##ort to ci)il societ% among t"ese donors4 !it" a relations"i# !it"
some siJ main 1'OsF /"e 0readt" o its s$##ort is $n$s$alK it !or6s !it" t"e Uganda
2ational Farmers Association and t"e Arican 1entre or t"e /reatment and
+e"a0ilitation o /ort$re 8ictims (A1/8) as !ell as $nding 1'Os #o#$lar !it"
donors li6e Action or De)elo#ment (A1FOD.) and FO:OD.F &o!e)er4 its
reso$rces are irml% concentrated on t!o 1'Os4 !"ose creation it assistedF /"ese are
=1
A1/8 and t"e Uganda &$man +ig"ts .d$cation and Doc$mentation 1entre
(U&.DO1)4 !"ic" are 0ot" "$man-rig"ts-centredF
'!eden too "as concentrated its reso$rces on one main 1'O #artner4 t"e &$man
+ig"ts 2et!or6 (&U+(2./)F Anot"er im#ortant orm o s$##ort t"at '!eden and
2or!a% #ro)ide to ci)il societ% is trainingF For eJam#le4 since 1=87N 2or!a% "as
s$##orted coo#eration 0et!een t"e Uni)ersit% o Oslo and t"e Uni)ersit% o
Cim0a0!e on a regional co$rse in !omen<s la!F Ugandans !"o "a)e #artici#ated in
t"e co$rse no! "old 6e% #ositions in organisations s$c" as :omen and 7a! in .ast
Arica4 t"e 2ational Association o :omen E$dges and t"e Federation o :omen
7a!%ers4 F(DAF /"ese are all 1'Os t"at "a)e recei)ed donor s$##ortF Among t"e
O7i6e-,inded< Gro$# o donors4 t"e 2et"erlands "as t"e smallest democrac%
#rogramme4 amo$nting to less t"an one #er cent o its 1==8 aid #rogramme to
UgandaF (ts main 1'O #artner in t"is #eriod "as 0een t"e .conomic *olic% and
+esearc" 1entre (.*+1)4 !"ic" is #ro)iding training to ,*s on national 0$dget-
ma6ingF
(n G"ana onl% Denmar64 t"e 2et"erlands and 1anada "a)e aid #rogrammesF D$ring
t"e 1==Ds4 none o t"em "a)e s$##orted more t"an o$r or i)e 1'Os at a timeF All
t"ree co$ntries "a)e $nded t"e most #o#$lar ci)il societ% organisation amongst
donors in G"anaK t"e (nstit$te o .conomic Aairs ((.A)F O t"e t"ree4 1anada and
Denmar6 #ro)ides t"e most s$##ort to ci)il societ% organisations4 and t"eir aid is on a
larger scale t"an t"at o t"e :estminster Fo$ndationF -ot" "a)e s$##orted t"e !or6
o t"e $m0rella 2GO organisation t"e G"ana Association o *ri)ate 8ol$ntar%
Organisations in De)elo#ment (GA*8OD)4 !"ic" lo00ies go)ernment on 0e"al o
t"e interests o t"e 2GO sectorF /"e% "a)e s$##orted s$c" !ell-esta0lis"ed 1'Os as
t"e 2ational Union o G"ana 't$dents4 t"e (nternational Federation o :omen
7a!%ers (F(DA) and t"e "$man rig"ts lo00%ists G"analertF (n addition4 !it"in t"e
gro$#4 t"ere are s$0stantial dierences in le)els o s$##ortF Denmar6 is t"e leading
donor to ci)il societ% in G"ana and Uganda in terms o amo$nt o aid as !ell as o
n$m0er and range o 1'Os s$##ortedF 1anada4 on t"e ot"er "and4 des#ite a long
"istor% o #artners"i# !it" 2GOs and #eo#le-to-#eo#le contacts4 is not a signiicant
donor to ci)il societ% in an% o t"e t"ree co$ntriesF (n 'o$t" Arica4 its assistance
#rogramme is one o t"e most state-centred4 concentrating on s"a#ing central
go)ernment #olic%F 1anadian aid "as 0een in)ol)ed in t"e #rod$ction o eig"t green
and !"ite #a#ers or legislationF &o!e)er4 !it"in t"is oc$s its aim is to de)elo#
$rt"er a #olitical c$lt$re t"at stresses 0road #artici#ation and consens$s4 a c$lt$re
t"at 0egan to ta6e root in t"e or$ms o t"e transition #eriodF (ts s$##ort o ci)il
societ% is t"$s im#licit 0$t in no !a% directF (n Uganda at t"e end o 1==74 it !as onl%
=2
0eginning to de)elo# a ci)il societ% #rogrammeF (t is in G"ana4 t"e reci#ient o its
largest Arican aid #rogramme4 !"ic" it #ro)ides t"e most s$##ort to ci)il societ%4
and "ere t"e em#"asis is on comm$nit% #artici#ation in !ater managementF /"ere are
t"$s some eig"t 6e% oicial donors !"o "a)e ci)il societ% #rogrammes in addition to
#ri)ate donors s$c" as t"e Ford Fo$ndation4 !"ic" "as !ell-esta0lis"ed #rogrammes
in 'o$t" Arica and UgandaF O t"e oicial donors4 t"e United 'tates4 German% )ia
its o$ndations4 and t"e :orld -an6 "a)e t"e most #rominent in#$t into t"is sector o
Arican societiesF /"e United 'tates "as de)elo#ed t"e conce#t$al rame!or6 o ci)il
societ% t"e most eJtensi)el%4 0ac6ed 0% t"e largest amo$nt o donor reso$rcesF /"e
German o$ndations "a)e 0$ilt $# %ears o s#ecialised eJ#erience in t"is area4 also
s$##orted 0% considera0le reso$rcesF /"e :orld -an6 is a relati)el% ne! #la%er in
t"is area 0$t 0eca$se it "as att$ned itsel to t"e donor conce#tion o ci)il societ% so
!ell and 0eca$se o its "egemonic #osition !it"in de)elo#ment disco$rse4 it is also
setting t"e ci)il societ% agenda in Arican co$ntriesF
Ot"er donors4 s$c" as t"e U;4 do not "a)e signiicant #rogrammes in t"is areaF /"e
U;4 in its democrac% and go)ernance assistance4 generall% em#"asises #$0lic sector
s$##ortF 2one o t"e -ritis" aid #rogrammes s$##orted ad)ocac% organisationsF /"e
#rimar% mec"anism t"ro$g" !"ic" s$c" organisations !ere $nded 0% t"e U;
go)ernment is t"e :estminster Fo$ndation or Democrac%4 and in its o!n )ie!4 onl%
in 'o$t" Arica "as it "ad a large eno$g" #rogramme to ma6e an% im#actF One ot"er
donor !"ic" is #la%ing a signiicant role in 'o$t" Arican ci)il societ% is t"e
.$ro#ean UnionF (t "as $nded t"e .U Fo$ndation or &$man +ig"ts4 $ni>$e to
'o$t" AricaF /"e Fo$ndation or &$man +ig"ts #ro)ides grants eJcl$si)el% to
1'Os4 !it" an ann$al 0$dget or 1==6 to 1==8 o a0o$t Q4 million (.c$5 million)F
China
1"ina "as recentl% 0ecome economicall% strong eno$g" to signiicantl% increase its
#resence as a donor o o)erseas de)elo#ment aidF 1"ina<s aid #olic% "as 0een
criticised or o)ertl% s$##orting 1"inese energ% strategies and di#lomatic goalsF (ts
dis0$rsement modalities ris6 $ndermining Arican ca#acit% de)elo#ment and
go)ernanceF 1"ina "as e)en 0een im#licated in t"e ne! scram0le or Arica<s
reso$rcesF On t"e ot"er "and4 its Arica #olic% claims an et"os o solidarit% and
res#ect !it" de)elo#ing co$ntries4 and #ro)ides all ro$nd #ac6ages t"at com0ine
in)estment !it" aidF (ts sco#e s#ans 1"inese aid4 in)estment4 trade and di#lomatic
ties4 as t"e t"ree are closel% lin6edF (n as ar as ci)il societ% organisations and
de)elo#ment 2GOs es#eciall% !or6 !it"in t"e aid c"ain c"anges to t"e aid landsca#e
"a)e im#lications or t"e !a%s in !"ic" 2GOs $nctionF
=3
'ome o t"e most t"o$g"t #ro)o6ing areas t"at 1"ina<s engagement in Arica raises
incl$deK
Go)ernance and ci)il societ% s#ace inding t"e 0alance 0et!een an aid donor<s
role in s$##orting good go)ernance and str$ct$ral sta0ilit%4 and non
intererence in internal aairs
Y$estioning em#o!erment4 rig"ts-0ased a##roac"es and s$staina0ilit% as
central tenets o o)erseas de)elo#ment aid
.conomic de)elo#mentK is t"e nat$re o 1"inese in)estment and aid cond$ci)e
to long term economic #rogress
1"ina "as de)elo#ment coo#eration ties to Arica since t"e 1=6Ds4 !it" ed$cation
eJc"anges and inrastr$ct$re constr$ction 0ased on ideolog%4 solidarit% and
esta0lis"ing cold !ar allies in ri)alr% !it" 'o)iet comm$nismF ,an% o t"ese
#roMects !ere !ell recei)ed4 s$c" as t"e em0lematic Dar es 'alaam V ;a#iri ,#os"i
O/a5ara< +ail!a%F /a5ara lin6ed Cam0ia to a #ort cit% and allo!ed t"at co$ntr% to
maintain t"e 0loc6ade against +"odesia and minorit% r$le 'o$t" AricaF /"e /a5ara
rail!a% is still $sed toda% 0% traders and tra)ellersF ,ean!"ile4 1"ina<s relations"i#
to Arica "as c"anged as m$c" as t"e #olitical landsca#e t"at made t"e rail!a% a
necessit%F Arica "as eat$red signiicantl% in 1"ina<s Going O$t 'trateg% and
gest$res s$c" as Eiang Cemin<s to$r o state )isits in 1==6 signalled t"at 1"ina is
serio$s a0o$t AricaF /oda%4 !"ile small traders $se t"e train to trans#ort 0$c6ets o
Cam0ian )egeta0les to /an5anian mar6ets4 t"e 1"inese go)ernment s"its 0illions o
dollars in aid lo!s to t"e continentF 1"ina<s OGo Glo0al< or OGoing O$t< strateg%
enco$rages 1"inese enter#rises to in)est a0roadF
(t "as 0een made #ossi0le 0% an increasing acc$m$lation o ca#ital in 1"ina ater its
1=78 ,ar6et riendl% economic reorms and "ig" gro!t" ratesF *resident Eiang
Cemin )isited i)e Arican co$ntries in 1==64 orm$lating t"e 0asis o coo#eration to
maintain traditional riends"i# and #$s" or ne! de)elo#ment o 'ino-Arican
relationsN maintain m$t$al assistance and 0eneit and #romote common #ros#erit% or
1"ina and AricaN maintain close co-o#eration and #rotect t"e interests o de)elo#ing
nationsF
/"e irst For$m o 1"ina-Arica 1oo#eration (FO1A1) !as "eld in 2DDD4 and in
2DD4 *resident &$ Eintao )isited ,orocco4 2igeria and ;en%a Oin a 0id to inMect ne!
energ% into 'o$t"V'o$t" co-o#erationF Ater &$<s to$r and t"e second FO1A1 in
2DD64 1"ina anno$nced its oicial Arica #olic%4 incl$ding aid and in)estmentF
=4
Arica is t"e largest reci#ient o 1"inese aid4 recei)ing 44P o ann$al aid lo!sF /"is
incl$des all 53 co$ntries on t"e Arican continent4 0$t !it" Angola4 '$dan4 /an5ania4
Cam0ia and .t"io#ia leading t"e list according to 1"inese anal%stsF /"e eJact )ol$me
o 1"inese aid is $nclear4 as it is administered in conM$nction !it" eJ#ort #romotion
and in)estment 0% se)eral ministries deined as t"ose lo!s to de)elo#ing co$ntries
and m$ltilateral instit$tions #ro)ided 0% oicial agencies4 incl$ding state and local
go)ernments4 or 0% t"eir eJec$ti)e agencies4 eac" transaction o !"ic" meets t"e
ollo!ing testsK
(t is administered !it" t"e #romotion o t"e economic de)elo#ment and
!elare o de)elo#ing co$ntries as its main o0Mecti)eN and
(t is concessional in c"aracter and con)e%s a grant element o at least 25
#ercent m$ltilateral instit$tions4 non-O.1D donors as !ell as traditional
0ilateral donorsF
/"e lang$age o 1"inese aid does not $se terms li6e #o)ert% eradication4 o!ners"i#
and #artners"i#4 or democratisation and )oice t"at c"aracterise t"e 0$l6 o !estern
donor de)elo#ment disco$rse o t"e #ast decadesF :estern aid ma% or ma% not "a)e
"ad a 0eneicial eect on Arican economic de)elo#ment and integrit%4 0$t some o
its more recent disco$rse a0o$t "$man de)elo#ment is an im#ro)ement t"at 1"ina
co$ld 0eneit rom ta6ing on 0oardF 2onet"eless4 1"ina<s credentials as a
de)elo#ment actor are 0ased on creating an astonis"ing economic t$rnaro$nd at "ome
and on solidarit% 0et!een de)elo#ing nationsF
As #art o t"e Go Glo0al strateg%4 1"inese o)erseas de)elo#ment aid $nam0ig$o$sl%
ollo!s 1"inese commercial4 strategic energ% and di#lomatic interestsK (n inancial
terms 0% ar t"e most signiicant dimension o 1"inese engagement in de)elo#ing
co$ntries is t"e m$lti0illion dollar agreements it "as concl$ded in t"e energ% sector4
es#eciall% in AricaF (ndeed4 1"inese aid ollo!s in)estmentF Ot"er economic
acti)ities and assistance #ale in com#arisonF -ased on strategic energ%
considerations4 t"is incl$des 0idding or oil eJtraction contracts in4 or eJam#le
2igeria and Angola4 oering additional trans#ort and #i#eline constr$ction in ret$rn
or t"e concessionsF
'ome c"aracteristic eat$res o 1"inese aid in Arica areK
,odalitiesK grants4 in)estment9tied aid4 concessional loans4 and go)ernment
g$arantees or in)estmentF 1"ina "as also cancelled Arican oreign de0ts in
2DD3 and #ro)ided lo! tari mar6et access or eJ#orts rom Arica<s least-
de)elo#ed co$ntries
=5
(t is oicial 1"inese #olic% to dis0$rse aid in !a%s t"at 0eneits 1"ina
economicall%4 iFeF tied aid in 6ind4 tec"nical assistance and inrastr$ct$re
constr$ction or initiati)es t"at a)o$r 1"inese in)estmentF
Deli)er%K m$c" 1"inese aid is deli)ered t"ro$g" #ri)ate-sector or state-o!ned
enter#risesF
/"ere are e!4 i an%4 mentions o 1"inese social de)elo#ment #roMects in t"e
a)aila0le literat$reF
/"ere is no 1"inese de)elo#ment constit$enc%4 de)elo#ment line ministr%4 large
o)erseas 2GOs or e>$i)alent #ress$re gro$#s #$s"ing or #o)ert% red$ction goals in
o)erseas de)elo#ment aidF .sta0lis"ing s$c" a constit$enc% co$ld do m$c" to
im#ro)e t"e eects o 1"inese aidF /"ere are signs t"at 1"ina is re)ising some o its
aid #ractice according to eJisting modelsF For eJam#le4 t"ere is a )ol$nteer cor#s
sending mem0ers o t"e 1omm$nist 3o$t" 7eag$e o)erseas to $nderta6e ca#acit%
0$ilding !or6 and 1"inese ci)il ser)ants !or6ing !it" o)erseas de)elo#ment aid are
$nderta6ing st$d% )isits to longer-esta0lis"ed de)elo#ment de#artmentsF 1"inese aid
also incl$des sc"olars"i#s or training in 1"ina4 medical assistance and concessional
loansF 1"ina<s economic #resence in Arica "as4 "o!e)er4 0een !idel% met !it" #anic
disco$rse rom !estern commentatorsF -eiMing-0ased anal%sts 1"ina De)elo#ment
-rie arg$e t"at t"is "as less to do !it" 1"ina<s aid lo!s4 and 0orro!s its tone more
rom t"e !orld!ide anJiet% s#ar6ed 0% 1"ina<s gro!ing economic m$scleF
/"e initiati)e and $nding or de)elo#ment #roMects can also come in #arallel t"ro$g"
1"inese em0assies4 !"o #ro#ose #roMects to t"e ,inistr% o Foreign AairsF /"e
.J#ort- (m#ort -an6 "as a more signiicant aid role4 administering eJ#ort credits and
oreign direct in)estment or aid-dis0$rsing #ri)ate enter#risesF .Jim0an6<s acti)it%
raises concern 0eca$se o re#orted a0$ses V eFgF in terms o en)ironmental im#act and
social standards V in #roMects inanced 0% it4 more on !"ic" in t"e section 0elo!F
/"e str$ct$re o t"ese aid c"annels is cond$ci)e to $nding large4 ca#ital-intensi)e
de)elo#ment #roMectsF (ndeed4 1"inese aid is oten dis0$rsed t"ro$g" state-o!ned
cor#orations and Moint )ent$resF ,$c" o it consists o constr$ction and engineering
#ro)iding t"e contracted irms !it" o##ort$nities or ma6ing $rt"er 0$siness lin6s on
t"e continent in addition to t"e aid contract mostl% oc$sing on t"e energ% sector 0$t
also logging4 agric$lt$re4 rail!a%s4 man$act$ring and telecomm$nicationsF
2o)em0er 2DD6 sa! t"e t"ird For$m on 1"ina-Arica 1oo#eration (FO1A1)4 t"e
main 'ino-Arican coo#eration or$m4 !"ere #olitical leaders and 0$siness
re#resentati)es meetF At t"e 2DD6 s$mmit4 *resident &$ Eintao #romised s$0stantial
=6
ne! #reerential loans4 eJ#ort credits and FD( $nding or Arica4 in addition to
#romising to do$0le 1"inese aid to Arica 0% 2DD=F
'ino-Arican relations"i#s "a)e 0een criticised or 0%#assing m$ltilateral or$msF
1"ina is $nli6el% to enter non-d$#lication and 0as6et $nding arrangements !it"
ot"er donors in t"e s"ort term4 #otentiall% detracting rom aid "armonisation eortsF
&o!e)er4 t"in6 tan6 (**+ #oint o$t t"at 1"ina "as not 0een in)ited to ot"er
#otentiall% #rod$cti)e coordination or$ms s$c" as t"e Arica *artners"i# For$m a
gro$# o 0ilateral and m$ltilateral donors and Arican go)ernments and t"at t"e
.$ro#ean 1ommission<s 1"ina #artners"i# strateg% #ro)ides anot"er o)erloo6ed
coordination toolF
1onsidering t"e !ider *aris Declaration #rinci#les ("armonisation4 alignment4 m$t$al
acco$nta0ilit%4 o!ners"i# and managing or res$lts)4 1"ina seems to oster
Ogo)ernment o!ners"i#< rat"er t"an Ociti5en o!ners"i#< and c"annels or m$t$al
acco$nta0ilit% are $nclearF (t does4 "o!e)er4 ollo! t"e #rinci#les o aid alignment4
a)o$ring reci#ient co$ntr% #rioritiesF
2on-intererence in internal Arican aairs is a central #art o 1"inese oreign #olic%
lang$age and $nder#ins its a##eal to reci#ient go)ernmentsF /"e tenets o 1"ina<s
Arica #olic% are Osincerit%4 e>$alit% and m$t$al 0eneit4 solidarit% and common
de)elo#ment $sing lang$age t"at stresses de)elo#ing-co$ntr% solidarit%4 res#ect4
#eace and riends"i#F :"et"er t"is is maniest in realit% as !ell as in #olic% is a
dierent matter V commentator Ali As6o$ri4 or eJam#le4 acc$ses 1"inese com#anies
o Oo##ort$nistic in)ol)ement !it" dictators"i#s<F
/"e international image 1"ina is ostering is one o a #ri)ileged relations"i# o
so$t"Vso$t" coo#eration4 !it" s"ared #ro0lems o #o)ert% and t"e a0ilit% to
o)ercome t"ose #ro0lemsF
And in addition to t"e mercenar% la)o$r o 1"inese aid4 it contains an as#ect o
a$t"entic so$t"Vso$t" solidarit% t"at gi)es it #otenc% and clo$tF 1"ina "as 0een a
#oor co$ntr% or a long time and "as recentl% red$ced t"e n$m0er o its #o#$lation
li)ing 0elo! t"e #o)ert% line 0% "$ndreds o millionsF :it"o$t an% assistance rom
m$ltilateral inancing instit$tions4 str$ct$ral adM$stment4 good go)ernance or ot"er
eJternal de)elo#ment inter)entions4 it "as com0ined ree mar6et mec"anisms !it"
strict go)ernment control to ac"ie)e its a!esome gro!t" rates al0eit at a "ea)% #rice
o accelerating social ine>$alit% and en)ironmental degradationF
Alt"o$g" Arican internal mar6ets are ar too small to re#licate t"e 1"inese economic
s$ccess #at"4 its eJam#le o a$tonomo$s non-!estern de)elo#ment is em#o!ering
=7
and com#ellingF And as 'a$tman and &airong #oint o$t4 t"e inrastr$ct$re 0$ilt 0%
1"inese com#anies is a signiicant reso$rce or !ider Arican ind$strialisation and
economic de)elo#mentF -$ilding t"e 0asis or ind$strial de)elo#ment ma% !ell 0e a
more constr$cti)e contri0$tion to Arica t"an t"e !estern oc$s on social
de)elo#ment V in a c"anging economic !orld order4 Arica<s ind$strialisation and
endogeno$s gro!t" ma% "a)e a ne! c"ance o de)elo#ingF
On t"e ot"er "and4 as !it" ot"er international actors4 1"inese economic assistance is
a carrot or s$##orting 1"ina in m$ltilateral or$msK in t"e :"ite *a#er on 1"ina<s
Arican *olic%4 t"e orm$lation is 1"ina !ill strengt"en coordination !it" Arica in
t"e U2 and ot"er m$ltilateral s%stems 0% s$##orting eac" ot"ers M$st demand and
reasona0le #ro#ositionsF
One s$c" eJam#le is Arican s$##ort or 1"inese #ositions in t"e U2 General
Assem0l%F
/"e most o0)io$s 1"inese concern on t"e international arena is t"e di#lomatic
marginalisation o /ai!an4 clearl% stated in t"e :"ite *a#erF (n t"is sense4 1"ina<s
s$##ort or Arican de)elo#ment "as t"e #otential to inl$ence Arican 0e"a)io$r on
international arenas4 e)en t"o$g" /ai!an is t"e onl% iss$e 1"ina is c"am#ioning at
#resentF
1"ina<s #olitical disco$rse #ro)ides a contrast to !estern dominance and
democratisation and neoli0eral ideolog%F /"e dominant donor instit$tions "a)e long
$sed t"eir ad)antage to la$d t"e com0ination o #olitical and economic li0eralisation
as t"e onl% #ossi0le model or reac"ing !estern le)els o #ros#erit% c"oosing to
ignore t"e signiicant role o state direction in earl% stages o economic de)elo#ment
in t"e !est as !ell as in .ast AsiaF
1"ina<s economic and #olitical s#ace "as al!a%s 0een ar more tig"tl% state-
controlled t"an in !estern donor co$ntries 0$t its econom% "as nonet"eless gro!n
enormo$sl%F &ence4 1"ina #ro)ides a do$0le-edged eJam#leK !"ile demonstrating a
s$ccess stor% o economic gro!t" !it"o$t an eJ#licit neoli0eral ideolog%4 !it" some
concern or s"aring t"e r$its o de)elo#ment4 it also s"o!s economic gro!t" !it"o$t
ci)il li0erties or #artici#ator% democrac%F
/"e a##eal o t"is Ode)elo#ment !it"o$t democrac%< "as 0een noted 0% se)eral
Arican ci)il societ% anal%sts4 !"o are !ar% t"at t"e 1"inese eJam#le ($ndermining
t"e m$c"-la$ded lin6 0et!een de)elo#ment and #olitical li0eralisation) !ill 0e $sed
to t"e #olitical ad)antage o inc$m0ent Arican go)ernmentsF 1"ina<s a##roac" to
=8
de)elo#ment eJcl$des4 and "ence im#licitl% discredits t"e notion t"at an a$tonomo$s4
)i0rant ci)il societ% is central to de)elo#mentF
Recommendations 'or civil society advocacy
1"ina<s aid #resence in Arica is im#ortant to 1'Os !"o !or6 in areas s$c" as
0$dget monitoring4 aid #olic% and democratisationF Arican go)ernments< relati)el%
ree access to loans4 in)estment and aid rom 1"ina means decreased reliance on
ot"er income so$rces4 s$c" as traditional donor aid and internal taJ re)en$eF &ence4
inasm$c" as $nding 0$%s acco$nta0ilit%4 go)ernment acco$nta0ilit% ma% s"it a!a%
rom donors and Arican citi5ensF *ress$re rom traditional donor conditionalit%
!"ic" "as at times a)o$red ci)il societ% as an as#ect o good go)ernance and
democratisation ma% lessenF &ence4 1'Os ma% need ne! a)en$es or #$tting
ad)ocac% #ress$re on t"e 1"inese to #re)ent t"eir aid $nding re#ressi)e
go)ernments4 damaging ind$str% and reso$rce eJtraction4 or sociall% di)isi)e Omal-
de)elo#ment<F
Alt"o$g" Arican ci)il societ% "as 0eneited rom a #ri)ileged #osition in !estern
donor $nding4 a more inde#endent #osition is #reera0le or Arican ci)il societ% to
0$ild t"eir integrit% and legitimac% !"en tac6ling #ro0lems at "omeF /"ereore4
decreased !estern donor inl$ence #ro#ortional to 1"inese inl$ence can 0e seen as a
0lessing in disg$iseK a c"ance or Arican 1'Os to disassociate t"emsel)es rom t"eir
re#$tation as donor-led go)ernment antagonistsF (nde#endence rom all non-ci)il
societ% instit$tions 0e t"e% !estern or 1"inese donors or domestic go)ernments4 is
somet"ing t"at Arican 1'Os s"o$ld !or6 to!ardsF ,ean!"ile4 de#ending on eac"
1'O<s #riorities4 O0iora" "as t"e ollo!ing recommendations or Arican ci)il
societ%<s engagement !it" 1"inaF /"ese are es#eciall% rele)ant or !a%s or!ard in
im#ro)ing t"e "$man rig"ts4 en)ironmental and redistri0$ti)e im#act o 1"ina in
AricaK
1reating a #arallel 'ino-Arican ci)il societ%4 0$siness4 la0o$r and cons$mer
gro$#s< meeting at t"e 1"ina-Arica 1oo#eration For$m !o$ld 0e )er%
#rod$cti)e or en"ancing #eo#le-to-#eo#le lin6s4 eJc"anging ideas and
esta0lis"ing lo00%ing #ositionsF
(n terms o Arican ci)il societ% lo00%ing 1"inese instit$tions4 t"e 0est !a% is
#ro0a0l% to ta6e ad)antage o !estern 1"ina-related concerns t"ro$g"
Ocoalitions o interest< !it" !estern go)ernments and 2GOs4 #ro)iding an
o##ort$nit% or more international lo00%ingF O#tions incl$de mass 0o%cotts o
1"inese #rod$cts on "$man rig"ts and en)ironmental gro$ndsK O1"ina is not
==
totall% o0li)io$s o #otential "arm to its glo0al re#$tation i it came to 0e
#ercei)ed as t"e #rinci#al #atron and #rotector o Arica<s t%rants<F /"is can 0e
$sed as a le)er to em0arrass t"e 1"inese go)ernment at international ormF
Arican 1'Os ma% 0e a0le to mo0ilise coalitions and relations"i#s !it" 1"ina
and a0o$t 1"ina relati)el% >$ic6l% V certainl% aster t"an Arican go)ernmentsF
/"is gi)es more room or manoe$)re or Arican 1'Os !"o c"oose to
mo0ilise toget"erF
Alt"o$g" Oname and s"ame< cam#aigning tactics t"at are commonl% $sed to
#ress$re !estern com#anies to im#ro)e t"eir #olic% are less li6el% to !or6 on
$nres#onsi)e 1"inese 'O.s (state-o!ned enter#rises)4 it is !ort" #ersisting
!it" #olic% le)ers lin6ed to 1"ina<s economic interestsF O2ame and s"ame< can
!or6 on 1"inese transnational cor#orations4 es#eciall% as t"ese mo)e $# t"e
)al$e c"ain and in)est #restige in t"e re#$tation o t"eir 0randsF
'etting $# 1"ina st$dies in Arican ed$cation instit$tions is a m$c"-needed
ste# or 0etter inormed engagementF
/"e increasing 1"inese re#$tation o coll$ding !it" re#ression #$ts 1"inese
citi5ens at ris6 rom )iolence rom re0el gro$#s V eFgF in t"e 2iger DeltaF '$c"
t"reats $nderscore t"e im#ortance o #eace and sta0ilit% or contin$ed
#ros#erit% and sae o#erations in Arica
Arican 1'Os can also ma6e eorts to connect directl% to t"e 1"inese
go)ernment or s$##ortF :it" t"e c"anging aid #riorities in 1"ina and
a)aila0ilit% o reso$rces4 1"ina<s engagement can #resent ne! o##ort$nities
or Arica<s de)elo#ment among 1'OsF
/"e met"ods s$ggested 0% O0iora" mainl% all into t"e categor% o acti)ist ad)ocac%4
as t"ere are #resentl% e! eJisting #latorms or ormal ci)il societ% engagement !it"
1"inaF
Arican as !ell as nort"ern 1'Os !o$ld do !ell to start long-term cam#aigning
coalitions !it" 1"inese 1'Os no!F :it"in t"e 1"inese go)ernment t"ere !ill 0e
dierent instit$tions and le)els !it" O#ress$re #oints< t"at can 0e $sed or ad)ocac%
as !ell as constr$cti)e engagementN #ro)incial go)ernments 0eing one eJam#leF
1"ina<s in)ol)ement in Arican de)elo#ment can 0e seen as an o##ort$nit% to oster
lin6s 0et!een #eo#le and as a ne! #o!er s"it a!a% rom t"e entrenc"ed !orld orderF
1DD
1"ina in Arica is a to#ic t"at aro$ses 0ot" concern and ascination in t"e
de)elo#ment comm$nit%F On t"e one "and4 t"ere are t"e man% retrograde acets o
1"ina<s gro!ing #resenceK t"e tied aidN t"e no-strings-attac"ed coo#eration r"etoricN
t"e lac6 o conditionalit% and o standardsN t"e in)estments and tradeN t"e energ%
#olitics4 t"e militar% s$##ortF
1"ina<s com0ined aid and commercial #resence resem0les t"e 6ind o earl%
#ostcolonial modernist de)elo#ment eorts rom !estern co$ntries t"at "a)e 0een
o$nd not to !or64 namel% sending tec"nolog% and eJ#ertsN large-scale inrastr$ct$re
rom donor-$nded com#aniesN and aid in ret$rn or U2 General Assem0l% lo%alt%F
Among O.1D donors t"ese instr$ments "a)e largel% 0een s$#erseded 0%
em#o!erment4 s$staina0ilit% and rig"ts a##roac"es #er"a#s at t"e eJ#ense o serio$s
in)estments into an ind$strial 0ase or Arican economic de)elo#mentF 2e)ert"eless4
alt"o$g" traditional !estern donors ma% "a)e c"anged t"eir lang$age and de)elo#ed
t"eir ODA de#artments4 oreign #olic%4 sec$rit% and trade #riorities still d!ar t"eir
ODA concernsF /"e alarm !"ic" accom#anies 1"ina<s entr% into Arica mirrors t"e
!estern co$ntries< ear o 1"ina<s #osition as a c"allenger in t"e !orld econom%F
Aside rom t"e legitimate and serio$s concerns a0o$t 1"ina<s ODA a##roac"4 t"e
tone o t"e de)elo#ment literat$re on 1"ina in Arica eJ#oses t"e comorta0le and
#aternal #osition o nort"ern aid in Arica4 and t"e #roo$nd t"reat to t"is #osition
rom t"e emerging aid #ro)idersF :e 0egin to realise t"e eJtent to !"ic" Arican
co$ntries still are reliant on m$ltilateral #olic% conditionalit%N to !"at eJtent nort"ern
aid agencies relis" t"e role o 0eneactor des#ite t"e all-#er)asi)e O#artners"i#< and
Oo!ners"i#< Margon4 and t"e g$l 0et!een small 0eneits rom aid and enormo$s
damage rom !orld trade str$ct$resF 1"ina<s acti)ities ma% #$t #ress$re on nort"ern
donors to ma6e more serio$s eorts to lead 0% eJam#le and gi)e reci#ient
go)ernments a$tonom%4 to $ntie aid and to #$s" or s$staina0ilit% in 0inding glo0al
oraF
Human Security in )'rica
/"e realt% o toda%<s !orld con$tes t"e traditional t"esis t"at t"e state is t"e sole
#$r)e%or o "$man sec$rit% and t"at it is onl% !"en t"e state<s sec$rit% is t"reatened
t"at t"e s"ield o #rotection is ine)ita0l% remo)ed rom its citi5enF 1ontem#orar%
t"reats to "$man sec$rit% are ar more di)erse and innoc$o$s t"an #re)io$sl%
$nderstood and originate mostl% rom !it"in concerned statesF ,ore t"an "al t"e
!orld<s most 0r$tal conlict is c$rrentl% located in AricaF /"e conlicts in Dar$r4 in
t"e '$dan4 -$r$ndi4 t"e Democratic +e#$0lic o 1ongo4 Uganda and ()or% 1oast are
1D1
constant reminders o t"e internecine conlicts t"at dail% n$lli% t"e li)es o millions
in AricaF /"e "$man sec$rit% "as ollo!ing dimensionsF
(a) Food 'ec$rit% in Arica
(0) .n)ironmental sec$rit% in Arica
(c) *olitical (Go)ernance) 'ec$rit% in Arica
(d) .conomic sec$rit% in Arica
(e) 1omm$nit% 'ec$rit% in Arica
() &ealt" 'ec$rit% in Arica
(g) *ersonal 'ec$rit% in Arica
6ood Security in )'rica
Food sec$rit% eJits !"en all #eo#le4 at all times4 "a)e #"%sical and economic access
to s$icient4 sae and n$tritio$s ood to meet t"eir dietar% needs and ood #reerences
or an acti)e and "ealt"% lieF /"$s4 ood sec$rit% im#lies t"at all #eo#le4 rom t"e
le)el o indi)id$al "o$se"olds to t"e le)el o t"e !orld as a !"ole4 s"o$ld 0e a0le to
access ood at all timesF 2ot onl% s"o$ld ood 0e accessi0le4 0$t it s"o$ld 0e
s$icient4 sae and n$tritio$s and m$st also cater to t"e dietar% needs and #reerences
o t"e indi)id$al "o$se"oldF 1onse>$entl%4 ood sec$rit% im#lies t"at it is not
s$icient t"at t"ere is eno$g" ood to go ro$nd t"e !"ole !orldF *eo#le m$st "a)e
read% access to ood as >$aliied eit"er 0% gro!ing it t"emsel)es4 0% 0$%ing it4 or
t"ro$g" a #$0lic ood distri0$tion s%stemF (t is no! acce#ted act t"at alt"o$g" t"e
a)aila0ilit% o ood is a necessar% condition or ood sec$rit%4 it is $ndo$0tedl% not
s$icient as #eo#le can still star)e d$ring amilies4 e)en !"en s$icient ood is
a)aila0le4 i t"e% cannot access t"e a)aila0le oodF /"is means t"at #eo#le ma% 0e
ood insec$re in t"e midst o a)aila0le oodF Food insec$rit% ma% t"$s not 0e ca$sed
0% t"e ail$re to #rod$ce ood4 0$t rat"er 0% t"e ail$re o li)eli"ood s%stems to
g$arantee s$icient access to itF
Food sec$rit% is #rimaril% concerned !it" access to oodF /o 0e ood sec$re4
"o$se"olds s"o$ld "a)e t"e reso$rces necessar% to access t"e ood t"e% need or
cons$m#tion and t"is access ma% 0e in t"e orm o income4 land4 li)estoc64 tools or
la0o$r4 de#ending on !"et"er t"e "o$se"old is r$ral or $r0anF 'econd dimension o
ood sec$rit% "as a tem#oral com#onentF /"is denotes t"e acts t"at or "o$se"olds to
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0e ood sec$re t"em m$st not onl% "a)e access to ood 0$t s$c" access m$st 0e
consistent or relia0leF /"ird dimension o ood sec$rit% t"at can 0e gleaned rom t"e
deinition is its n$tritional as#ectF &ence4 #eo#le s"o$ld "a)e access not onl% to an%
t%#e o ood4 0$t one t"at is sae4 s$icient and n$tritio$s according to t"eir s#eciic
dietar% needs and #reerencesF
According to t"e Food and Agric$lt$re Organisation4 a total o 848 million #eo#le
s$ered rom "$nger in 2DD3-D54 t"e #eriod or !"ic" t"e FAO "as t"e most recent
com#lete estimates o $nderno$ris"ment at t"e co$ntr% le)elF O t"is n$m0er4 s$0-
'a"aran Arica acco$nted or 25 #ercent !"ilst t"e 2ear .ast and 2ort" Arica
acco$nted or a0o$t 3F= #ercentF (t is estimated t"at t"e #ro#ortion o #eo#le !"o
s$er rom "$nger in t"e total #o#$lation o t"e !orld remains "ig"est in s$0-
'a"aran Arica4 !"ere one in t"ree #ersons is c"ronicall% "$ngr%F /"ese are grim
acts and t"e onl% )ia0le concl$sion t"at one can dra! rom a sit$ation !"ere one in
t"ree #eo#le is c"ronicall% "$ngr% is t"at s$c" a #lace is ood insec$reF /"ere are
ollo!ing reasons or ood insec$rit% in AricaK
The Colonial 1eacy
Food sec$rit% in Arica s$ered a do!nt$rn d$ring t"e colonial era d$e to se)eral
reasonsF First4 man% o t"e colonial go)ernment em#"asised t"e #rod$ction o cas"
cro#s or eJ#ort rat"er t"an ood cro#s or domestic cons$m#tionF /"is led to ood
scarcit% and 0% im#lication4 ood insec$rit%F F$rt"ermore4 as #art o t"e larger eort
to eJ#loit "$man and nat$ral reso$rces4 colonialism oten destro%ed t"e indigeno$s
instit$tions and #ractices t"at "el#ed #romote ood sec$rit%F
1and @ra2s
Anot"er recent actor !"ic" co$ld eJacer0ate ood insec$rit% in Arica is t"e ne!
!a)e o land gra0sF 7and gra0s reer to t"e c$rrent #"enomenon !"ere0% ric"
co$ntries and com#anies rom aro$nd t"e !orld o$tso$rce ood #rod$ction 0% t"e
ac>$isition o armland a0road t"ro$g" #$rc"ases or leasesF :it" #artic$lar reerence
to Arica4 t"e land gra00ers "a)e incl$ded t"e go)ernments and #ri)ate sector
com#anies o some ric" co$ntriesF /"e target co$ntries in Arica "a)e incl$ded
.t"io#ia4 '$dan4 .ritrea4 'enegal4 Uganda4 ,o5am0i>$e4 /an5ania4 1ameroon and
Cim0a0!eF /"e #ro0lem !it" t"ese land gra0s is t"at t"e% "a)e t"e #otential o
$ndermining small scale arming and r$ral li)eli"oods4 es#eciall% !"ere t"e target
go)ernment ar0itraril% ac>$ire c$stomar% lands or t"e #$r#ose o leasing t"em to
in)estorsF
The )'rican Environment
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/"o$g" t"e Arican continent is large and its terrain and climatic !idel% )aria0le4 one
o t"e c"allenges it aces is t"e act t"at most o t"e continent is geologicall% inacti)e
and "ot %ear-ro$ndF As a conse>$ence o t"is4 t"e soils are "ig"l% leac"ed !it" little
#lant n$trients and organic material4 all leading to lo! agric$lt$ral #rod$cti)it%F A#art
rom t"e nat$re o t"e Arican soil4 anot"er c"allenge to t"e Arican en)ironment is
t"e #attern o rainall in man% #arts o t"e continentF (n man% #arts o Arica4 d$e to
t"e #"enomenon o (nter tro#ical con)ergence 5one4 rainall is c%clical or seasonal
and is not e)enl% distri0$ted o)er t"e co$rse o t"e %earF /"ese nat$ral reso$rce
constraints indeed "inder agric$lt$ral #rod$cti)it% in man% #arts o Arica and co$ld
0e said to acco$nt or some o t"e ood insec$rit% in AricaF &o!e)er4 a closer
anal%sis o t"e sit$ation discloses ot"er reasons or ood insec$rit% in AricaF
;nderdeveloped )riculture Sector
/"e agric$lt$ral sector o Arica to a large eJtent is $nderde)elo#ed 0eca$se o
tec"nical inno)ations4 s$c" as irrigation and agric$lt$ral !ater management4 are not
intensi)el% em#lo%ed in man% Arican co$ntriesF And since most cro#s in Arica are
rained4 ollo!s a strongl% seasonal #atternF /"e Arican agric$lt$ral sector does "a)e
remar6a0le #otential i m$c" more o t"e a)aila0le ara0le land can 0e $tili5edF (t is
act$all% estimated t"at onl% a0o$t ten #ercent o t"e s$race area o Arica is $sed or
c$lti)ation !"en it is act$all% #ossi0le to $se to t"irteen to o$rteen #ercentF
Environmental security in )'rica
/"e term en)ironment sec$rit% "as 0een deined as encom#assing t"e a)aila0ilit% o
en)ironmental ser)ices or man and nat$reF :"en "$man societies can eed and sta%
!arm rom t"e reso$rces t"at nat$re can #ro)ide4 an% conlicts 0et!een s$c" societies
!ill certainl% not 0e rooted in en)ironment ca$sesF +eso$rce scarcit% in t$rn leads to
conlict 0et!een contesting gro$#s 0eca$se t"e $ndamental tenet in t"e deinition o
en)ironmental sec$rit% !ill "a)e 0een remo)edF .>$all%4 t"e conlict itsel leads to
$t$re en)ironmental destr$ction t"at ma6es t"e a)aila0ilit% o en)ironmental ser)ice
scarcer to e)en more #eo#leF /"e attit$de o states to!ards addressing t"reats to
en)ironmental sec$rit% "as )aried considera0l%F :"ile some co$ntries are #roacti)e
and4 it ma% 0e arg$ed4 more radical in t"eir eorts4 some "a)e 0een less ent"$siasticF
+eso$rces scarcit% as a res$lt o en)ironmental degradation is not onl% a #otential
ca$se o conlict in t"e traditional sense encom#assing armed )iolence4 it is moreo)er
t"e direct catal%st or all t"e e)ils o $nderde)elo#ment4 incl$ding4 among ot"ers4
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malno$ris"ment4 "ig" c"ild deat" rates4 #o#$lation mo)ements and illiterac%F /"is
sit$ation is $rt"er com#o$nded 0% t"e act t"at man% Arican co$ntries can )alidit%
0e classiied as eit"er ailed or !ee6 statesF /"$s $nli6e t"e de)elo#ed !orld !"ere
t"e a)erage citi5en can generall% rel% on t"e state in times o "ards"i# as matter o
social !elare4 t"e a)erage Arican citi5en !o$ld not t"in6 in t"ose termsF '$ccessi)e
generations o Arican "a)e died o amine4 "ad t"eir mineral reso$rces #l$ndered 0%
a$t"oritarian regimes4 and moreo)er aced 0r$tal re#ression and "ars" dictators"i#sF
/"$s4 rele)ant #olicies m$st #ro)ide an alternati)e li)eli"ood acce#ta0le to t"e man%
"$ngr% and eJas#erated #eo#le !"o "a)e resorted to #ractices t"at lead to
deorestation !it" its catastro#"ic conse>$encesF (t is also im#erati)e t"at alternati)e
li)eli"ood 0e s$staina0le in t"e long termF /"e #rotection o Arica<s ragile
en)ironment is not im#ortant onl% in res#ect o t"e "$man sec$rit% o t"at continent
and t"e s#ill o)er o en)ironmental re$gee into ot"er #arts o t"e !orldF -e%ond t"is
o0)io$s calamit%4 t"e dense tro#ical orests o central Arica act as one o t"e largest
nat$ral ilters so t"e car0on dioJide emission o t"e !orld<s ind$strialised nationsF (
t"ese orests !ere to disa##ear t"is !o$ld "a)e an im#act not onl% on t"e glo0al
en)ironment as !"ole4 0$t also on t"e glo0al econom% and #$0lic "ealt"F /"is act
!as recentl% stressed 0% Arican leaders in t"e conteJt o t"e 2DD= 1o#en"agen
'$mmit on climate c"angeF /"e% made it clear i t"e central Arican green 0elt !as to
remain intact signiicant $nding !as re>$ired rom ind$striali5ed nationsF
Political 4@overnance9 Security in )'rica
Go)ernance iss$es are closel% lin6ed to t"e em#o!erment o #eo#le and
comm$nitiesF :it"o$t eecti)e go)ernance4 #eo#le are not em#o!eredF And $nless
#eo#le and comm$nities are em#o!ered to let t"eir )oices 0e "eard or to #artici#ate
in decision-ma6ing4 go)ernance is not easi0leF Go)ernance is )er% im#ortant to
"$man sec$rit%F 1entral to t"e !"ole eJamination o t"e conce#t o "$man sec$rit% is
t"e need to reoc$s attention do!n rom t"e le)el o t"e state to t"at o comm$nities
and indi)id$alsN ne)ert"eless4 national and local go)ernance is a 6e% iss$e4 or good
and or illF
An im#ortant as#ect o t"e constit$tion is #rotection and #romotion o "$man rig"tsF
/"is "el#s ens$re saet%4 li0ert%4 and #re)ention o conlictF /"e Uni)ersal
Declaration o &$man +ig"ts and related international con)entions are essential
models and a so$rce o ins#irationF 'ome Arican go)ernments "a)e ta6en im#ortant
strides to deal !it" t"e saeg$arding o "$man rig"tsF -$r$ndi "as created a ministr%
or "$man rig"tsN ot"er co$ntries "a)e esta0lis"ed national commissions or ot"er
str$ct$resF /"e eecti)eness o t"ese de#ends on t"e strengt" o instit$tional
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ca#acities and t"e )igo$r o leaders"i# in ens$ring constant attention to t"e #rotection
o t"e )$lnera0le4 t"e #oor and t"e #o!erlessF
*artici#ation rom all >$arters consolidates gro$# )al$es4 red$ces tensions and 0$ilds
#eaceF (t allo!s comm$nities to eJ#ress concerns and #ro)ides o##ort$nities or
oicials to eJ#lain #olicies and 0$ild s$##ortF /"e "olding o elections at national
and local le)els is a )er% im#ortant element4 and t"e% m$st 0e generall% recogni5ed as
ree and airF /"ese are eJtremel% diic$lt criteria to meet s"ortl% ater a )iolent
conlict4 0$t t"e election o oicials !"ose legitimac% is #o#$larl% recogni5ed is
essential or an en)ironment o sta0ilit%4 #eace 0$ilding and de)elo#mentF Alt"o$g"
t"ere is a danger t"at contenders !ill see6 to o0tain in negotiations and elections
more t"an t"e% co$ld on t"e gro$nd4 t"e res$lts in 'ierra 7eone $ltimatel% s"o!ed t"e
#o!er o citi5ens to o)ercome t"eir ears and t"eir o##ressorsF Also4 t"e recent ree
and air election o .llen Eo"nson-'irlea as *resident o 7i0eria creates t"e
o##ort$nit% or t"at co$ntr% to em0ar6 on t"e reco)er% #at"F
*o#$lar #artici#ation m$st go 0e%ond elections and #olitical incl$sion also means
ens$ring t"at comm$nities "a)e a role in o)erseeing elected and a##ointed oicials4
and t"at t"e% can eJercise inl$ence to ens$re eicienc%4 e>$it%4 trans#arenc% and
acco$nta0ilit% in t"e cond$ct o go)ernment 0$sinessF -ot" maMorit% and minorit%
rig"ts and res#onsi0ilities m$st 0e res#ectedF /"ese are core elements to ac"ie)ing
indi)id$al and comm$nit% le)el "$man sec$rit% t"ro$g" go)ernanceF /"ere is oten a
Gt$g o !arH 0et!een oicial instit$tions and long-standing et"nic4 ling$istic or
religio$s ailiationsF
*o#$lar #artici#ation also means t"at non- go)ernmental organi5ations (2GOs) and
ot"er comm$nit% 0ased elements o ci)il societ% need to 0e a0le to eJ#ress
t"emsel)es and contri0$te to decision-ma6ingF '$c" #artici#ation "as 0een ma6ing
itsel increasingl% elt in Arica4 des#ite t"e otentimes limited ca#a0ilities and
inancial reso$rces o t"ese organi5ationsF 2GOs can 0e !"istle-0lo!ers and
so$rces o ideasF /"e% can also 0e not )er% re#resentati)e o #o#$lar )ie!sF (n some
co$ntries4 2GOs are maMor #eace 0$ilding actors and #olic% o#inion leadersF /"ese
ma% 0e indigeno$s organi5ations or eJtensions o international onesF /"e LDirector%
o Arican 1i)il 'ociet% Organisations in t"e Field o 1onlict *re)ention and *eace
0$ilding4L lists some 6DD s$c" 2GOsF '#eciicall% on t"e role o ci)il societ% in t"e
#re)ention o armed conlict in Arica4 t"e United 2ations Oice o t"e '#ecial
Ad)iser on Arica (O'AA) #$0lis"ed in 2DD4 an assessment !it" n$mero$s
recommendations or strengt"ening action at all le)elsF On a 0roader scale4 O'AA
#$0lis"es a com#endi$m o Arican 2GOsF /"e t"ird (2DD4) edition o t"is incl$des
nearl% 348DD entriesF /"e Director% is #art o t"e United 2ation<s ongoing eorts to
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im#ro)e colla0oration and acilitate inormation eJc"ange among ci)il societ%
organi5ations (1'Os)4 as !ell as !it" ot"er de)elo#ment #artnersF /"e Director%
inorms and #romotes a )i0rant ci)il societ% in Arica4 t"ro$g" !"ic" listed gro$#s
ma% learn rom eac" ot"er<s s$ccesses4 strengt"en t"eir o!n local instit$tions4 and
net!or6 eecti)el% or s$staina0le de)elo#mentF
*$0lic administration is a maMor iss$e or go)ernance and "$man sec$rit% on t"e
continentF As noted in a recent eJamination on conlict #re)ention and #eace
0$ilding4 es#eciall% in t"e conteJt o t"e United 2ations4 GUt"e relations"i# 0et!een
ailed and de legitimi5ed go)ernance and t"e emergence o conlict is no! !ell
recogni5edF 1i)il ser)ice diic$lties relate to #erormance4 ser)ice deli)er%4 !aste4
corr$#tion4 and lac6 o comm$nal o)ersig"tF ,oreo)er4 !"ere t"e #$0lic sector is
$na0le to #ro)ide eecti)e reg$lation4 standard-setting and instit$tional s$##ort4 t"e
#ri)ate sector cannot maJimi5e its #otential eit"erF :ea6 and incom#etent #$0lic
administration drains a!a% m$c"-needed inances and gi)es rise to tensions and
insta0ilit%F (n #artic$lar4 corr$#tion negates air com#etition erode t"e )al$es o
com#etence and meritF
Health Security in )'rica
Good "ealt" is 0ot" essential and instr$mental to ac"ie)ing "$man sec$rit%F (t is
essential 0eca$se t"e )er% "eart o sec$rit% is #rotecting "$man li)esF &ealt" sec$rit%
is at t"e )ital core o "$man sec$rit%F &ealt" and sec$rit% "a)e long 0een distinct
ields4 to t"e detriment o 0ot"F &ealt" "as 0een seen as a Gmedical #ro0lemH4 and
sec$rit%4 as a matter o militar% deenceF Good "ealt" is 0ot" an end in itsel and a
means to an end it is an im#ortant indicator o de)elo#ment and a necessar% #redictor
o gro!t"F (n a sense4 it is t"e em0odiment o t"e !"ole de)elo#ment $nderta6ingF
Good "ealt" is not onl% t"e a0sence o disease 0$t it is a #ositi)e state o #"%sical4
mental and social !ell-0eingF 1onse>$entl%4 good "ealt" is directl% related to "$man
dignit%4 t"e a0ilit% to eJercise c"oice and lose ear o t"e $t$reF *oor #eo#le are
#artic$larl% )$lnera0le to maln$trition4 #oor re#rod$cti)e "ealt"4 imm$ne deicienc%
and comm$nica0le diseaseF
On t"e ot"er "and4 ill "ealt" is a s$re ro$te to #o)ert%F Families ma% lose t"eir "omes
and lietime sa)ings 0eca$se o ill "ealt"F Alt"o$g" "ealt" "as generall% im#ro)ed in
Arica in t"e #ast se)eral decades4 #oor "ealt" remains a maMor c"allenge on t"e
continentF 2earl% "al o all c"ildren !"o die 0eore t"eir it" 0irt"da% !orld!ide
come rom s$0-'a"aran Arica4 and #ne$monia4 diarr"oea4 malaria4 measles and
A(D' acco$nt or t"e deat"s o "al o t"emF For Arican c"ildren $nder i)e4 t"e
negati)e "ealt" im#acts t"at arise rom diarr"oeal disease lin6ed to inade>$ate !ater4
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sanitation and "%giene are $# to 24D times "ig"er t"an or c"ildren in "ig"- income
nationsF
(n 2DDD4 t"e co$ntries !it" t"e "ig"est maternal mortalit% ratios (maternal deat"s #er
1DD4DDD li)e 0irt"s) !ere all in AricaF /"e to# t!el)e4 !it" rates o 143DD or more4
!ere4 in ran6 order4 +!anda4 'ierra 7eone4 -$r$ndi4 .t"io#ia4 'omalia4 1"ad4 t"e
'$dan4 1?te dI()oire4 .>$atorial G$inea4 -$r6ina Faso4 Angola and ;en%aF (n all4 21
co$ntries in s$0-'a"aran Arica "ad rates o 14DDD or moreF -% contrast4 t"e maternal
,ortalit% ratio in ind$striali5ed co$ntries !as 12 #er 1DD4DDD li)e 0irt"sF 'e)eral
eat$res "inder "ealt" sec$rit% in AricaF (n addition to #o)ert%4 t"e root ca$ses
incl$de #oor le)els o n$trition4 $na)aila0le or $nsae !ater4 lo! le)els o ed$cation4
#oor "o$sing and )iolent conlictF ( n t"e 0$rgeoning $r0an areas4 limited sanitation4
lac6 o drainage s%stems4 and $ncollected gar0age are maMor detriments to #$0lic
"ealt"F '"ortage o "ealt" #ersonnel and training4 and #oor distri0$tion o !ell
trained "ealt" care #ro)iders t"ro$g"o$t t"e region are also im#ortantF /"e migration
o tens o t"o$sands o doctors4 n$rses and ot"er "ealt" care !or6ers to de)elo#ed
co$ntries costs Arican co$ntries t"eir in)estments4 !"ile it sim$ltaneo$sl% de#ri)es
#eo#le o needed trained staF '$c" "ealt" care #roessionals migrate 0eca$se o
inade>$ate rem$neration at "ome and greater o##ort$nit% else!"ereF
/"e maMorit% o #eo#le in Arican co$ntries "a)e little or no access to "ealt"
ins$rance4 !"ic" lea)es t"em )er% eJ#osed to ris6F ,oreo)er4 decent medical care is
$na)aila0le to most #eo#leF /"e im#act o str$ct$ral adM$stment #rograms o t"e
1=8Ds and 1==Ds dealt a se)ere 0lo! to "ealt" care s%stemsF 1$rrent ste#s to!ard
international orgi)eness o national de0ts4 and t"e em#"asis on ac"ie)ing
,illenni$m De)elo#ment Goals4 are ste#s in a #ositi)e directionF Among t"e ca$ses
o "ealt" insec$rit% in Arica4 t"e &(89A(D' #andemic merits s#ecial attentionF '$0-
'a"aran Arica "as M$st o)er 1D #ercent o t"e !orld<s #o#$lation4 0$t is "ome to
more t"an 6D #ercent o all #eo#le li)ing !it" &(8 some 25F4 millionF (t is not t"e
#rinci#al ca$se o deat" o)erall in most co$ntries4 0$t "as ta6en a signiicant toll on
t"e economicall% acti)e #o#$lationF Among %o$ng #eo#le aged 15-24 %ears4 an
estimated 6F= #ercent o !omen and 2F2 #ercent o men !ere li)ing !it" &(8 at t"e
end o 2DD4FAmong #regnant !omen )isiting $r0an clinics in so$t"ern Arica t"e
rates are m$c" "ig"erF /"e ri##le eects o t"e disease are as dist$r0ing as its deat"
tollF .d$cational attainment s$ers !"en c"ildren lose t"eir teac"ers to &(89A(D'F
1"ildren dro# o$t o sc"ool to ass$me "o$se"old res#onsi0ilities and care or ailing
#arents4 and 0eca$se ed$cational costs 0ecome $naorda0leF
( ormer sc"ool girls enter t"e seJ trade to s$r)i)e4 t"is reinorces t"e c%cle o
&(89A(D' #re)alenceF &(89A(D' red$ces t"e n$m0er and ca#a0ilities o arm
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!or6ersF 1o$ntries most aected ris6 losing $# to 26 #ercent o agric$lt$ral la0o$r in
t"e neJt 2D %earsF &(89A(D'-aected amilies ma% 0e orced to sell amil%
#ossessions4 li)estoc6 and land to care or inected mem0ersF Food a)aila0ilit% and
n$tritional >$alit% s"o! mar6ed declineF Attention to malaria and /- "a)e 0een
ecli#sed 0% t"e &(89A(D' #andemic4 0$t t"e% act$all% acco$nt or larger n$m0ers o
deat"s in AricaF Also4 co- inections o t$0erc$losis and &(89A(D' se)erel% im#act
0ot" t"e indi)id$al and t"e "ealt" care s%stemF (n 2DD14 nearl% 7D #ercent o all
t$0erc$losis #atients on t"e continent !ere also inected !it" &(8F :it" regard to
malaria4 it is estimated t"at t"is aects 3DD-5DD million #eo#le eac" %earN 85 #ercent
o t"e res$lting deat"s occ$r in s$0-'a"aran AricaF /"e im#act o malaria on
economic gro!t" in s$0-'a"aran Arica is alarmingN it red$ces economic
de)elo#ment 0% 1F3 #ercent eac" %ear4 !it" economic losses estimated at 12 0illion
dollarsF /"e attention gi)en to >$antitati)e !or6 on ,DGs in t"e area o "ealt" can
0e "el#$l to $t$re anal%ses on "$man sec$rit% in AricaF ,illenni$m goals 44 5 and
6 oc$s on red$cing c"ild mortalit%4 im#ro)ing maternal "ealt"4 and com0ating
&(89A(D'4 malaria and ot"er diseasesF 'e)eral indicators are 0eing trac6ed or eac"4
0ot" nationall% and internationall%F
The Role o' civil society in Promotin Human Security in )'rica
/"e notion o ci)il societ% "as a long #edigree in :estern #olitical #"iloso#"%N
amongst ot"ers4 in t"e !ritings o Eo"n 7oc6e4 /"omas *aine4 AleJis de /oc>$e)ille
and Antonio GramsciF (n t"e :estern deinition o ci)il societ%4 a$tonomo$s and
acti)e )ol$ntar% associations are regarded as a co$nter-0alance to state #o!er4 a
training gro$nd or democratic #ractices4 and as a necessar% conse>$ence o
increasingl% dierentiated str$ct$res o go)ernance t"at "a)e increased t"e distance
0et!een citi5ens and t"e stateF (n t"ese co$ntries !it" t"eir e)er more com#leJ
s%stems o social4 #olitical and economic interactions4 go)ernments can satis% onl% a
small and diminis"ing #ro#ortion o t"e needs o t"eir citi5ens and t"e latter loo6
more and more to ci)ic associations to c"annel a gro!ing range and )ariet% o social
interactionsF /"ese4 in t$rn4 need a rame!or6 o go)ernance o$tside t"e M$risdiction
o t"e stateF (n Arica4 it is rat"er t"e a0sence o go)ernance t"at necessitates and
$els t"e gro!t" o ci)il societ%F
(n 0ot" instances4 ci)il societ% reers4 0roadl% s#ea6ing4 to t"e social and #olitical
s#ace !"ere )ol$ntar% associations (distinct rom t"e a$tomatic4 0inding and
com#$lsor% mem0ers"i# o state"ood) attem#ts to s"a#e norms and #olicies to
reg$late #$0lic lie in social4 #olitical4 economic and en)ironmental dimensionsF
/"ese are seen to incl$deK religio$s organisationsN social cl$0sN social mo)ementsN
ree #ress and inde#endent mediaN trade $nionsN #roessional associationsN and non-
1D=
go)ernmental organisations (2GOs)F /"ere "as 0een an eJ#onential gro!t" in t"e
n$m0er o ci)il societ% actors4 and in t"e )ol$me o transnational net!or6s in !"ic"
t"e% are em0eddedF At t"e international le)el4 t"eir increased im#act is relected in
t"e role t"at ci)il societ% #la%ed in t"e esta0lis"ment o t"e (nternational 1riminal
1o$rtF
(n Arica4 it is rat"er t"e a0sence o go)ernance t"at necessitates and $els t"e gro!t"
o ci)il societ%F :"ile states are t"e #rimar% actors in t"e international s%stem4 ci)il
societ% "as 0ecome an im#ortant secondar% actor inl$encing t"e agenda o t"e
#rimar% actorsF 1learl%4 t"e m$lti#licit% o t"ese $noicial actors also #resents ne!
#ro0lems4 s$c" as lac6 o co-ordination o eorts and o clear acco$nta0ilit%F /"is is
generall% not a #ro0lem in esta0lis"ed and mat$re democracies4 !"ere go)ernments
acce#t t"at e)en t"e most o#en and trans#arent s%stem s"o$ld allo! or )ol$ntar% and
non-#roit associations to #$rs$e s#eciic aimsF (n de)elo#ing societies4 incl$ding
Arica4 t"e sit$ation is dierent4 "o!e)erF On t"e one "and4 mem0ers"i#
organisations (s$c" as trade $nions and #roessional associations) are readil%
#ercei)ed as #osing a #otential #olitical t"reat to inc$m0ent ]lites 0orne o$t 0% t"e
#olitical mo)ements t"at "ad t"eir origins !it"in organised la0o$r and e)ent$all%
de#osed ;ennet" ;a$nda in Cam0ia4 and t"e close association 0et!een t"e
Cim0a0!e 1ongress o /rade Unions and t"e ,o)ement or Democratic 1"ange in
neig"0o$ring Cim0a0!eF On t"e ot"er4 iss$e-0ased and ad)ocac% organisations
(necessaril% $nded 0% oreign go)ernments4 de)elo#ment agencies and #"ilant"ro#ic
o$ndations) are readil% >$estioned on iss$es o acco$nta0ilit% and re#resenti)it%F
2GOs !or6ing or democrac%4 "$man rig"ts and trans#arenc% are t"ereore oten
lam0asted 0% go)ernments on t"e 0asis o G!"om do t"e% re#resentRH4 or as
organisations acting at t"e 0e"est o some oreign cons#irac% or #olitical or
commercial gainF :"ile go)ernments #oint to t"e reliance on oreign donor $nding
o 2GOs to delegitimise t"em4 t"e 2GOs4 in t$rn4 #oint o$t t"at most Arican
go)ernments (and intergo)ernmental organisations s$c" as 'AD14 .1O:A'4 (GAD4
t"e AU and 2.*AD) are t"emsel)es "ea)il% de#endentF
(t s"o$ld come as no s$r#rise to note t"at t"e relations"i# 0et!een Arican leaders
and ci)il societ% (in #artic$lar4 inde#endent 2GOs) "as t"$s 0een c"aracterised 0%
m$t$al s$s#icion and4 in some cases4 o$trig"t "ostilit% eJce#t !"ere 1i)il 'ociet%
Organisations (1'Os) are #re#ared to !or6 as an eJtension o go)ernment4 #ro#agate
its #olicies and sometimes ser)e as an alternati)e cond$it to gain additional income
or inno)ati)e leadersF (n 'o$t" Arica4 a co$ntr% t"at #ro)ides eJtensi)e s#ace or
ci)il societ%4 t"e #artners"i# and colla0oration t"at c"aracterised t"e #ost-a#art"eid
era "as since gi)en !a% to an 2e)ert"eless4 r"etorical recognition o t"e need or
11D
#o#$lar #artici#ation in go)ernance is gro!ing at t"e le)el o t"e AU and t"e im#et$s
is on ci)il societ% organisations to $se and eJ#and t"e s#ace created or t"eir
in)ol)ementF :"en t"e Gt"ird !a)eH o democratisation "it Arican s"ores in t"e
earl% 1==Ds4 t"is !as as m$c" a "ome-gro!n mo)ement4 as it !as #art o t"e glo0al
c"ain o e)entsF .Jternal de)elo#ments4 s$c" as t"e all o comm$nism and #ress$re
rom oreign donors !ere im#ortant or la%ing t"e gro$nd!or6 or ormal democrac%F
-$t it !as oten t"e reso$rce$lness4 dedication4 and tenacit% o t"e continent<s
nascent ci)il societies t"at initiated and s$stained t"e #rocess o democratic o#ening
and #olitical li0eralisationF (n late 1=8=4 ci)il ser)ants4 teac"ers and traders in -enin
!ere t"e irst to 0ring an end to a$tocrac% and economic mismanagementF (n Cam0ia4
t"e 1ongress o /rade Unions ollo!ed s$it 0% s$ccess$ll% c"allenging t"e t"ree
decade inc$m0enc% o ;ennet" ;a$ndaF (n 'ierra 7eone4 t"e irre#ressi0le resol)e o
t"e :omen<s For$m t"!arted t"e designs o t"e inc$m0ent militar% regime to
orestall t"at co$ntr%<s ret$rn to democratic r$le in 1==6F And t"e damning #astoral
letters o s$c" 1"ristian leaders as -is"o# (sodore /"e inormation re)ol$tion "as
"el#ed to end state-im#osed isolation and allo! or net!or6s to gro! 0e%ond national
0ordersF For eJam#le4 it "as 0een arg$ed t"at t"e aJ4 #"otoco#ier4 #ersonal com#$ter
and des6to##$0lis"ing sot!are !as central to t"e #ro-democrac% mo)ement<s
cam#aign to discredit t"e -anda dictators"i# in ,ala!i in 1==2V=3F /"e gro!ing $se
o e-mail and t"e internet in t"e #ast ten %ears "a)e strengt"ened t"is #"enomenon
0est relected in t"e eJtent to !"ic" inormation on t"e s$##ression o democrac% and
a0$se o #o!er 0% CA2U(*F) in Cim0a0!e in recent %ears is still a0le to reac" t"e
o$tside !orld4 des#ite t"e assa$lt on t"e inde#endent media in t"at co$ntr%F /!o
arg$ments "a)e t"$s ar 0een made t"at #ro)ide or an im#ortant role 0% ci)il societ%
in Arican sec$rit%F /"e irst is t"at t"e maMorit% o #oor Arican co$ntries s$er rom
a concentration o #olitical4 economic and social #o!er in t"e eJec$ti)e 0ranc" o t"e
stateF (n a sit$ation !"ere t"e state is 0ot" t"e dominant economic actor and largest
so$rce o em#lo%ment4 and !"ere economic c"oices are "ig"l% #oliticised4 ci)il
societ% oten #ro)ides t"e onl% c"ec6 on t"e $ntrammelled #o!er o t"e eJec$ti)eF
/"is is4 "o!e)er4 ine)ita0l% a conrontational relations"i#F 'econdl%4 !e "a)e earlier
arg$ed t"at t"e notion o "$man sec$rit% "as im#acted $#on traditional notions o
national sec$rit%F /oda%4 non-state actors 0eneit rom closer in)ol)ement !it" t"e
local comm$nit% d$ring internal conlicts and "a)e greater #otential or local conlict
resol$tion t"an ot"er mec"anismsF Organisations s$c" as t"e (nternational 1ommittee
or t"e +ed 1ross4 OJam and ,edecins sans Fronti@res act as relie agencies !"en
go)ernments are $na0le or $n!illing to do soF .lse!"ere 2GOs4 s$c" as t"e inter-
religio$s co$ncils in 'ierra 7eone and
111
7i0eria and t"e 1omm$nit% o 'an .gidio4 acilitate negotiations 0et!een !arring
#artiesF (n man% instances t"ese entities $nction !it"o$t t"e constraints (and !it"o$t
t"e legal and ot"er #o!ers) o state instit$tionsF
1i)il societ%4 t"ereore4 incl$des #olitical #artiesN non-go)ernmental organisationsN
religio$s mo)ementsN academic comm$nitiesN t"e mediaN c$lt$ral comm$nitiesN trade
$nions4 etcF :e "a)e also "inted at a t"ird arg$ment or a role 0% ci)il societ% in
de)elo#ing co$ntriesF /"e ca#acit% constraints4 eJ#erienced 0% 0ot" national
go)ernments and intergo)ernmental organisations4 "a)e o#ened $# a )ie! t"at ci)il
societ% organisations can com#lement oicial str$ct$res adding ca#acit% !"ere t"ose
o mandated str$ct$res are lac6ingF /"eir #resence in t"e ield can 0e a )ital lin6 in
#ro)iding earl% !arnings or dealing !it" "$manitarian crisesF /"eir s#ecialised
6no!ledge and contacts can 0e im#ortant com#onents o t"e #ost-conlict #eace
0$ilding #rocessF /"e% can mediate 0et!een t"e #eace and sec$rit% $nctions o
intergo)ernmental organisations4 and t"e needs and !ants o local ci)ilian
#o#$lationsF /"e% can eJert a #ositi)e inl$ence on t"e restoration o a climate o
conidence or reconstr$ctionN and t"e% can 0ring additional eJ#ertise and
com#arati)e #ractices to 0ear in t"e #rocess o #olic% de)elo#ment4 monitoring and
re#ortageF 1i)il societ% is not a s$0stit$te or t"e state4 nor can it claims to 0e t"$s4
0$t is !ell #ositioned to #la% t!o cr$cial roles in relation to !ea6 states in AricaF
/"e irst is to a$gment t"e ca#acit% or de)elo#ment and sec$rit%F /"e second is 0%
"olding t"e go)ernment and leaders acco$nta0le to t"e citi5enr% in Arica4 !"ile
sim$ltaneo$sl% eJerting #ress$re in ca0inet oices and t"e 0oardrooms o t"e ric"
co$ntries to res#ond to t"e s#ecial needs o de)elo#ing co$ntriesF
112
Re'erence
1F Allison4 Gra"am /F ErF and -esc"el4 +o0ert *F ErF 1==2F L1an t"e United
'tates *romote Democrac%RL *olitical 'cience Y$arterl%4 1D74 14 '#ringF
2F At6inson4 DoreenF 1==2F 'tate and 1i)il 'ociet% in Fl$JK *arameters o a
1"anging De0ateF /"eoria4 ,a%4 ##F 1-28F
3F -ates4 +o0ertF 1==2F 'ocial Dilemmas and +ational (ndi)id$alsK An .ssa%
on t"e 2e! (nstit$tionalismF D$6e Uni)ersit% *rogram in *olitical
.conom%4 :or6ing *a#er4 2oF 1644 A#rilF
4F -endiJ4 +ein"ard4 Eo"n -endiJ4 and 2orman F$rnissF 1=87F L+elections
on ,odern :estern 'tates and 1i)il 'ocietiesFL +esearc" in *olitical
'ociolog%F EA( *ress (ncF4 8ol$me 34 ##F 1-38F
5F -lair4 &arr%F 1==3aF Doing Democrac% in t"e /"ird :orldK De)elo#ing an
A##lied /"eor% o 1i)il 'ociet%F A #a#er or t"e Ann$al ,eeting o t"e
American *olitical 'cience AssociationF :as"ington DF1F4 2-5 'e#tem0erF
6F -lair4 &arr%F 1==30F 1i)il 'ociet% and Democratic De)elo#mentK A 1D(.
.)al$ation *a#erFL :as"ingtonK U'A(D4 *O791D(.9.9*OA4 2o)em0er =F
7F -o00io4 2or0ertoF 1=88F Gramsci and t"e 1once#t o 1i)il 'ociet% in
;eane4 73-1DDF
113
8F -ronisla!4 Germe6F 1==2F 1i)il 'ociet%K /"en and 2o!F Eo$rnal o
Democrac%4 34 24 3-12F
=F -ro!n4 7F Da)id and ;orten4 Da)idF 1=8=F L/"e +ole o 8ol$ntar%
Organi5ations in De)elo#mentFL -oston4 (nstit$te or De)elo#ment
+esearc"4 1once#t *a#er #re#ared or t"e :orld -an6F 1lar64 Eo"nF 1==1F
Democrati5ing De)elo#mentK /"e +ole o 8ol$ntar% Organi5ationsF :est
&artordK ;$marian *ressF
1DF 1o"en4 Eean 7F and Arato4 Andre!F 1==3F 1i)il 'ociet% and *olitical
/"eor%F 1am0ridge4 ,FAFK ,F(F/F *ressF
11F 1o"en4 Eos"$a and +ogers4 EoelF 1==2F L'econdar% Association and
Democratic Go)ernanceFL *olitics and 'ociet%4 2D4 4 Decem0er4 3=3-472F
12F 1oleman4 EamesF 1=88F L'ocial 1a#ital and t"e 1reation o &$man
1a#italFL American Eo$rnal o 'ociolog%4 =4 (s$##lement)4 =5-12DF
13F De7$e4 'te)en ,F 1==2F L2ationalism and t"e (dea o a 7i0eral 1i)il
'ociet%FL &istor% o .$ro#ean (deas4 )olF 154 4D64 483-4=DF
14F .)ans4 *eter4 Dietric" +$esc"eme%er4 and /"eda '6oc#olF 1=85F -ringing
t"e 'tate -ac6 (nF 2e! 3or6K 1am0ridge Uni)ersit% *ressF
15F Fran6s4 1F.F'F 1=8=F Dissent and t"e 'tateF /orontoK OJord Uni)ersit%
*ressF
16F Gellner4 .rnestF 1==1F L1i)il 'ociet% in &istorical 1onteJtFL (nternational
'ocial 'cience Eo$rnal4 '#ring4 4=5-51DF
17F &a0ermas4 E$rgenF 1=78F L7egitimation *ro0lems in t"e ,odern 'tateL in
1omm$nication and t"e .)ol$tion o 'ociet% (/ransF /"omas ,c1art"%)F
-ostonK -eacon *ress4 178-2D5F
18F &a)el4 8acla)4 etF alF 1=85F /"e *o!er o t"e *o!erlessF 2e! 3or6K ,F.F
'"ar#eF
1=F &a)el4 8acla)F 1=88F LAnti-*olitical *oliticsL in ;eane4 381-3=8F
2DF &irsc"man4 Al0ert OF 1=78F L.Jit4 8oice and t"e 'tateFL :orld *olitics4 2=4
14 =D-1D7F
114
21F &oare4 Y$intin and Geore%4 2o!ell 'mit"F (edsF) 1=71F 'elections rom
t"e *rison 2ote0oo6s o Antonio GramsciF 2e! 3or6K (nternational
*$0lis"ersF
22F &o##le4 Gerald :F and &$s0ands4 Eo 7F 1==1F Assessing *rogress /o!ard
Democrac%K '$mmar% +e#ort o a :or6s"o#F :as"ingtonF DF1FK 2ational
Academ% *ressF
23F ;eane4 Eo"n (edF)F 1=88F 1i)il 'ociet% and t"e 'tateF 7ondonK 8ersoF
24F ;orten4 Da)id 1F 1==DF Getting to t"e 21st 1ent$r%K 8ol$ntar% Action and
t"e Glo0al AgendaF :est &artordK ;$marian *ressF
25F ,igdal4 EoelF 1=88F 'trong 'ocieties and :ea6 'tatesK 'tate-'ociet%
+elations and 'tate 1a#a0ilities in t"e /"ird :orldF *rinceton 2FEFK
*rinceton Uni)ersit% *ressF
26F ,igdal4 Eoel4 At$l ;o"li4 and 8i)ienne '"$eF ort"coming4 1==4F 'tate
*o!er and 'ocial ForcesK 'tr$ggles and AccommodationF 1am0ridge ,FAFK
1am0ridge Uni)ersit% *ressF
27F ,inear4 7arr%F 1=87F L/"e Ot"er ,issions o 2GOsK .d$cation and
Ad)ocac%FL :orld De)elo#ment4 15 (s$##lement) 2D1-211F
28F 2elson4 Eoan and .glington4 'te#"anie EF 1==2F L.nco$raging Democrac%K
:"at +ole or 1onditioned AidRL *olic% .ssa% 2oF4F :as"ington4 DF1FK
O)erseas De)elo#ment 1o$ncilF
2=F 2ordlinger4 .ricF 1=87F L/a6ing t"e 'tate 'erio$sl%4L in ,%ron :iener and
'am$el &$ntington (edsF)4 Understanding *olitical De)elo#mentF -ostonK
7ittle -ro!n and 1om#an%F
3DF Ostrom4 .linorF 1==DF Go)erning t"e 1ommonsK /"e .)ol$tion o
(nstit$tions or 1ollecti)e ActionF 1am0ridge ,FAFK 1am0ridge Uni)ersit%
*ressF
31F *$tnam4 +o0ertF 1==3F ,a6ing Democrac% :or6K 1i)ic /raditions in
,odern (tal%F
*rinceton 2FEFK *rinceton Uni)ersit% *ress4
32F +o0erts4 -radF (ed)F 1==DF /"e 2e! DemocraciesK Glo0al 1"ange and UF'F
*olic%4 A :as"ington Y$arterl% +eaderF 1am0ridge4 ,FAFK /"e ,(/ *ressF
115
33F 'alamini4 7eonardoF 1=81F /"e 'ociolog% o *olitical *raJisK An
(ntrod$ction to GramsciIs /"eor%F 7ondonK +o$tledge and ;egan *a$lF
34F 'c"mitter4 *"illi#e 1F 1==2F L/"e 1onsolidation o Democrac% and
+e#resentation o 'ocial Gro$#sFL American -e"a)ioral 'cientist4 )olF 354
nosF 4-54 422-44=F
35F 'orenson4 GeorgF 1==3F Democrac% and Democrati5ationF -o$lder 1FOFK
:est)ie! *ress4 1==3F
36F /andon4 +aMes"F 1==1F L/"e 'tate4 1i)il 'ociet%4 and t"e +ole o 2GOsFL
-oston and 2e! Del"i4 (nstit$te or De)elo#ment +esearc"9'ociet% or
*artici#ator% +esearc" in Asia4 drat #a#er4 A$g$stF
37F United 'tates Agenc% or (nternational De)elo#mentF 1==DF /"e
Democrac% (nitiati)eF :as"ington4 DF1FK U'A(D4 Decem0erF
38F United 'tates Agenc% or (nternational De)elo#mentF 1==1F LDemocrac%
and Go)ernanceK U'A(D *olic%FL :as"ington4 DF1FK U'A(D4 2o)em0erF
3=F United 'tates Agenc% or (nternational De)elo#mentF 1==3aF LU'A(D
'trateg% *a#ersL (Drat)F :as"ington4 DF1FK U'A(D4 7*A re)ision4 Octo0er
5F
4DF United 'tates Agenc% or (nternational De)elo#mentF 1==30F LDemocrac%K
Drat G$idelinesFL :as"ington4 DF1FK U'A(D4 drat #a#er4 Decem0er 3F
41F :al5er4 ,ic"aelF 1==1F L/"e (dea o 1i)il 'ociet%FL Dissent4 '#ring4 ##F
2=3-3D4F
42F :ilda)s6%4 AaronF 1==2F L1an 1$lt$ral /"eor% 1ontri0$te to
Understanding and *romoting Democrac%4 'cience and De)elo#mentRL
*a#er #resented at an (nternational 1onerence on 1$lt$re and
De)elo#ment in Arica4 A#ril 2 and 34 :orld -an64 :as"ington DF1F
43F :ise0erg4 7a$rie 'F 1==3F LDeending &$man +ig"ts DeendersK /"e
(m#ortance o reedom o Association or &$man +ig"ts 2GOsFL .ssa%s
on &$man +ig"ts and Democratic De)elo#ment4 2oF34 1entre or &$man
+ig"ts and Democratic De)elo#mentF
44F :ole4 AlanF 1=8=F :"ose ;ee#erR 'ocial 'cience and ,oral O0ligationF
-er6ele%K Uni)ersit% o 1aliornia *ressF
116
45F :ood4 .llen ,ei6sinsF 1==DF L/"e Uses and A0$ses o I1i)il 'ociet%IL in
+al#" ,ili0and4 7eo *anitc"4 and Eo"n 'a)ille (edsF) 'ocialist +egister4
1==DF 7ondonK ,erlin *ressF :orld -an64 1==DF :orld De)elo#ment
+e#ort4 1==DK *o)ert%F :as"ington DF1F4 /"e :orld -an6F
46F :$t"no!4 +o0ert (ed)F -et!een 'tates and ,ar6etsK /"e 8ol$ntar% 'ector
in 1om#arati)e *ers#ecti)eF *rinceton4 2FEFK *rinceton Uni)ersit% *ressF
47F 3o$ng4 DennisF 1==2F LOrgani5ing *rinci#les or (nternational Ad)ocac%
AssociationsFL 8ol$ntas4 14 1==24 1-28F
48F Annis4 '"eldonF 1=87F 1an 'mall-'cale De)elo#ment 0e a 7arge -'cale
*olic%R /"e 1ase o 7atin AmericaF :orld De)elo#ment (s$##lement)4 154
12=-134F
4=F As"e4 GartonF 1==DF /"e ,agic 7anternK /"e +e)ol$tion o I8= :itnessed
in :arsa!4 -$da#est4 -erlin4 and *rag$eF 2e! 3or6K +andom &o$seF
5DF -ar6an4 EoelF 1==DF L2$rt$ring 1i)il 'ociet% rom -elo!K 7ocal 8ol$ntar%
Associations and 'tate +es#onse in Arica and 'o$t" AsiaFL *a#er
#resented at t"e 33rd Ann$al ,eeting o t"e Arican 't$dies Association4
-altimore4 ,ar%land4 2o)em0erF
51F -erg4 +o0ert FF 1=87F 2on Go)ernmental Organi5ationsK 2e! Force in
/"ird :orld De)elo#ment and *oliticsF .ast 7ansingK ,ic"igan 'tate
Uni)ersit%4 1enter or Ad)anced 't$d% in (nternational De)elo#mentF
52F -ianc"i4 +o0ertF 1=88F L(nterest Gro$# *olitics in t"e /"ird :orldL in
7o$is EF 1antori and Andre! &F Ceigler (edsF) 1om#arati)e *olitics in t"e
*ost--e"a)ioral .raF -o$lder 1FOK 7%nne +ienner *ress4 2D3-22=F
53F 1arroll4 /"omas FF 1==2F (ntermediar% 2GOsK /"e '$##orting 7in6 in
Grassroots De)elo#mentF :est &artordK ;$marian *ressF
54F De Ean)r%4 Alain and 'ado$let4 .lisa0et"F 1==3F L,ar6et4 'tate and 1i)il
Organi5ation in 7atin America -e%ond t"e De0t 1risis4 /"e 1onteJt or
+$ral De)elo#mentFL :orld De)elo#ment4 214 44 65=-674F
55F De 'oto4 &ernandoF 1=8=F /"e Ot"er *at"K /"e (n)isi0le +e)ol$tion in t"e
/"ird :orldF 2e! 3or6K &ar#er and +o!F
56F Diamond4 7arr%F 1==2cF L(ntrod$ctionK 1i)il 'ociet% and t"e 'tr$ggle or
Democrac%4L in 7arr% Diamond4 edF4 /"e Democratic +e)ol$tionK 'tr$ggles
117
or Freedom and Democrac% in t"e De)elo#ing :orldF 2e! 3or6K Freedom
&o$se4 1-27F
57F .c6stein4 '$sanF 1=8=F *o!er and *o#$lar *rotestK 7atin American 'ocial
,o)ementsF -er6ele%K Uni)ersit% o 1aliornia *ressF
58F .t5ioni4 AmitaiF 1==DF /"e ,oral DimensionK /o!ards a 2e! .conomicsF
2e! 3or6K /"e Free *ressF
5=F Fo!ler4 Alan4 *eter 1am#0ell4 and -rian *lattF 1==2F L(nstit$tional
De)elo#ment and 2ongo)ernmental in AricaK *olic% *ers#ecti)es or
.$ro#eFL De)elo#ment Agencies4 (2/+A1 2GO ,anagement 'eries4 2oF
1F
6DF Gold4 /"omas -F 1==DF L/"e +es$rgence o 1i)il 'ociet% in 1"inaFL
Eo$rnal o Democrac%4 14 14 18-31F
61F G$stason4 /"aneF 1=8=F L1i)il 'ociet% in t"e 'o)iet UnionL in 'O8'./
2e!s4 /"e .conomic 2e!sletter o 'o)iet 't$dies4 54 Octo0er 2F
62F ;enned%4 ,ic"ael DF 1==1F *roessionals4 *o!er and 'olidarit% in *olandK
A 1ritical 'ociolog% o 'o)iet /%#e 'ocietiesF 1am0ridge ,FAFK
1am0ridge Uni)ersit% *ressF
63F ,acDonald4 7a$raF 1==2F L/$rning to t"e 2GOsK 1om#eting 1once#tions
o t"e 1i)il 'ociet% in 7atin AmericaFL *a#er #resented to t"e Ann$al
,eeting o t"e 7atin American 't$dies Association4 7os Angeles4 24-27
'e#tem0erF
64F ,ain!aring4 'cott and 8iola4 .d$ardoF 1=84F L2e! 'ocial ,o)ements4
*olitical 1$lt$re4 and Democrac%K -ra5il and Argentina in t"e 1=8DsFL
/elos4 614 17-51F
65F *elc5%ns6i4 CFAF 1=88F L'olidarit% and /"e +e0irt" o 1i)il 'ociet% in
*oland4 1=76-1=81L in ;eane4 361-38DF
66F +a$4 C0ignie!F 1==1F L(ntrod$ction4L to /"e +eemergence o 1i)il 'ociet%
in .astern .$ro#e and t"e 'o)iet UnionF -o$lder 1FOFK :est)ie! *ressF
67F +a$sser4 Gordon4 and Eo"nson4 'F+F 1==3F L'tate-,ar6et-1i)il (nstit$tionsK
/"e 1ase o .astern .$ro#e and t"e 'o)iet +e#$0licsFL :orld
De)elo#ment4 214 44 675-68=F
118
68F 'amir4 AminF 1==DF L/"e (ss$e o Democrati5ation in t"e 1ontem#orar%
/"ird :orldFL *a#er #resented at a 1OD.'+(A s%m#osi$m on Academic
FreedomK +esearc" and t"e 'ocial +es#onsi0ilit% o t"e (ntellect$al in
Arica4L ;am#ala4 Uganda4 2o)em0erF
6=F '"$e4 8i)ienneF 1==DF L'tate 'ocialism and ,oderni5ation in 1"inaK
/"ro$g" /"ic6 and /"inFL *a#er #resented at a s%m#osi$m on 'tate *o!er
and 'ocial ForcesK Domination and /ransormation in t"e /"ird :orld at
t"e Uni)ersit% o /eJas4 A$stin4 Fe0r$ar%F
7DF '5elen%i4 ()anF 1=88F 'ocialist .ntre#rene$rsK .m0o$rgeoisement in +$ral
&$ngar%F ,adison :F(FK Uni)ersit% o :isconsin *ressF
71F /"om#son4 Andres AF 1=8=F L/"e 8ol$ntar% 'ector in /ransitionK /"e 1ase
o ArgentinaFL GAD('4 2oF 4F
72F U#"o4 2ormanF 1==3aF 7earning rom Gal O%aK *ossi0ilities or
*artici#ator% De)elo#ment and *ost-2e!tonian 'ocial 'cienceF (t"aca4
2F3FK 1ornell Uni)ersit% *ressF
73F U#"o4 2ormanF 1==30F LGrassroots Organi5ations and 2GOs in +$ral
De)elo#mentK O##ort$nities !it" Diminis"ing 'tates and .J#anding
,ar6etsFL :orld De)elo#ment4 214 44 6D7-622F
74F :orld -an6F 1==3F :orld De)elo#ment +e#ort4 1==3F 2e! 3or6K OJord
Uni)ersit% *ressF
75F 3o$ng4 ,alcolm4 Gerardo -ert"in4 and Eoel E$t6o)it5F 1==3F LA *lan or
t"e Assessment o AF(FDFIs 1i)il 'ociet% '$##ort in t"e Dominican
+e#$0licK 1=65-*resentFL Arlington4 8FAFK De)elo#ment Associates4
A$g$stF
76F Arican 1"arter or *o#$lar *artici#ation in De)elo#ment and
/ransormationF 1==DF Ar$s"a4 /an5ania4 (nternational 1onerence on
*o#$lar *artici#ation in t"e +eco)er% and De)elo#ment *rocess in Arica4
Fe0r$ar%F
77F Ag0aMe4 Adig$nF 1==2F L(n 'earc" o -$ilding -loc6sK /"e 'tate4 1i)il
'ociet%4 8ol$ntar% Action and Grassroots De)elo#ment in AricaFL Arica
Y$arterl%4 3D4 3-44 24-4DF
11=
78F -ar6an4 EoelF 1==1F L/"e +ise and Fall o a Go)ernance +ealm in ;en%a4L
in Goran &%den and ,ic"ael -ratton (edsF) Go)ernance and *olitics in
AricaF -o$lder 1FOFK 7%nne +ienner *ress4 167-1=2F
7=F -ar6an4 EoelF 1==DF L+es$rrecting ,oderni5ation /"eor% and t"e
.mergence o 1i)il 'ociet% in ;en%a and 2igeriaFL A #reliminar% drat o
an essa% #re#ared or incl$sion in a #ost"$mo$s estsc"rit in "onor o
Eames 'F 1oleman4 Untitled4 edited 0% Da)id .F A#ter and 1arl +F
+osen0ergF
8DF -ates4 +o0ertF 1=71F Unions4 *arties and *olitical De)elo#mentK A 't$d% o
,ine!or6ers in Cam0iaF 2e! &a)enK 3ale Uni)ersit% *ressF
81F -a%art4 Eean-FrancoisF 1=86F L1i)il 'ociet% in AricaL in 1"a0al4 *atric6F
(edF) *olitical Domination in AricaF 2e! 3or6K 1am0ridge Uni)ersit%
*ressF
82F -a%art4 Eean-FrancoisF 1==3F /"e 'tate in AricaK /"e *olitics o t"e -ell%F
2e! 3or6K 7ongmanF
83F -ratton4 ,ic"aelF 1=8=F L-e%ond t"e 'tateK 1i)il 'ociet% and Associational
7ie in AricaFL :orld *olitics4 414 34 4D7-43DF
84F -ratton4 ,ic"aelF 1==DF L.na0ling t"e 8ol$ntar% 'ector in AricaK /"e
*olic% 1onteJtL in +ic"ard Eose#" (edF) Arican Go)ernance in t"e 1==DsF
Atlanta GFAFK /"e 1arter 1enter4 1D4-113F
85F -ratton4 ,ic"aelF 1==2F L1i)il 'ociet% and *olitical /ransition in AricaK
;en%a and Cam0ia 1om#aredFL *a#er #re#ared or a 1onerence on 1i)il
'ociet% in Arica at t"e &arr% 'F /r$man (nstit$te or (nternational *eace4
&e0re! Uni)ersit% o Eer$salem4 (srael4 Ean$ar% 1==2F
86F -ratton4 ,ic"aelF ort"coming 1==4F L,icro-Democrac%R /"e ,erger o
Farmer Unions in Cim0a0!eFL Arican 't$dies +e)ie!4 374 1F
87F -ratton4 ,ic"ael and 7iatto-;at$nd$4 -eatriceF 1==3F L-aseline 't$d%K
-eneiciar% *roileFL +e#ort on a national sam#le s$r)e% o #olitical
attit$des #re#ared or U'A(D9Cam0ia4 Octo0erF
88F -ratton4 ,ic"ael and )an de :alle4 2icolasF 1==2F L*o#$lar *rotest and
*olitical +eorm in AricaFL 1om#arati)e *olitics4 244 44 41=-442F
12D
8=F -ratton4 ,ic"ael and )an de :alle4 2icolasF 1==3F L+egime /%#es and
*olitical /ransitions in AricaFL ,'U :or6ing *a#ers on *olitical +eorm
in Arica4 2oF14 ,a%F
=DF 1allag"%4 /"omasF ort"coming 1==4F L1i)il 'ociet%4 Democrac% and
.conomic 1"ange in AricaK A Dissenting O#inion a0o$t +es$rgent
'ocietiesFL 1i)il 'ociet% and t"e 'tate in Arica4 edF 0% Eo"n :F &ar0eson4
Donald +ot"c"ild4 and 2aomi 1"a5anF -o$lder 1FOFK 7%nne +ienner *ressF
=1F 1"arlic64 +o0ertF 1==2F L/"e 1once#t o Go)ernance and (ts (m#lications
or AF(FDFIs De)elo#ment Assistance *rogram in AricaFL :as"ington DF1FK
Associates in +$ral De)elo#ment4 E$neF
=2F 1"a5an4 2aomiF 1=82F L/"e 2e! *olitics o *artici#ation in /ro#ical
AricaFL 1om#arati)e *olitics4 144 24 16=-8=F
=3F 1"a5an4 2aomiF 1==DaF L.ngaging t"e 'tateK Associational 7ie in '$0-
'a"aran AricaFL *a#er #resented at a s%m#osi$m on 'tate *o!er and
'ocial ForcesK Domination and /ransormation in t"e /"ird :orld at t"e
Uni)ersit% o /eJas4 A$stin
=4F 1"a5an4 2aomiF 1==2F LAricaIs Democratic 1"allengeK 'trengt"ening 1i)il
'ociet% and t"e 'tateFL :orld *olic% Eo$rnal4 =4 24 27=-3D7F
=5F 1"e#6!on%4 AgnesF 1=87F L/"e +ole o 2on-Go)ernmental Organi5ations
in De)elo#mentK A 't$d% o t"e 2ational 1"ristian 1o$ncil o ;en%a
(211;)4 1=63 -1=78FL U##sala4 't$dia ,issionalia U##saliensia4 Z7(((4
3=1 ##F
=6F Diamond4 7arr%4 7in5 E$an4 and ,artin 7i#set 'e%mo$r (edsF)F 1=88F
Democrac% in De)elo#ing 1o$ntriesK AricaF -o$lder 1FOFK 7%nne +ienner
*ress4 8ol$me ((F
=7F .6e"4 *eterF 1=75F L1olonialism and t"e /!o *$0lics in AricaK A
/"eoretical 'tatementFL 1om#arati)e 't$dies in 'ociet% and &istor%4 174 14
=1-112F
=8F .sman4 EF ,ilton and U#"o4 2orman /F 1=84F 7ocal Organi5ationsK
(ntermediaries in +$ral De)elo#mentF (t"aca 2F3FK 1ornell Uni)ersit%
*ressF
121
==F Fatton4 +o0ertF 1==2F *redator% +$leK 'tate and 1i)il 'ociet% in AricaF
Al0an%4 2F3FK 'tate o 2e! 3or6 Uni)ersit% *ressF
1DDF Fine4 +o0ertF 1==2F L1i)il 'ociet% /"eor% and t"e *olitics o /ransition
'o$t" AricaFL +e)ie! o Arican *olitical .conom%4 2o)em0er4 71-83F
1D1F FoJ4 7eslie ,F 1==3F LAn Assessment o U' *8Os and Arican 2GOsK
/"eir *otential For An (ncreased +ole (n t"e *romotion o Arican 1i)il
'ociet%FL *a#er #re#ared or Associates in +$ral De)elo#ment and
,anagement '%stems (nternational $nder t"e U'A(D Arica -$rea$
Democrac% and Go)ernance *rogramF
1D2F Ge0r$4 ,ers"aF 1==DF L/"e 'tate and 1i)il 'ociet% !it" '#ecial +eerence
to .t"io#iaFL *a#er #re#ared or t"e 1o$ncil or t"e De)elo#ment o
.conomic and 'ocial +esearc" in Arica (1OD.'+(A) '%m#osi$m on
Academic Freedom +esearc" and t"e 'ocial +es#onsi0ilit% o t"e
(ntellect$al in Arica4 26-2= 2o)em0er 1==D4 ;am#ala4 UgandaF
1D3F Gert5el4 1"err%F 1=75F L7a0o$r and t"e 'tateK /"e 1ase o t"e Cam0ia
,ine!or6ersI UnionFL Eo$rnal o 1ommon!ealt" and 1om#arati)e
*olitics4 134 44 (2o)em0er)F
1D4F &ar0eson4 Eo"n :F 1==4F L1i)il 'ociet% and *olitical +enaissance in
AricaFL 1i)il 'ociet% and t"e 'tate in Arica4 edF Eo"n :F &ar0eson4
Donald +ot"c"ild4 and 2aomi 1"a5anF -o$lder 1FOFK 7%nne +ienner *ressF
1D5F &ar0eson4 Eo"n :F4 Donald +ot"c"ild4 and 2aomi 1"a5an (edsF)F 1==4F
1i)il 'ociet% and t"e 'tate in AricaF -o$lder 1FOFK 7%nne +ienner *ressF
1D6F &eale%4 Eo"nF ,F 1==3F L-ots!ana4 A 't$d% in *olitical Acco$nta0ilit%L
(drat)F 7ondonK O)erseas De)elo#ment (nstit$teF
1D7F &olm4 Eo"n DF 1=8=F L(nterest Gro$#s4L in Democrac% in -ots!ana4 edF 0%
Eo"n DF &olm and *atric6 *F ,ol$tsiF At"ens OF&FK O"io Uni)ersit% *ressF
1D8F &olm4 Eo"n DF 1==1F L1i)il 'ociet% and Democrac%K +elections on
-ots!anaIs .J#erienceFL Annee AricaineF
1D=F &olm4 Eo"n DF and *atric6 *F ,ol$tsiF 1==2F L'tate and 'ociet% +elations
in -ots!anaK -eginning 7i0erali5ation4L in Goran &%den and ,ic"ael
-ratton (edsF) Go)ernance and *olitics in AricaF -o$lder 1FOFK 7%nne
+ienner *ress4 75-=5F
122
11DF &%den4 GoranF 1==2F LGo)ernance and t"e 't$d% o *oliticsFL in Goran
&%den and ,ic"ael -ratton (edsF) Go)ernance and *olitics in AricaF
-o$lder 1FOFK 7%nne +ienner *ress4 1-26F
111F &%den4 GoranF 1==3F LFrom -argaining to ,ar6etingK &o! to +eorm
Foreign Aid in t"e 1==DsFL ,'U :or6ing *a#ers on *olitical +eorm in
Arica4 2oF6F .ast 7ansing ,F(FK ,ic"igan 'tate Uni)ersit%F
112F Eose#"4 +ic"ardF 1==DF L*olitical +ene!al in '$0-'a"aran AricaK /"e
1"allenge o t"e 1==Ds4L in t"e 1arter 1enter4 Arican Go)ernance in t"e
1==DsF Atlanta GFAFK /"e 1arter 1enterF
113F ;asir4 2elsonF 1=84F 'tate and 1lass in AricaF 7ondonK Fran6 1assF
114F ;ilson4 ,artinF 1==3F LA$tocrac%4 1i)il 'ociet% and Democrati5ation in
Arican 'tatesFL *raJis4
115F ;$n54 Fran6 AF 1==1F L7i0erali5ation in AricaK 'ome *reliminar%
+electionsFL Arican Aairs4 =D4 223-235F
116F 7andell-,ills4 *ierre .F 1==2F LGo)ernance4 1$lt$ral 1"ange4 and
.m#o!ermentFL Eo$rnal o ,odern Arican 't$dies4 3D4 2 (E$ne)4 543-567F
117F 7emarc"and4 +eneF 1==2F LUnci)il 'tates and 1i)il 'ocietiesK &o! (ll$sion
-ecame +ealit%FL Eo$rnal o ,odern Arican 't$dies4 3D4 2 (E$ne)4 ##F 177-
1=2F
118F 7e!is4 *eter ,F 1==2F L*olitical /ransition and t"e Dilemma o 1i)il
'ociet% in AricaFL Eo$rnal o (nternational Aairs4 464 1 ('$mmer)F
11=F 7$ng$4 Gatian FF 1=86F L/"e 1"$rc"4 7a0o$r4 and t"e *ress in Cam0iaK /"e
+ole o 1ritical O0ser)ers in a One-*art% 'tateFL Arican Aairs4 854 34D
(E$l%)F
12DF ,acGae%4 EanetF 1=87F .ntre#rene$rs and *arasitesK /"e 'tr$ggle or
(ndigeno$s 1a#italism in CaireF 2e! 3or6K 1am0ridge Uni)ersit% *ressF
121F ,onga4 1elestineF 1==3F L/"e +$les o t"e Game in Arican *olitical
,ar6etsFL .Jtracts rom Ant"ro#olog%4 1i)il 'ociet% and Demogra#"% in
Arica4 $n#$0lis"ed man$scri#tF
122F ,e%ns4 *eterF 1==2F L1i)il 'ociet% and Democrati5ation in AricaF
Disc$ssion #a#er #re#ared or t"e 'o$t"ern Arica '$mmer 'c"ool 1==19=2
123
on 2ational Unit% and Democratic /ransition in 'o$t"ern Arica4L &arare4
Ean$ar%9Fe0r$ar% 1==2F
123F ,ol$tsi4 *atric6 and &olm4 Eo"n DF 1==1F LDe)elo#ing Democrac% :"en
1i)il 'ociet% is :ea6K /"e 1ase o -ots!anaFL Arican Aairs4 8= (E$l%)4
##F 323-34DF
124F 2ational 1o$ncil o 1"$rc"es o ;en%aF 1=84F A +e#ort on t"e 1"$rc"Is
(n)ol)ement in De)elo#mentF 2airo0i4 211;F 2ational +esearc" 1o$ncilF
1==2F Democrati5ation in AricaK Arican 8ie!s4 Arican 8oicesF
:as"ington DF1FK 2ational Academ% *ressF
125F 2!an6o4 1lementF 1==2F L/"e 1i)il 7i0erties Organi5ation and t"e
'tr$ggle or &$man +ig"ts and Democrac% in 2igeriaL in 7arr% Diamond
(edF) /"e Democratic +e)ol$tionF 2e! 3or6K Freedom &o$seF
126F O6$ll$4 &enr%F 1=85F 1"$rc" and *olitics in .ast AricaF 2airo0iK U5ima
*ressF Ol$6os"i4 Ade0a%o OF 1==DF LAssociational 7ie D$ring t"e
2igerian /ransition to 1i)ilian +$leFL Un#$0lis"ed man$scri#tF
127F +a6er4 7iseF 1==2F L/rade Unions in t"e *rocess o Democrati5ationK A
't$d% o *art% 7a0or +elations in Cam0iaFL Oslo4 2or!a%K ,ic"elson
(nstit$te De#artment o 'ocial 'cience and De)elo#mentF
128F +ot"c"ild4 Donald and 1"a5an4 2aomi (edsF)F 1=88F /"e *recario$s
-alanceK 'tate and 'ociet% in AricaF -o$lder 1FOFK 7%nne +ienner *ressF
12=F 'and0erg4 .)eF ort"coming 1==4F /"e 1"anging *olitics o 2GOs and t"e
Arican 'tateF 2e! 3or6K *raegerF
13DF '"a!4 /imot"% ,F 1==DF L*o#$lar *artici#ation in 2on-Go)ernmental
'tr$ct$res in AricaK (m#lications or Democratic De)elo#ment in AricaFL
Arica /oda%4 374 34 5-22F
131F '6alnes4 1==3F L/"e 'tate4 (nterest Gro$#s and 'tr$ct$ral AdM$stment in
Cim0a0!eFL /"e Eo$rnal o De)elo#ment 't$dies4 2=4 34 4D1-428F
132F 8i)ian4 Eessica ,F 1==3F L2ongo)ernmental Organi5ations4 (nstit$tional
+eorm and +$ral De)elo#mentK Findings rom Cim0a0!eFL Gene)a4
'!it5erlandK United 2ations +esearc" (nstit$te on 'ocial De)elo#ment4
drat #a#erF
124
133F :idner4 Eennier and *$tnam4 +o0ertF 1==3F 't$d%ing Associational 7ie4
Go)ernmental .ecti)eness and .conomic De)elo#ment in AricaF
1am0ridgeK &ar)ard Uni)ersit%4 drat #a#erF
134F :oods4 D!a%neF 1==2F L1i)il 'ociet% in .$ro#e and AricaK 7imiting 'tate
*o!er t"ro$g" a *$0lic '#"ereFL Arican 't$dies +e)ie!4 354 24 77-1DDF
135F 1ot$la4 7oren5o4 'onMa 8erme$len4 +e0eca 7eonard4 and Eames ;eele%
(2DD=)F 7and gra0 or de)elo#ment o##ort$nit%R +omeK FAO4 ((.D4 and
(FADF
136F Dinar4 Ariel4 +as"id &assan4 +o0ert ,endelso"n4 Eames -en"in et alF
(2DD8)F 1limate 1"ange and Agric$lt$re in AricaK (m#act Assessment and
Ada#tation 'trategiesF 7ondonK .art"scanF 7ondonF
137F FAO (2DD7)F Gro$nd U#K A *.7U,9*'A #$0lication #romoting
s$staina0le comm$nit% de)elo#mentF 8olF 34 2oF 1=F 2o)em0erF (2DD5)F
GAricaK :"ate)er %o$ t"o$g"t4 t"in6 again4H in 2ational Geogra#"icF
'#ecial (ss$eF 'e#tem0erF
138F *a6 '$m 7o! (edF) (2DD5) 1limate 1"ange and AricaF 1am0ridgeK
1am0ridge Uni)ersit% *ressF
13=F +e#$0lic o Uganda (2DD7)F 1limate 1"angeK Ugandan 2ational
Ada#tation *rogrammes o ActionF ;am#alaF
125
126
Chapter3 6our
Human Security
and Civil Society
in ,ots-ana
127
Human Security and Civil Society in ,ots-ana
-ots!ana is a co$ntr% located in 'o$t"ern AricaF Geogra#"icall% t"e co$ntr%
is lat and $# to se)enteen #ercent o -ots!ana is co)ered 0% t"e ;ala"ari DesertF (t
is 0ordered 0% 'o$t" Arica to t"e so$t" and so$t"east4 2ami0ia to t"e !est and
nort"4 and Cim0a0!e to t"e nort"eastF (t meets Cam0ia at a single #ointF A small4
landloc6ed co$ntr% o M$st o)er t!o million #eo#le4 -ots!ana !as one o t"e #oorest
co$ntries in Arica at t"e time it gained inde#endence rom -ritain in 1=66F -ots!ana
"as transormed itsel4 mo)ing into t"e ran6s o middle-income stat$s to 0ecome one
o t"e astest gro!ing economies in t"e !orld !it" its a)erage ann$al gro!t" rate o
a0o$t nine #ercentF -ots!ana "as im#ressi)e trac6 record o good go)ernance and
economic gro!t" s$##orted 0% #r$dent macroeconomic and iscal managementF
:"ile ed$cation eJ#endit$re is "ig" at ten #ercent o gross domestic #rod$ct and
signiicant ed$cational ac"ie)ements "a)e 0een attained4 incl$ding t"e #ro)ision o
$ni)ersal and ree ed$cationF :"en t"e Union o 'o$t" Arica !as ormed in 1=1D
o$t o t"e main -ritis" colonies in t"e region4 t"e -ec"$analand
*rotectorate4 -as$toland and '!a5iland !ere not incl$ded4 0$t #ro)ision !as made
or t"eir later incor#orationF (n E$ne 1=644 -ritain acce#ted #ro#osals or a
democratic sel-go)ernment in -ots!anaF /"e seat o go)ernment !as mo)ed in
1=65 rom ,ai6eng in 'o$t" Arica4 to t"e ne!l% esta0lis"ed Ga0orone4 !"ic" sits
near its 0orderF /"e 1=65 constit$tion led to t"e irst general elections and to
inde#endence on 3D 'e#tem0er 1=66F 'eretse ;"ama4 a leader in t"e inde#endence
128
mo)ement and t"e legitimate claimant to t"e 2g!ato c"ies"i#4 !as elected as t"e
irst #residentF
/"e #olitics o -ots!ana ta6e #lace in a rame!or6 o a re#resentati)e
democratic re#$0lic4 !"ere0% t"e *resident o -ots!ana is 0ot" "ead o
state and "ead o go)ernmentF .Jec$ti)e #o!er is eJercised 0% t"e
go)ernmentF 7egislati)e #o!er is )ested in 0ot" t"e go)ernment and t"e *arliament
o -ots!anaF 'ince inde#endence !as declared4 t"e #art% s%stem "as 0een
dominated 0% t"e -ots!ana Democratic *art%F /"e M$diciar% is inde#endent o t"e
eJec$ti)e and t"e legislat$reF According to /rans#arenc% (nternational4 -ots!ana is
t"e least corr$#t co$ntr% in AricaF At t"e time o inde#endence -ots!ana "ad no
armed orcesF (t !as onl% ater attac6s rom t"e +"odesian and 'o$t" Arican armies
t"at t"e -ots!ana Deence Force !as ormed in sel-deence in 1=77F /"e #resident
is commander in c"ie and a##oints a deence co$ncilF
-ots!ana<s com#etiti)e 0an6ing s%stem is one o Arica<s most ad)ancedF Generall%
ad"ering to glo0al standards in t"e trans#arenc% o inancial #olicies and 0an6ing
s$#er)ision4 t"e inancial sector #ro)ides am#le access to credit or entre#rene$rs
F
-ots!anaIs main et"nic gro$#s are -ats!ana4 ;alanga4 -$s"men or A0a/"!a also
6no!n as -asar!aF Ot"er tri0es are -a%ei4 -am0$6$s"$4-as$0ia4 -a"erero and
-a6galagadiF Ot"er gro$#s o et"nicities in -ots!ana incl$de !"ites and (ndians4
0ot" gro$#s 0eing ro$g"l% e>$all% small in n$m0erF -ots!anaIs (ndian #o#$lation is
made $# o man% (ndian-Aricans o se)eral generations4 rom ,o5am0i>$e4 ;en%a4
/an5ania4 ,a$riti$s4 and 'o$t" Arica4 etcF as !ell as irst generation (ndian
immigrantsF /"e !"ite #o#$lation is nati)e to -ots!ana or rom ot"er #arts o Arica
incl$ding Cim0a0!e and 'o$t" AricaF /"e !"ite #o#$lation s#ea6s eit"er .nglis" or
Ari6aans and ma6es $# ro$g"l% t"ree #ercent o t"e #o#$lationF
Civil Society in ,ots-ana
1i)il 'ociet% in -ots!ana is emerging in a co$ntr% t"at "as done )er% !ell in terms
o socio-economic de)elo#ment and managementF -ots!ana is a small co$ntr% t"at
!as 0lessed !it" t"e disco)er% o diamondsF /"e go)ernment "as4 o)er t"e %ears4
$sed inances earned rom t"e diamond ind$str% to de)elo# t"e econom% and #ro)ide
a )ariet% o de)elo#mental and social ser)ices to its #eo#leF /"e co$ntr% "as also
ado#ted )er% good macroeconomic management #olicies !"ic" "a)e "el#ed
-ots!ana design and im#lement )ario$s inrastr$ct$ral and de)elo#ment #roMectsF
/"e co$ntr% 0oasts one o t"e longest s$r)i)ing democracies in all o Arica and also
"as a sta0le #olitical econom%F
12=
Des#ite s$c" strides4 ci)il societ% "as emerged in order to s$##lement t"e state<s
eorts in #ro)iding s$staina0le de)elo#ment4 social ser)ices and #rograms to its
#eo#leF /"e ci)il societ%4 in 0ot" de)elo#ed and de)elo#ing co$ntries4 "as emerged in
order to s$##lement t"e ail$res o t"e state to eecti)el% deli)er ser)ices and
de)elo#ment to all to its citi5enF (t is t"ro$g" t"e com#lementar% eorts o ci)il
societ% and interest gro$#s t"at good go)ernance can 0e #romotedF /"ese same
eorts also "el# to ens$re t"at go)ernment goods and ser)ices reac" t"e grassroots4
t"e #oor4 t"e marginali5ed4 t"e disad)antaged in societ%4 0ot" airl% and e>$ita0l%F
/"e state and ci)il societ% need to s$##lement and com#lement eac" ot"er<s eorts in
terms o t"e de)elo#mental and ser)ice deli)er% agendaF 1i)il societ% emerged in
Arica4 #artic$larl% in t"e 1=8Ds !"en international inancial instit$tions4 donor
agencies and :estern go)ernments s"ited some t"eir aid rom Arican go)ernments
to ci)il societ%F
2on-Go)ernmental Organi5ations no! #la% an im#ortant role in an% co$ntr%F 2on-
Go)ernmental Organisations #ro)ide an $m0rella o ser)ices incl$ding t"e #romotion
o e>$alit% and "$man rig"ts4 legal ser)ices4 ed$cation and training #rograms4 socio-
economic #olitical em#o!erment4 and em#lo%ment creation sc"emesF 1i)il societ%
contin$es to #la% an im#ortant role in an% de)elo#ed and de)elo#ing societ% 0eca$se
t"e% "el# citi5ens #artici#ate and inl$ence t"e decision ma6ing #rocess as !ell as t"e
management o #$0lic aairsF /"ro$g" ci)il societ%4 citi5ens too can ma6e an im#act
on t"e decision ma6ing #rocesses at 0ot" central and local go)ernment le)elsF
According to Diamond (1==4)4 ci)il societ% reers to t"e Orealm o organi5ed social
lie t"at is )ol$ntar%4 sel-generating4 sel s$##orting4 a$tonomo$s rom t"e state4 and
0o$nd 0% a legal order or set o s"ared r$lesF
According to 5aundeni 4&%%/94 ci)il societ% in -ots!ana is )er% !ea6 and
organi5ations $s$all% lo00% 0$rea$crac% rat"er t"an #oliticians as a res$ltF
F$rt"ermore4 5aundeni asserts t"at ci)il societ% is c"aracteri5ed 0% ad-"oc !a%s o
organi5ingF /"at is4 ci)il societ% organi5ations are tem#orar% in nat$re as t"e% address
#artic$lar iss$es in t"e societ% and t"en go into a state o declineF 1ekor-e 4!0009
also arg$es t"at Oci)il societ% in -ots!ana is !ea6 and lac6s t"e ca#acit% to organi5e
itsel<F 1ekor-e 4!0009 arg$es $rt"er t"at des#ite t"e act t"at -ots!ana "as 0$ilt a
s$ccess$l democrac%4 t"e ci)il societ% str$ct$res still remain !ea6F Democrac% is
0elie)ed to 0e one o t"e mec"anisms t"at #romotes and acilitates t"e gro!t" o a
strong ci)il societ%F As #ointed o$t 0% ,olomo and 'omole6ae4 Oit is an $ndis#$ta0le
act t"at democrac% is "ollo! and meaningless i not accom#anied 0% t"e eJistence o
a strong ci)il societ% see6ing to re#resent non-go)ernmental interests<F 7e6or!e
arg$es t"at one o t"e actors t"at im#ede t"e gro!t" o a strong ci)il societ% in
13D
-ots!ana is a s"ortage o citi5ens 6no!ledgea0le in t"e management o 2GOsF
F$rt"ermore4 7e6or!e arg$es t"at t"e act t"at t"ere are onl% a limited n$m0er o
)ol$nteers t"at r$n t"e aairs o 2GOs also "as an eect on t"eir de)elo#mentF /"ere
is also t"e iss$e o ade>$ate time a)aila0ilit%4 es#eciall% in terms o t"e #$0lic and
#ri)ate sector em#lo%ees !"o lend t"eir ser)ices and 6no!ledge to ci)il societ%F (n
addition4 7e6or!e maintains t"at t"e act t"at ci)il ser)ants are not #ermitted to
engage in lo00%ing and ot"er #olitical acti)ities act$all% "am#ers t"e de)elo#ment o
2GOs in t"e co$ntr%F /"e limited n$m0er o ed$cated indi)id$als !"o s$##ort and
acti)el% #artici#ate in t"e acti)ities o ci)il societ% also aects t"e gro!t" o 2GOs
and interest gro$#sF /"e act t"at t"e state controls t"e #$0lic media also "as an eect
on t"e de)elo#ment o ci)il societ% in -ots!anaF /"e so$rces o #$0lic media4 s$c"
as ne!s#a#ers4 radio and tele)ision4 !"ic" are accessed 0% t"e maMorit% o t"e
#o#$lation are controlled 0% t"e stateF /"is limits t"eir #otential $se and creates
0iased #$0lication regarding ci)il societ% iss$esF /"e 0iggest #ro0lem4 as noted 0%
&irsc"man4 is t"e attit$de o t"e #eo#le4 0eca$se t"e% 0elie)e t"at t"ere is no $se in
#$tting #ress$re on t"e state Osince no one is #re#ared to listen to t"emF
,ol$tsi arg$es t"at one o t"e actors contri0$ting to t"e !ea6nesses o ci)il societ%
is t"at t"e conce#t o non-go)ernmental organi5ations !as im#orted rom o$tside 0%
donor agencies in res#onse to t"e Arican statesF /"e str$ct$re o ci)il societ% is
in!ard loo6ing and less engaging !"en it comes to #olic% iss$esF (n some cases4
go)ernments in Arica s#ite ci)il societ% 0eca$se o t"e s%m#at"etic attention t"e%
recei)e rom international organi5ations and donor agenciesF F$rt"ermore4 donor
agencies "a)e oten a)o$red notVor-#roit organi5ations in order to generate
conrontational #olitics 0et!een ci)il societ% and Arican statesF &o!e)er4 7e6or!e
arg$es t"at some o t"e ci)il societ% and interest gro$#s in -ots!ana are mani#$lated
0% t"e go)ernment t"ro$g" state $ndingF 'ome o t"e ci)il societ% organi5ations are
t"ereore not a0le to o#enl% critici5e and c"allenge go)ernment 0eca$se o t"eir
de#endenc% on state $ndingF As #ointed o$t 0% ,olomo and 'omole6ae4 2GOs in
-ots!ana are more interested in !elare iss$es t"an iss$es relating to #olitics and
good go)ernanceF /"e reasoning 0e"ind t"is #ers#ecti)e is t"at t"e% ind s$c" matters
to 0e too #oliticalF For eJam#le4 c"$rc"es are more interested in moral and s#irit$al
iss$es t"an de)elo#mental iss$esF &o!e)er4 t"e a$t"ors $rt"er arg$e t"at t"ere are
ot"er 2GO sectors t"at ad)ocate or #olitical iss$es incl$ding iss$es dealing !it"
democrac%4 good go)ernance4 as !ell as legal4 constit$tional and "$man rig"tsF
.Jam#les incl$de !omen<s 2GOs !"ic" ad)ocate or t"e #romotion and
em#o!erment o !omen4 t"e #ro)ision o ed$cational o##ort$nities or sc"ool dro#
o$ts4 and o#erating da% care centres4 !"ile "$man rig"ts 2GOs ad)ocate or
democrac%4 good go)ernance4 in addition to legal and constit$tional rig"tsF
131
&o!e)er4 as noted 0% ,a$ndeni4 a lot "as "a##ened since 1==64 incl$ding socio-
economic and #olitical c"anges t"at "a)e occ$rred in -ots!anaF /"e ci)il societ% "as
0een transormed as !ell4 in terms o its str$ct$re4 core roles and t"e o)erall
management o t"eir acti)itiesF &o!e)er4 t"e eecti)e management o t"ese 2GOs is
still aected 0% inancial and managerial constraints4 as !ill 0e demonstrated later in
t"e #a#erF /"e ollo!ing section 0riel% disc$sses t"e roles4 acti)ities4 and o)erall
management o selected 2GOs in -ots!anaF
Nature o' Civil Society
1i)il societ% in -ots!ana is !ea6 in relation to t"e state and t"at ci)il
societ% in general !as #rimaril% concerned !it" #romoting t"e interests o t"eir
mem0ers and not so m$c" !it" t"eir relations"i# !it" t"e stateF For man% %ears4 t"e
state in -ots!ana #roMected t"e ci)il societ% organi5ations as t"e ideal castigating
t"ose !"o see6 to inl$ence #olic%F /"e% !ere la0elled eit"er as #romoting oreign
interests4 or as iniltrated 0% t"e o##ositionF /"e -ots!ana state "as on a n$m0er o
occasions initiated t"e ormation o ci)il societ% organi5ationsF /"is is common
among armer gro$#s as !ell as ci)il ser)ice gro$#s s$c" as t"e -ots!ana 1i)il
'er)ice Association or t"e -ots!ana /eac"ers UnionF
As 5olutsi 4!00/9 rig"tl% concl$ded4 G/"ro$g" t"is cor#oratist strateg%4 t"e state "as
a##ro#riatel% deined t"e role and $nctions o eac" organi5ation and circ$mscri0ed
t"ese s$c" t"at it 0ecomes eas% to la0el and isolate ot"ers as #oliticalF /"is strateg%
s$cceeded orm man% %ears 0eca$se t"e state !as a #rimar% so$rce o inance or
t"ese organi5ationsF &o!e)er4 t"e eect o t"is strateg% !as t"at t"e state
s%stematicall% denied itsel a c"ance to "ear t"e )oice o t"e #eo#leFH /"e state also
$sed t"e la! at times to r$strate or to ma6e diic$lt t"e initiati)es and acti)ities o
t"ese gro$#sF For eJam#le4 /rade Union oice 0earers $sed to 0e or0idden 0% la! to
!or6 $ll-time or t"e UnionsF Also4 0eore t"e 1==2 Amendment4 t"e minister co$ld
a##oint "is re#resentati)e to sit in all eJec$ti)e meetings o t"e /rade UnionsF All
/rade Unions see6ing to ailiate to an (nternational Federation "ad to see6 t"e
minister<s #ermissionF For man% %ears4 -ots!ana did not sign t"e (nternational
7a0o$r Organisation<s con)entionsF 'tri6es and demonstrations 0% teac"ers4 st$dents4
and trade $nions and ot"er ci)il ser)ants !ere illegalF &o!e)er4 since 1==7 alone4 t"e
state "as ratiied o)er t!el)e (nternational 7a0o$r Organisation<s con)entionsF /"e
0iggest c"allenge no! is to incor#orate t"ese international la!s into t"e constit$tionF
/"e classiication o organi5ations into #olitical or a#olitical is #ro0lematicF
&o!e)er4 #ast eJ#erience s"o!s t"at in -ots!anaF ,ost organi5ations incl$ding
0$rial societies4 s#ort and religio$s organi5ations "a)e oc$sed more on t"eir internal
132
iss$es and #rogrammes and "a)e not engaged t"e state at #olic% le)elF /"at is !"%
ci)il societ% classiied t"em as #oliticalF /"e eJce#tion "as 0een !omen<s gro$#sF
Civil Society 1eads to Su2tational Democracy
/"e conce#t o ci)il societ% "as 0ecome one o t"e catc"!ords in
disc$ssions o democrac% and go)ernance in AricaF 7i0eral democratic t"eor%
essentiall% ass$mes a dic"otom% 0et!een t"e #olitical s#"ere4 !"ic" is associated
!it" a str$ggle or #olitical #o!er4 and ci)il societ% !"ic" constit$te t"e so$rce o
mandate or t"ose in t"e #olitical s#"ere to go)ernF (n t"is sit$ation4 t"e state is seen
as t"e mediator o t"e )ario$s str$ggles rom dierent ci)il societ% gro$#sF
&o!e)er4 t"is sit$ation is not straig"tor!ard as commonl% #roMectedF As alread%
o0ser)ed4 Ga distinction 0et!een t"e #olitical and ci)il is t"eoretical and
met"odological rat"er t"an realF /"e t!o conce#ts are dialecticall% interlin6edF Foc$s
on ci)il societ% and state relations are a recent de)elo#ment in Arican #oliticsF (t can
act$all% 0e traced to t"e 1=8Ds !"en it !as reali5ed t"at t"e state ailed to deli)er
!"at !as eJ#ected o it4 Ode)elo#ment<F Acti)ists and4 to some eJtent4 t"e donor
comm$nit% started to ad)ocate or t"e s"rin6age o t"e role o t"e state and oc$s on
ci)il societ% !"ic" oered a #ossi0le alternati)e str$ct$re o$tside t"e o)er-0$rdened
and ineecti)e stateF /"e neglect o t"e role o ci)il societ% in #olitical disco$rse "as
also 0een e)ident in -ots!anaF /"is is #artl% indicated 0% t"e )er% limited em#irical
st$dies on t"e role and str$ct$re o ci)il societ% in -ots!ana<s democrac%F
Oslen (1==4) "as categori5ed t"e -ots!ana ci)il societ% gro$#s into t"reeK
(a) Gro$#s !"ic" emerged and de)elo#ed as #rimar% sel-"el# organi5ations
esta0lis"ed to #romote t"e !elare4 interests and 0elies o t"eir mem0ersF
Among t"ese are c"$rc"es4 0$rial societiesN social and s#orting cl$0s and %o$t"
organi5ationsF
(0) *oliticall% acti)e organi5ations !"ic" in addition to #ro)iding ser)ices to
mem0er4 #artic$lar minorities4 or )$lnera0le gro$#s4 acti)el% see6 to inl$ence
go)ernment #olic%F (ncl$ded in t"ese are trade $nions4 !omen<s rig"ts gro$#s4
en)ironmental action gro$#s4 and international "$man rig"ts organi5ationsF
(c) /"e ad "oc or iss$e s#eciic gro$#s !"ic" emerge s#ontaneo$sl% in reaction to
a #artic$lar iss$e o concernF (ncl$ded "ere !ere t"e en)ironmental gro$#s
!"ic" came a0o$t in t"e 2ort"!est district o -ots!anaF
133
Olsen "as rig"tl% #ointed o$t t"at t"is categori5ation is not rigidF For eJam#le4 ad "oc
gro$#s do 0ecome #ermanent and also t"at t"e mandate o gro$#s can c"angeF
*er"a#s a good eJam#le "ere is t"e !omen<s 2GO coalitionF /"is gro$# came a0o$t
ater !omen<s gro$#s learnt t"at t"e go)ernment !as contem#lating to cond$ct a
reerend$m to solicit )ie!s o t"e nation on !"et"er or not t"e discrimination o
!omen s"o$ld 0e made la!$lF /"e go)ernment "ad lost a case in !"ic" a !omen
married to an American citi5en "ad c"allenged t"e constit$tionalit% o t"e 1iti5en Act
in den%ing a$tomatic citi5ens"i# to c"ildren o -ots!ana !omen !"o are married to
oreign menF /"e go)ernment lost t"e caseF /"e coalition "as remained e)en ater t"e
iss$e "as 0een settled and deals !it" ot"er iss$es #ertaining to t"e ad)ancement o
!omen "a)e 0een madeF
Classi'ication o' Civil Society in ,ots-ana
/"e #olic% ta6es cognisance t"at nongo)ernmental organisations o#erate as
indi)id$al organisations and or gro$#s !it" similar interest or concernsF For #$r#oses
o t"is #olic% t"e% are organised 0% net!or6s and coalitions according to t"eir sectors
o o#erationF /"e role o net!or6s and coalitions is to acilitate inormation s"aring4
eJc"ange o ideas and eJ#eriences4 net!or6ing and ca#acit% 0$ildingF /"eir
secretariats also acilitate dialog$e !it" 6e% indi)id$al organisations and international
and regional de)elo#ment agencies4 0ot" 0ilateral and m$ltilateralF Gi)en t"e
d%namics o c"ange in t"e en)ironment in !"ic" t"e% o#erate4 t"e com#osition and
nat$re o eac" sector ma% c"ange o)er timeF /"e #olic% classiies ci)il societ%
organisations in -ots!ana $nder t"e ollo!ing sectoral net!or6s or coalitionsF
Development )rm o' Reliious Oranisations
At #resent t"e sector is co-ordinated 0% -ots!ana 1"ristian 1o$ncil (-11)F &o!e)er
ot"er religio$s net!or6s !ill 0e accommodated as t"e% emergeF /"e 6e% areas o
inter)ention t"at relect t"e main c"allenges t"e sector ace incl$de4 #romoting
c"$rc" $nit%4 co$nselling and s#ecialised ministries4 conteJt$alisation o t"eor% and
ec$menical s#irit$alit%4 ena0ling t"e #oor to li)e a 0etter lie4 care or #eo#le in need4
and ad)ocac% or t"e marginalised and o##ressedF
Disa2ility
/"e sector is co-ordinated 0% t"e -ots!ana 1o$ncil or t"e Disa0led (-1D)F One o
t"e main aims o it is to lo00% and ad)ocate or t"e !elare o #eo#le !it"
disa0ilitiesF /"e co$ncil "as also t"e res#onsi0ilit% to mo0ilise reso$rces or ca#acit%
0$ilding4 monitoring and e)al$ation o #rogramme deli)er% 0% sta6e"olders directl%
or indirectl% in)ol)ed !it" t"e !elare o #eo#le !it" disa0ilitiesF
134
Environment and Sustaina2le )riculture
2ongo)ernmental organisations are dealing !it" conser)ationN en)ironmental iss$es
and s$staina0le agric$lt$re are co-ordinated 0% t"e For$m on '$staina0le Agric$lt$re
(FO2'AG)F FO2'AG is a or$m or #romoting needs oriented s$staina0le
en)ironmental and agric$lt$ral #ractices in #artners"i# !it" armers4
nongo)ernmental organisations4 and go)ernment and #ri)ate sector instit$tionsF
FO2'AG also #romotes 0est #ractices on s$staina0le agric$lt$re and en)ironmental
conser)ationF
Population8 Health and H"B:)"DS
2ongo)ernmental organisations t"at deal !it" "ealt" iss$es incl$ding &(89A(D' are
coordinated t"ro$g" -ots!ana 2et!or6 o Aids 'er)ice Organisations (-O2A'O)F
-O2A'O<s role is to co-ordinate and acilitate net!or6ing4 "ealt" related #rogramme
im#lementation4 reso$rce mo0ilisation4 #olic% ad)ocac%4 and ca#acit% 0$ilding and
instit$tional strengt"ening or its mem0er organisationsF -O2A'O re#resents
nongo)ernmental organisations at t"e 2ational Aids 1o$ncilF
Human Rihts
/"is sector is coordinated 0% D(/'&:A2.7O4 -ots!ana 1entre or &$man +ig"tsF
/"e sector<s o0Mecti)e is to eJ#and #$0lic a!areness and 6no!ledge o "$man rig"tsF
/"e sector also ad)ocates or t"e de)elo#ment o a##ro#riate la!s t"at ta6e
cognisance o 0asic "$man rig"ts and #romotes t"e #rotection o s$c" rig"tsF /"e
sector #a%s s#eciic attention to t"e interests o marginalised4 $nder#ri)ileged and
discriminated #ersonsF
5edia
/"is sector is coordinated 0% ,edia (nstit$te o 'o$t"ern Arican4 -ots!ana (,('A)F
/"e sector aims to deend and #romote reedom o eJ#ression o t"e media and
lo00ies or t"e remo)al o o0stacles and im#ediments to t"e ree lo! o inormationF
Small8 5edium and 5icro Enterprise
/"is sector4 !"ic" is co-ordinated 0% 1o-o#eration or +esearc"4 De)elo#ment and
.d$cation (1O+D.)4 #ro)ides training and management ad)isor% ser)ices mainl% to
small and medi$m enter#risesF /"e o)erall o0Mecti)e is to !iden t"e socio-economic
o#tions o r$ral #eo#le t"ro$g" 'mall4 ,edi$m and ,icro .nter#rises (',,.)F
>omen8 @ender and Development
135
/"e sector is co-ordinated 0% :omen<s 2ongo)ernmental Organisations 1oalitionF
(ts o)erall o0Mecti)e is to #romote and s$##ort t"e em#o!erment o !omen and
gender e>$alit%F /"e sector #ro)ides net!or6ing o##ort$nities4 ca#acit% 0$ilding and
instit$tional strengt"ening to mem0er organisationsF
7outh
/"e sector is coordinated 0% -ots!ana 2ational 3o$t" 1o$ncil (-231)F -231
aims to em#o!er %o$ng #eo#le t"ro$g" t"e im#lementation o )ario$s #rogrammes
incl$ding sel-de)elo#ment and a##reciation o one<s a0ilit% and com#etenceF /"e
1o$ncil #la%s an ad)ocac% role4 #romotes and mo0ilises reso$rces or researc" on
critical areas t"at concern and aect %o$t" de)elo#mentF
Culture and Per'ormin )rts
Alt"o$g" t"e sector "as not ormall% a##ointed a sectoral coordinator4 se)eral
organisations are acti)eF /"e ,inistr% o 7a0o$r De#artment o 1$lt$re and 3o$t" in
colla0oration !it" -O1O2GO !ill organise a cons$ltati)e meeting or t"e sectorF
Education and Trainin
Alt"o$g" t"e sector "as not ormall% a##ointed a sectoral coordinator4 se)eral
organisations are acti)eF /"e ,inistr% o .d$cation in colla0oration !it"
-O1O2GO !ill organise a cons$ltati)e meeting or t"e sector earl% 2DDD4 to select
t"e sector coordinatorF
@overnment Policy to-ards Civil Society
/"e ,inistr% o 7o0o$r and &ome aairs4 Go)ernment o -ots!ana4 "as released
irst 2ational *olic% or 2on-Go)ernmental Organi5ations (2GOs) in Fe0r$ar%4
2DD1F (n t"is #olic%4 t"e Go)ernment o -ots!ana recogni5es t"e strategic role and
com#lementar% contri0$tion o non-go)ernmental organi5ations #rogrammes in
national de)elo#mentF (n )ie! o t"ese4 t"e go)ernment ta6es cogni5ance o $rgent
need to address and artic$late t"e needs o t"e 2GOs sector in order to reali5e its
#otentialF (t is on t"is #remise t"at t"e Go)ernment "as de)elo#ed t"e 2GOs #olic%F
/"e #olic% #ro)ides a general rame!or6 to g$ide c$rrent and $t$re de)elo#ment 0%
t"e 2GOs sector and artic$lates t"e relations"i# and #artners"i# modalities !it"
go)ernment and ot"er de)elo#ment #artnersF
136
/"e national #olic% or non-go)ernment organisation4 Fe0r$ar% 2DD14 deines t"e
2GOs asU 2on-Go)ernment organisation as legall% ormed a$tonomo$s
organisations t"at #ossess non-#roit stat$s !"ose #rimar% moti)ation is to im#ro)e
t"e !ell 0eing o t"e #eo#leF /"e% are ser)ice dri)en and ser)e in di)erse and
com#leJ acti)ities t"at relate to t"e de)elo#ment #rocess t"at #romote social
transormation and s$staina0le de)elo#mentF /"is deinition does not incl$de
#olitical #arties or organisations #olitical interestsF 2GOs )ie! de)elo#ment in terms
o a #artici#ator% #rocess o ca#acit% 0$ilding and em#o!erment o comm$nities to
im#ro)e t"eir socio-economic !ell0eing and eJ#and s$staina0le li)eli"ood
o##ort$nitiesF
/"e #olic% also mentions t"at 2GOs o#eration can 0e o$nd at comm$nit% as !ell as
national le)elF /"e #olic% said t"at 2GOs dier in ailiations4 o0Mecti)es4 met"od4
str$ct$res and le)els o o#eration4 0$t t"e% s"o$ld "a)e ollo!ing 0asic nat$reF
/"e% s"o$ld not or #roitF
/"e% s"o$ld )ol$ntar%F
/"e% s"o$ld inde#endent o go)ernment and #ri)ate sectorF
/"e% s"o$ld not sel ser)ing in aims and #rinci#lesF
/"e% s"o$ld in)ol)e in national and comm$nit% socioeconomic de)elo#mentF
/"e% $se #artici#ator% a##roac"es in de)elo#ment !or6 and #eo#le centredF
/"e )ision o t"is #olic% is to create a strong4 a$tonomo$s4 sel s$##orting4
s$staina0le4 disci#lined and 0road-0ased 2GO sector in -ots!ana t"at is a0le to enter
into end$ring #artners"i#s !it" t"e central and local go)ernment4 t"e #ri)ate sector4
regional and international de)elo#ment #artners and ot"er sta6e"oldersF '$c" a sector
s"all 0e anc"ored in and 0e a0le to deend t"e #rinci#les and c$lt$re o democrac%4
social M$stice4 good go)ernance and #olitical !isdom in t"e interest o t"e !ider
societ% and )$lnera0le gro$#sF
Reulation and 5anaement o' Civil Society
/"ere is a 2on-Go)ernment Organi5ation *olic% 1o$ncil or management and
reg$lation o ci)il societ% in -ots!anaF /"e main $nctions o t"is co$ncil are
#ro)iding g$idelines to 2GOs and also monitor t"e im#lementation #rocess in
colla0oration !it" t"e 2GOs sectorF /"e co$ncil "as nineteen mem0ers re#resenting
t"e )ario$s sta6e"olders as ollo!F
137
1F Go)ernment ,inistries
(a) ,inistr% o Finance and De)elo#ment *lanning
(0) ,inistr% o 7ocal Go)ernment
(c) ,inistr% o &ealt"
(d) ,inistr% o 7a0o$r and &ome Aairs
(e) ,inistr% o 1ommerce and (nd$str%
() ,inistr% o Agric$lt$re
(g) ,inistr% o .d$cation
(") Oice o Attorne% General
(i) ,inistr% o 7ands4 &o$sing and .n)ironment
2F /!o re#resentati)es rom t"e *ri)ate 'ector
3F .ig"t re#resentati)e rom -ots!ana 1o$ncil o 2on-Go)ernment organisation
(-O1O2GO)
,ots-ana Council o' Non#@overnment Oranisation 4,OCON@O9
/"e -ots!ana 1o$ncil o 2on-Go)ernmental Organisations (-O1O2GO) is t"e
national $m0rella 0od% or non-go)ernmental organisations in -ots!anaF
-O1O2GO !as oiciall% registered in 1==5 !it" t"e +egistrar o 'ocietiesF Assist in
esta0lis"ing an ena0ling en)ironment or t"e 2GOs sector to 0ecome a recognised
#artner in t"e de)elo#ment #rocess in -ots!ana and internationall% and to #ro)ide a
#latorm or net!or6ing4 ad)ocac%4 ca#acit% 0$ilding or local 2GOs and mo0ilising
o reso$rces or t"e sel-s$staina0ilit% o t"e 2GOs sector in -ots!anaF /"ere are
ollo!ing o0Mecti)es o -ots!ana 1o$ncil o 2on-Go)ernment organisationsF
/o acilitate ca#acit% 0$ilding or local 2GOs and 1-Os and to ens$re t"eir
$ll and eecti)e #artici#ation in t"e de)elo#ment #rocess at 0ot" national and
international le)elsF
/o acilitate net!or6ing amongst 2GOs and 1-Os4 Go)ernment4 t"e #ri)ate
sector4 donor agencies and ot"er de)elo#ment #artnersF
138
/o acilitate a coordinated res#onse 0% 2GOs and 1-Os on iss$es t"at re>$ire
consens$s 0$ilding
/o #la% a leading role in #olic% ad)ocac% and lo00%ing
5onitorin and Evaluation o' the Policy
/"e 2GOs *olic% 1o$ncil is res#onsi0le or o)erall monitoring and e)al$ationF /"e
#olic% !ill 0e e)al$ated #eriodicall% to ens$re t"at it remains res#onsi)e and rele)ant
to t"e needs o 2GOs and t"ose o ot"er sta6e"oldersF /"e im#lementation o t"e
#olic% !ill also 0e mentioned and e)al$ated reg$larl% to ens$re t"at t"e o0Mecti)es o
t"e #olic% are 0eing ac"ie)edF /"e ,onitoring and e)al$ation #rocess and t"e timing
or it s"o$ld relate as m$c" as #ossi0le to district and national #lanning c%clesF
Sources o' 6undin 'or Civil Society
Finance and reso$rces mo0ili5ation are o critical im#ortance to t"e eJistence o ci)il
societ%F 7i6e all ot"er ormal organi5ation4 ci)il societ% re>$ires "$man4 material and
inancial reso$rces or t"eir s$r)i)al and s$ccessF &o!e)er4 $nli6e ot"er modern
organi5ation4 t"e% generate onl% meager reso$rces on t"eir o!n !"ic" constraints
t"eir $nctioningF 'ince )ol$ntar% organi5ations do not o$t rig"tl% engage in direct
#rocess o #rod$ction and mar6eting4 t"e% in)aria0l% do not "a)e a stead% and sta0le
so$rce o incomeF &ence4 t"e% "a)e to rel% on )ario$s means or mo0ili5ing inancial
reso$rces rom ot"er so$rces or instit$tions o state and societ%F /"e #rime so$rces o
$nding to ci)il societ% are ollo!ingK
State 6undin
/"e -ots!ana state "as 0een ma6ing #ro)isions or eJtending inancial s$##ort to
ci)il societ% since inde#endenceF /"ese #ro)isions "a)e 0een t"e o$tcome o t"e
#"iloso#"% o #l$ralist !elarism and democratic state<s commitment to c"ange and
de)elo#mentF /"e -ots!ana 1o$ncil o 2on-Go)ernment Organi5ation is one o t"e
main state $nding or ci)il societ% in t"e co$ntr%F
Contri2ution o' Companies
-$siness concerns "a)e al!a%s 0een in)ol)ed in )ar%ing degree !it" t"e !elare o
comm$nitiesF 'ince inde#endence4 more and more 0$siness organi5ations "a)e
13=
engaged in de)elo#ment acti)ities 0eca$se o taJ incenti)es oered to com#anies 0%
t"e go)ernmentF D$ring t"e last decade 0$siness concerns "a)e 0ecome more
conscio$s o t"eir social res#onsi0ilit%F ,ore and more cor#orate 0odies and 0$siness
com#anies are ta6ing social initiati)es and getting in)ol)ed t"ro$g" non-go)ernment
#roMects in related to de)elo#mentF /"ere is gro!ing trend o oering inancial
s$##ort and ot"er reco$rses to ci)il societ% as ollo!K
O$trig"t donations in cas" and in 6indF
'#onsors"i# o e)ents organi5ed 0% ci)il societies4 !"ere com#anies gi)e
mone% in ret$rn or endorsement or #$0licit% o t"eir #rod$cts or ser)icesF
*artners"i#s !it" ci)il societ% in t"e act$al im#lementation o de)elo#ment
#roMectsF
1om#anies enco$rage t"eir em#lo%ees to im#art 6no!ledge and s6ills to ci)il
societ% organi5ationF
,an% a times4 com#anies o$tso$rce t"e #rod$ction o accessories to ci)il
societ% organi5ationF
&o!e)er4 recentl% t"e oc$s "as s"ited to!ards a more com#re"ensi)e conce#t o
cor#orate social res#onsi0ilit% !"ic" goes 0e%ond t"e traditional t"in6ing o sim#l%
reso$rces to need% ci)il societ%F :it"in t"e am0it o cor#orate social res#onsi0ilit%4
0$siness cor#orations ma% li6e to enter into a "ealt"% #artners"i# !it" ci)il societ%
organi5ation so as to gi)e 0ac6 to societ% in terms o "ealt"4 ed$cation and
em#lo%ment etcF s$c" #artners"i# ma% stri)e to ens$re en)ironment riendl% and
s$staina0le de)elo#ment in -ots!anaF /"ere are "ardl% an% relia0le >$antities
estimates o act$al $nding 0% 0$siness concerns to t"e )ol$ntar% sectorF
Reliious OraniEations
/"ere are no statistics on "o! m$c" religio$s organi5ations recei)e rom t"e #$0lic
and "o! m$c" gi)e to ci)il societ% organi5ations in -ots!anaF &o!e)er4 t"ere is a
large #ool o mone% !it" religio$s organi5ations !"ic" can 0e a #otential so$rce o
$nding t"e acti)ities o ci)il societ% in -ots!anaF +eligio$s organi5ations are
c$rrentl% not signiicant so$rces o $nding to )ol$ntar% sector in -ots!anaF
"ndividual :Community Donations
(ndi)id$al donors not onl% gi)e mone% to )ol$ntar% organi5ations 0$t also gi)e time4
la0o$r and s6ills to s$##ort t"eir acti)itiesF ,ost o t"e monetar% donations 0%
14D
indi)id$als go to )ol$ntar% organi5ations and to religio$s organi5ation in -ots!anaF
&o!e)er4 most o )ol$nteer donating time and la0o$r to comm$nit% de)elo#ment
acti)ities 0elong to middle and lo! income "o$se"olds in -ots!anaF
1omm$nit% contri0$tions 0elong to t"e same genre as indi)id$al<s donations since it
is $ltimatel% t"e indi)id$als !"o donate cas"4 6ind4 la0o$r4 time or s6illF 1omm$nit%
contri0$tion to )ol$ntar% action $sed to t"e #rime so$rce or generating reso$rces or
common good and !elareF
6orein Contri2utions
:it" t"e ad)ent o glo0ali5ation and o#ening o mar6et econom%4 international
contri0$tions "a)e emerged as a maMor so$rce o $nding to )ol$ntar% sectorF /"is
so$rce o $nding #ertains to grants rom oreign donors4 and 0ilateral and
m$ltilateral aid gi)en 0% international instit$tionsF *ri)ate oreign so$rces o $nding
to ci)il societ% organi5ations are indi)id$al #"ilant"ro#istsN international cor#orate
0odiesN international 2GOs s$c" as 7ions 1l$04 (nternational +ed 1ross 'ociet%4
Amnest% (nternational4 OJam4 1A+.4 and Action AidF (nternational non-
go)ernmental sector remains a maMor so$rce o $nding to ci)il societ% sector in
-ots!anaF -ilateral $nding #ertains to aid gi)en 0% t"e state instit$tions o co$ntries
s$c" as U'A4 U;4 German%4 (tal%4 '!eden4 Denmar64 2or!a%4 1anada4 A$stralia and
Ea#anF -$l6 o aid is made a)aila0le to go)ernment s#onsored #rogrammesF A small
#ro#ortion o aid is a)aila0le to )ol$ntar% organi5ations or s#eciic #rogrammes
s$0Mect to t"e a##ro)al o -ots!ana go)ernmentF
,$ltilateral aid is a)aila0le rom )ario$s instit$tions and agencies o $nited nations
Oraganitation )i5F4 U2.'1O4 U2(11.F4 U2D*4 :&O4 U2F*A4 FAO etcF -ots!ana
ci)il societ% also recei)es inancial reso$rces rom m$ltilateral instit$tions as :orld
-an64 (nternational ,onetar% F$nd4 and Arican De)elo#ment -an6F
)ccounta2ility o' Civil Society
/"e image4 moral standing and legitimac% o ci)il societ% are intrinsicall% tied $#
!it" t"e iss$es related to t"eir acco$nta0ilit%F 1i)il societ% organi5ations )ar% in
terms o sco#e4 si5e4 mem0ers"i#4 nat$re o acti)ities4 geogra#"ical s#read and so onF
De#ending $#on t"e nat$re and c"aracter o ci)il societ% organi5ations4 t"e iss$es
related to acco$nta0ilit% "a)e dierent im#lications or t"eir administration and
managementF Administration o an incor#orated ci)il societ% organi5ation is mainl%
acco$nta0le to 0oard o management or tr$stees in -ots!anaF (n a )ol$ntar% ci)il
societ% organi5ation4 t"e go)erning 0od% is $s$all% elected 0% mem0ersF /"$s
administration !"ile 0eing acco$nta0le to t"e go)erning 0od% "as also to 0e
141
acco$nta0le to all t"e mem0ers o t"e )ol$ntar% organi5ationF F$rt"er4 administration
is s$##osed to remain conscio$s o t"e act t"at )ol$ntar% organi5ations are
$ltimatel% acco$nta0le to t"e #eo#le in societ%F An% o)ersig"t 0% administration o
t"is act ma% "a)e serio$s re#erc$ssions or t"e legitimac% o ci)il societ%F /"e
#rocess o registration and reg$lations eJercised 0% state or conditions im#osed 0%
#ri)ate $nding agencies also determines t"e #arameters or acco$nta0ilit% o
administrationF /"e iss$es related to acco$nta0ilit% ac>$ire an altoget"er dierent
dimension4 !"ere ci)il societ% organi5ations are !or6ing or t"e !elare o
marginali5ed and disad)antaged #eo#leF
,an% a times4 ci)il societ% organi5ations are act$all% r$n and controlled 0% t"e
em#lo%ed or salaried sta4 administrators and ot"er inl$ential #ersonsF /"e
go)erning 0od% is sim#l% red$ced to a r$00er stam# or endorsing t"e decisionsF (n
s$c" a sit$ation4 administration ma% M$st 0e acco$nta0le to no0od% 0$t t"emsel)esF (n
man% instances4 some indi)id$al or #$rs$ing t"eir #ersonal agendas or #olitical
am0itions $nder t"e g$ise o re#resenting ca$ses or !elare o #eo#leF /"e iss$es
related to t"e acco$nta0ilit% o administration ac>$ire "a5% and m$r6ier dimensions
in s$c" ci)il societ% organi5ationsF /"$s a small n$m0er o a6e )ol$ntar%
organi5ations ma% M$st remain $nacco$nta0le and $nre#resentati)e4 "ence $ndermine
t"e integrati)e and "onest% o t"e ci)il societ% organi5ationsF
-ots!ana "as a airl% si5ea0le n$m0er o non-go)ernment organi5ations4 man% o
!"ic" !or6 on t"e "$man sec$rit% in -ots!anaF /"ese organi5ations incl$de t"e
ollo!ingK
-ots!ana 1"ristian 1o$ncil (-11)K a nongo)ernmental organi5ation t"at
#romotes de)elo#ment4 social M$stice4 and s#irit$al 0etterment in -ots!anaF
1ancer Association o -ots!ana (1A-)K is a )ol$ntar% non-#roit4 non-
go)ernmental organi5ation 0ased in Ga0orone !"o s dedicated to red$cing t"e
im#act o cancer on all aected in -ots!ana
-ots!ana 1o$ncil o 2on-Go)ernment Organi5ations (-O1O2GO)K a
consorti$m o -ots!ana nongo)ernmental organi5ations4 0ased in Ga0orone
-ots!ana 'ociet%K a 0road-0ased nongo)ernmental organi5ations t"at
#$0lis"es a Mo$rnal4 "osts scientiic meetings4 and #romotes c$lt$ral and
en)ironmental a!arenessN it is 0ased in Ga0orone
1onser)ation (nternational (1()K an nongo)ernmental organi5ations engaged in
conser)ation and r$ral de)elo#ment acti)ities !it" #artic$lar em#"asis on t"e
142
O6a)ango Delta and on t"e :estern ;galagadi 1onser)ation 1orridorN it is
0ased in Ga0orone
D(/'&:A2.7O (t"e -ots!ana 1enter or &$man +ig"ts)K an
nongo)ernmental organi5ations t"at #romotes "$man rig"ts o all #eo#les4
gro$#s4 and indi)id$als in -ots!ana4 !it" #artic$lar em#"asis on t"ose !"o
are disad)antagedN it is 0ased in Ga0orone Forestr% Association o -ots!ana
(FA-)K an 2GO in)ol)ed !it" esta0lis"ment o agro orestr% #rograms4
researc" into indigeno$s s#ecies4 and eJtension !or6N it is 0ased in Ga0orone
Gantsi 1ratK an nongo)ernmental organi5ations t"at is in)ol)ed !it" t"e
#romotion4 #$rc"ase4 and mar6eting o crats o 'an and ot"er #eo#leN some o
t"e !or6 o Gantsi 1rat oc$ses on training and on t"e de)elo#ment o ne!
#rod$cts and inormation dissemination a0o$t crats and c$lt$ral iss$esN it is
0ased in G"an5i4 G"an5i District
(U12 ((nternational Union or t"e 1onser)ation o 2at$re and 2at$ral
+eso$rces :orld 1onser)ation Union)K an nongo)ernmental organi5ations t"at
is engaged in 0road-0ased conser)ation and nat$ral reso$rce management
iss$es in so$t"ern AricaN it is 0ased in Ga0orone
;ala"ari 1onser)ation 'ociet% (;1')K an nongo)ernmental organi5ations
mainl% in)ol)ed !it" !ildlie conser)ation 0$t it also deals !it" integrated
reso$rces management and conser)ation ed$cationN it is 0ased in Ga0oroneN it
!as in)ol)ed !it" comm$nit%-0ased nat$ral reso$rce management in t"e 2ata
1onser)ation Area in 1entral District
;$r$ Famil% o Organi5ations (;FO)K (ormerl% ;$r$ De)elo#ment /r$st4
;D/)K a com#leJ o nongo)ernmental organi5ations in)ol)ed in m$ltiaceted
r$ral de)elo#ing and conser)ation eorts !it" #artic$lar em#"asis on 'an
comm$nities in G"an5i and 2ort" :est DistrictsN it is 0ased in ,a$n4 2ort"
:est District4 !it" 0ranc"es in D<;ar4 G"an5i District7etloaK an
nongo)ernmental organi5ations t"at carries o$t comm$nit%-0ased de)elo#ment
!or6 in 2gamilandF (t is 0ased in '"a6a!e4 2ort" :est DistrictF
,aite6o /s"!aragano De)elo#ment /r$st (,/D/) a de)elo#ment oriented
nongo)ernmental organi5ations !or6ing on en)ironmental iss$es4 income
generation acti)ities and comm$nit% ca#acit%0$ildingN it is 0ased in C$ts!a4
;galagadi District
143
*ermac$lt$re /r$stK an nongo)ernmental organi5ations t"at #romotes
s$staina0le agric$lt$re4 "o$sing4 and nat$ral reso$rce management
im#ro)ement in r$ral areasN its main oice is in 'ero!e4 1entral District4 and
t"ere is a 0ranc" oice in G"an5iF
/"$sano 7eats"engK an nongo)ernmental organi5ations in)ol)ed #rimaril%
!it" t"e #rotection and $tili5ation o indigeno$s s#ecies o )eld #lants s$c" as
senga#arile4 (De)il<s 1la!4 Gra##le *lant4 &ar#ogo#"%t$m #roc$m0ens) and
,orama (tsin 0eans4 /%losema esc$lent$m)N it is 0ased at /"$sego Farm near
;olo0eng in ;!eneng District
8eld *rod$cts +esearc" and De)elo#ment (8*+D)K an nongo)ernmental
organi5ations t"at carried o$t researc" and de)elo#ment !or6 on !ild #lant
#rod$cts4 agro orestr%4 and a##ro#riate tec"nolog%N it is 0ased in Ga0ane4
;!eneng DistrictF
:or6ing Gro$# o (ndigeno$s ,inorities in 'o$t"ern Arica (:(,'A)K an
nongo)ernmental organi5ations t"at concentrates on r$ral de)elo#ment and
ad)ocac% or 'an #eo#lesN it is regional in sco#e and "as a main oice in
:ind"oe64 2ami0ia and a -ots!ana co$ntr% oice in D<;ar4 G"an5i District
144
Civil Society -orkin in Promotin Human Security
/"e Go)ernment o -ots!ana recogni5es t"e strategic role and com#lementar%
contri0$tion o nongo)ernmental organi5ations #rogrammes in national
de)elo#mentF Go)ernments rom de)elo#ed nations s$c" as German% and t"e
U'A "a)e 0een s$##orting !or6 in dierent areas o social !elare4 #o)ert%
alle)iation4 disa0ilit%4 c$lt$ral de)elo#ment4 en)ironmental management4 training
and de)elo#ment o small4 medi$m and micro enter#risesF -ots!ana #la%s an
im#ortant role in t"e 'o$t"ern Arican De)elo#ment 1omm$nit% ('AD1) and is a
mem0er o se)eral international organi5ations4 nota0l% t"e 1ommon!ealt"4
U2.'1O4 :&O4 (nter#ol and ot"ersF /"e -ots!ana De)elo#ment (normation
1enter (-D(1) is a #artners"i# #rogramme t"at incl$des t"e go)ernment4 ci)il
societ% organi5ations and de)elo#ment agencies acti)e in -ots!anaF
145
-ots!ana "as a s$stained record o m$lti-#art% #olitics in AricaF &o!e)er4 one-#art%
dominance is a maMor acet o t"is democrac%F Unli6e most co$ntries in t"e 'AD1
region and t"e rest o Arica4 "as no "istor% o armed conlict or t"at o )iolent
ci)il societ% #rotestsF (t is a co$ntr% t"at "as since its inde#endence enMo%ed #eace
as !ell as #eace$l relations 0et!een t"e state and ci)il societ% organisationsF (n
t"is !a%4 t"e co$ntr% #resents a cond$ci)e atmos#"ere or ci)il societ%
organisations to engage in de)elo#ment !or6F Alt"o$g" ci)il societ% remains
relati)el% !ea6 in relation to t"e state4 it "as "ad an im#act on state #oliciesF (t is
in t"is conteJt t"at t"e role o -ots!ana 1o$ncil o 2on-Go)ernmental
Organisations (-O1O2GO) in t"e ad)ancement and #romotion o "$man
sec$rit% is signiicantF -ots!ana 1o$ncil o 2on-Go)ernmental Organisations
(-O1O2GO) ormed in 1==54 -O1O2GO is -ots!ana<s national $m0rella
association t"at 0rings non-go)ernmental organisations toget"erF (t "as a !ide
mem0ers"i#4 as relected 0% t"e n$m0er o sectors it re#resents4 t"at at #resent
stands at eig"t% o$r nongo)ernmental organisationsF /"ese incl$de t"ose t"at
ad)ance gender and de)elo#ment iss$esN agric$lt$ral and en)ironmentalN arts and
c$lt$reN iss$es o t"e c"$rc"N disa0ilit%N &(89A(D' iss$es and "ealt"N iss$es o
t"e mediaN "$man rig"tsN iss$es o %o$t" and c"ildrenN science tec"nolog% and
training iss$es4 as !ell as iss$es concerning micro inance4 credit and
em#o!erment amongst ot"ersF According to -O1O2GO4 t"e )ario$s sectors it
re#resents are in)ol)ed in )ario$s #roMects t"at are tailored to!ards t"e 0etterment
o t"e li)es o -ats!ana and "ence de)elo#ment o t"is co$ntr%F /"is s"o!s t"at
-O1O2GO #ercei)es itsel as a de)elo#ment #artnerF -O1O2GO see6s to
create an atmos#"ere t"at !ill acilitate t"e o#erations o ci)il societ%
organi5ations as an ac6no!ledged #artner in -ots!ana<s de)elo#ment #rocess
and 0e%ondF (t also see6s to oer a or$m or eJc"anging inormation4 #romote4
0$ild ca#acit% and "el# to mo0ili5e reso$rces or t"e nongo)ernmental
organisations sector t"$s !or6 to!ards a s$staina0le nongo)ernmental
organisations sector in -ots!anaF (n t"is !a%4 t"e nongo)ernmental organisations
sector !ill #la% a meaning$l role in t"e de)elo#ment #rocess t"ro$g" lo00%ing
and inl$encing state #olicesF
)'rican Development 6oundation
Ater inde#endence4 t"e go)ernment o -ots!ana made a deli0erate eort to de)elo#
t"e necessar% inrastr$ct$re to address 0asic "$man needsF 1$rrent grants oc$s on
t"e 'an and remote ;galagdi gro$#s as !ell as *D, in small r$ral )illages aro$nd
*al#%e and 'ero!eF A../ is U'ADFIs -ots!ana #artner organi5ation4 and t"eir
stas contri0$tes to t"e socio-economic de)elo#ment o -ots!ana 0% "el#ing
146
comm$nit%-0ased enter#rises and locall% o!ned small 0$sinesses initiate4 im#lement4
and manage s$staina0le income generating acti)ities and 0$siness #lans in r$ral and
$r0an areas o t"e co$ntr%F At t"e core o A../Is acti)ities is t"e #romotion o small
and medi$m enter#rises (',.s) t"at generate income and em#lo%ment o##ort$nities
or t"e disad)antagedF
S.N. Name o' the Civil
Society
6unctional )reas o' Civil Society in
,ots-ana
1F
;"ama +"ino
'anct$ar% /r$st
F$nds are $sed to im#ro)e lodge acilities4
increase local management ca#acit%4 and
eJ#and t"e ecoto$rism 0$siness lin6ed !it"
t"e r"ino sanct$ar%
2F
'an Arts and 1rats
('AA1)
F$nds are $sed to eJ#and o#erational ca#acit%
and ser)ices to artisans t"ro$g" t"e
ac>$isition o e>$i#ment4 storage s#ace4 and
mar6eting ser)ices
3F 'an6$%o
/s"!aragano
,anagement /r$st
('/,/)
F$nds are $sed to eJ#and t"e comm$nit%
tr$stIs ecoto$rism lodge and sec$re a Moint
)ent$re #artner to #ro)ide training and
management assistance
4F
,madinare
,$lti#$r#ose
1oo#erati)e 'ociet%
As a ollo!-$# to t"e s$ccess$l com#letion
o an .D( grant4 t"is ..( grant ena0les t"e
1oo#erati)e to en"ance and $ll% $tili5e
eJisting #rod$cti)e assets and meet t"e
eJ#anding mar6et demandF
5F
;gagodi &ortic$lt$re
/"e #roMect #ro)ides ;DA mem0ers access to
land4 tec"nical assistance4 #rod$ct distri0$tion
#lanning s6ills and access to trans#ort or
cro# distri0$tion to local and regional
mar6etsF
6F ,oi%a0ana
7eat"er!or6s and
&andicrats *roMect
/"is #roMect #ro)ides inancial and tec"nical
s$##ort to ,oi%a0ana )illage mem0ers
t"ro$g" t"e #rod$ction and sale o leat"er and
147
"andicrat goodsF
7F
Diloro ,illing
/"is #roMect esta0lis"es a milling #lant in t"e
Diloro )illage to oer s$0sistence armers in
t"e area a mar6et or grain #rod$ced4
em#lo%ment o##ort$nities to its mem0ers and
access to milling acilities and milled
#rod$cts in t"e )illageF
8F
,oga#in%an%a 3o$t"
,etal :or6
:it" U'ADF inancial assistance4 t"e
Association !ill address t"e core #ro0lem o
%o$t" $nem#lo%ment 0% #rod$cing )ario$s
metal #rod$cts or sale4 and $rt"er eJ#anding
#rod$ction once tec"nical s6ills are im#ro)edF
=F
/amasane 'mall
'toc6 and *o$ltr%
:it" t"e "el# o U'ADF $nds4 t"e
Association !ill esta0lis" a comm$nit% arm
to raise s"ee#4 goats and #o$ltr% in s$icient
>$antities to sell li)e animals and eggs at t"e
local mar6etF
1DF
,olema 1omm$nit%
/r$st .nter#rise
De)elo#ment
/"is U'ADF $nded #roMect !ill $se t"e
*artici#ator% De)elo#ment ,et"odolog% V
1omm$nit% (nitiati)es (*D,-1() rame!or6
!it" ADF<s #artner in -ots!ana4 to en"ance
t"e /r$st<s a0ilit% to identi% and #lan income
generation acti)itiesF
11F
-a0ina /s"i#a
De)elo#ment
Association (-DA)
:it" U'ADF $nds4 -DA !ill 0e a0le to
esta0lis" a arm !it" s"ee#4 goats4 and #igs
0% #roc$ring animals4 o0taining training and
co)ering o#erating and constr$ction
eJ#ensesF
12F Gantsi 1rat /r$st U'ADF $nds !ill 0e $sed or administrati)e
s$##ort4 o#erating eJ#enses4 and training and
148
ca#acit% 0$ilding costs to "el# de)elo# t"e
design4 man$act$ring4 and mar6eting o 'an
arts and cratsF
13F
/"o0aaJ"a
1omm$nit% /r$st
U'ADF $nding !ill 0e $sed to #$rc"ase
li)estoc64 co)er o#erational and constr$ction
eJ#enses4 and "el# t"e comm$nit% ac>$ire
training to esta0lis" and s$##ort a "ortic$lt$re
and #igg% armF
14F 2goma 7odge
/o$rism *roMect
U'ADF $nding !ill 0e $sed to inance a
#ortion o t"e constr$ction cost or t"e lodgeF
15F
GoM!ane 3o$t"
*o$ltr%
U'ADF $nding !ill "el# to eJ#and t"e
0$siness4 0$ild and e>$i# a ne! "o$sing s"ed
or 14DDD c"ic6s4 install sla$g"tering
mac"ines4 inance training4 and di)ersi% its
#rod$ct %ield to incl$de eggsF
16F
,o!ana /r$st
U'ADF $nding !ill inance ca#acit%
0$ilding and training in "ortic$lt$re and
#o$ltr% #rod$ctionF
17F
+o0elela 3o$t"
*o$ltr% Farm
U'ADF grant !ill $nd im#ro)ements to
acilities4 inancial s%stems im#ro)ements4
and mar6eting #lanningF
18F 'er$le 1omm$nit%
+eso$rces
De)elo#ment /r$st
U'ADF grant !ill $nd im#ro)ements to t"e
inancial s%stems4 create a 0$siness #lan and
ma6e im#ro)ements to acilitiesF
1=F
&$i6$ 1omm$nit%-
-ased 2at$ral
+eso$rces
1onser)ation /r$st
U'ADF $nds !ill #ro)ide training4 an
en)ironmental im#act assessment4 #re#aration
o a cam#site4 and t"e creation o a mar6eting
and 0$siness #lanF
14=
2DF
;om6$ /r$st (;/)
U'ADF $nds !ill "el# ma6e im#ro)ements
to inancial s%stems4 training4 a arm
de)elo#ment and li)estoc6 management #lan4
and a i)e %ear 0$siness #lanF
21F
;gagodi +emmogo
-asadi Association
(;+-A)
U'ADF $nding !ill "el# im#ro)e ;+-A<s
management ca#acit% 0% e>$i##ing an oice
and #ro)iding training and inancial
management4 $nding comm$nit%-!ide
!or6s"o#s4 and #ro)iding materials and
training in 0ee6ee#ing o#erationsF
22F
-O+A8A'/
1omm$nit% +eso$rce
,anagement /r$st
U'ADF $nds !ill "el# #ro)ide
im#ro)ements to inancial s%stems4 0$siness
and mar6eting training4 animal "$s0andr%
s$##lies4 and e!es and ramsF
23F
,odise De)elo#ment
'ociet% (,D')
U'ADF $nds !ill "el# #ro)ide
im#ro)ements to inancial s%stems4 training4 a
#ig s"elter4 and da% old c"ic6s and a c"ic6en
"o$seF
24F
Fate &ood
Association (F&A)
U'ADF $nds !ill "el# #ro)ide
im#ro)ements to inancial s%stems4 training
and e>$i#mentF
25F
/"amaga *otter%
.J#ansion *roMect
U'ADF $nds !ill "el# #ro)ide or ne!
mac"iner%4 training4 and ceriication rom t"e
-ots!ana -$rea$ o 'tandardsF
26F
;$r$ De)elo#ment
/r$st
/"is #roMect !ill $nd comm$nit% go)ernance
and ca#acit% 0$ilding4 inancial management
training4 "ortic$lt$ral in#$ts4 and
leat"er!or6s in#$tsF
15D
Source5 http599www%adf%ov98Quic7Source!ountry#ortfolio#ae8Botswana%htm
(access on 15FD3F2D11)
151
Southern )'rican Development Community
/"e 'o$t"ern Arican De)elo#ment 1omm$nit% started as rontline states !"ose
o0Mecti)e !as #olitical li0eration o 'o$t"ern AricaF 'o$t"ern Arican
De)elo#ment 1omm$nit% !as #receded 0% t"e 'o$t"ern Arican De)elo#ment
1oordination 1onerence ('AD11)4 !"ic" !as ormed in 7$sa6a4 Cam0ia on A#ril
D14 1=8D !it" t"e ado#tion o t"e 7$sa6a Declaration4 'o$t"ern AricaK /o!ards
.conomic 7i0erationF /"e ormation o 'AD11 !as t"e c$lmination o a long
#rocess o cons$ltations 0% t"e leaders o t"e t"en onl% maMorit% r$led co$ntries o
'o$t"ern Arica4 t"$s Angola4 -ots!ana4 7esot"o4 ,o5am0i>$e4 '!a5iland4 United
+e#$0lic o /an5ania and Cam0ia4 !or6ing toget"er as Frontline 'tatesF (n ,a%
1=7= cons$ltations !ere "eld 0et!een ,inisters o Foreign Aairs and ,inisters
res#onsi0le or .conomic De)elo#ment in Ga0orone4 -ots!anaF '$0se>$entl% a
meeting !as "eld in Ar$s"a4 /an5ania in E$l% 1=7= !"ic" led to t"e esta0lis"ment
o 'AD11F On A$g$st 174 1==24 at t"eir '$mmit "eld in :ind"oe64 2ami0ia4 t"e
&eads o 'tate and Go)ernment signed t"e 'AD1 /reat% and Declaration t"at
eecti)el% transormed t"e 'o$t"ern Arican De)elo#ment 1oordination
1onerence ('AD11) into t"e 'o$t"ern Arican De)elo#ment 1omm$nit%
('AD1)F /"e o0Mecti)e also s"ited to incl$de economic integration ollo!ing t"e
inde#endence o t"e rest o t"e 'o$t"ern Arican co$ntriesF 1$rrentl% 'AD1 "as a
mem0ers"i# o 15 ,em0er namel%N Angola4 -ots!ana4 Democratic +e#$0lic o
1ongo
'tates4 7esot"o4 ,adagascar4 ,ala!i4 ,a$riti$s4 ,o5am0i>$e4 2ami0ia4 'e%c"elle
s4 'o$t" Arica4 '!a5iland4 United +e#$0lic o /an5ania4 Cam0ia and Cim0a0!eF
'AD1Is 8ision is t"at o a common $t$re4 a $t$re !it"in a regional comm$nit%
t"at !ill ens$re economic !ell-0eing4 im#ro)ement o t"e standards o li)ing and
>$alit% o lie4 reedom and social M$stice and #eace and sec$rit% or t"e #eo#le o
'o$t"ern AricaF /"is s"ared )ision is anc"ored on t"e common )al$es and
#rinci#les and t"e "istorical and c$lt$ral ainities t"at eJist 0et!een t"e #eo#le o
'o$t"ern AricaF /"e 'AD1 ,ission is to #romote s$staina0le and e>$ita0le
economic gro!t" and socio economic de)elo#ment t"ro$g" eicient #rod$cti)e
s%stems4 dee#er co-o#eration and integration4 good go)ernance4 and d$ra0le #eace
and sec$rit%4 so t"at t"e region emerges as a com#etiti)e and eecti)e #la%er in
international relations and t"e !orld econom%F
S)DC Create a Common Security )enda
'AD1 is c"aracteri5ed 0% t"e ollo!ing strategic eat$res4 !"ic" #ro)ide a good
arg$ment or t"e creation o a common sec$rit% agendaF
152
First4 almost all t"e maMor t"reats to t"e sec$rit% o #eo#le and states deri)e rom
internal rat"er t"an eJternal actorsF /"e act t"at t"e t"reats are not eJternal is an
added ad)antage in t"e sense t"at states s"o$ld 0e a0le to control and deal !it"
t"reats o t"eir o!n ma6ingF 2e)ert"eless4 t"e domestic crises in some states are so
se)ere t"at t"e% $ndermine sta0ilit% in neig"0o$ring co$ntries4 and oten #ro)o6e
cross-0order "ostilitiesF All t"e same4 t"is is a good reason or ot"er states to assistF
/"e% s"o$ld act as mediators to resol)e t"e crisis4 0eca$se t"eir o!n sec$rit% ma% 0e
t"reatenedF 'econd4 t"e most serio$s sec$rit% #ro0lems are #olitical4 social4 economic
and en)ironmental rat"er t"an militar% in origin and c"aracterF Alt"o$g" t"e% ma%
gi)e rise to )iolence4 leading to t"e de#lo%ment o t"e #olice and #ossi0l% e)en t"e
armed orces4 t"eir sol$tions lie in socio-economic de)elo#ment and t"e
consolidation o democrac%F /"ird4 certain critical iss$es s$c" as re$gees4
en)ironmental destr$ction4 t"e de#letion o nat$ral reso$rces and t"e #rolieration o
small arms are common to man% co$ntries and transcend national 0ordersF
Addressing t"em !ill t"ereore re>$ire a "ig" le)el o colla0oration not onl% among
mem0er states 0$t in t"e !ider !orld comm$nit%F Fo$rt"4 in t"e a0sence o eJternal
militar% t"reats to indi)id$al states or t"e region as a !"ole4 'AD1 co$ld engage in a
#rocess o s$0stantial disarmamentF Fit"4 t"ere is t"e #ros#ect o im#ro)ing eJisting
instit$tions and o creating str$ct$res to maintain #eace4 #romote economic and social
ad)ancement and ens$re a $t$re t"at oers t"e c"ildren o t"e 'AD1 co$ntries 0etter
#ros#ects t"an 0eoreF Finall%4 t"ere is t"e o##ort$nit% to assert t"e common core
)al$es aro$nd !"ic" t"e region<s ancestors $nitedF /"e c$lt$res and lang$ages o t"e
'o$t" Arican region are interconnected4 and t"e common "istorical eJ#eriences4 o
t"e region<s #eo#les4 t"eir common #ro0lems and as#irations4 remain a irm and
end$ring o$ndation or common actions to #romote regional economic !elare4
collecti)e sel-reliance and integration in e>$it% and #artners"i#F All t"ese
o##ort$nities can 0e t$rned into strategies $#on !"ic" 'AD1 can create a common
agenda or #eace4 "$man sec$rit% and conlict #re)ention in t"e regionF
153
)pproach to a common security aenda
154
'AD1<s conce#t$al rame!or6 on #eace and sec$rit% recogni5es t"e ne! a##roac" to
sec$rit%4 !"ic" em#"asi5es t"e sec$rit% o #eo#le and t"e non-militar% dimensions o
sec$rit%F /"e model also ac6no!ledges t"at t"e sec$rit% o states does not necessaril%
"a)e t"e same meaning as t"e sec$rit% o #eo#leF /"e #"iloso#"% o t"e 'AD1
rame!or6 is 0ased on t"e #rinci#le t"at sec$rit% is a "olistic #"enomenon t"at is not
restricted to militar% matters4 0$t incor#orates #olitical4 social4 economic and
en)ironmental iss$esF (ts o0Mects are not conined to states4 0$t eJtend in !idening
circles to incl$de a #eo#le4 t"e in"a0itants o a geogra#"ic region and t"e glo0al
comm$nit%F /"reats to sec$rit% are not limited to militar% c"allenges4 to state
so)ereignt% and territorial integrit%N t"e% incl$de a0$se o "$man rig"ts4 economic
de#ri)ation4 social inM$stice and destr$ction o t"e en)ironmentF /"e o0Mecti)es o
sec$rit% #olic% go 0e%ond ac"ie)ing an a0sence o !ar to encom#ass t"e #$rs$it o
democrac%4 s$staina0le economic de)elo#ment4 social M$stice and #rotection o t"e
en)ironmentF /"e $se o militar% orce is a legitimate means o deence against
eJternal aggression4 0$t it is not an acce#ta0le instr$ment or cond$cting oreign
#olic% and settling dis#$tesF /"e rame!or6 also recogni5es t"at states can mitigate
t"e sec$rit% dilemma and #romote regional sta0ilit% 0% ado#ting a deensi)e rat"er
t"an an oensi)e militar% doctrine and #ost$reF /"e conce#t$al rame!or6 ado#ted
0% 'AD1 also em#"asi5es t"at domestic sec$rit% #olic% s"o$ld #a% greater attention
to social so$rces o insta0ilit% s$c" as t"e #ro0lem o )iolence against !omen and
c"ildrenF +a#e4 !ie 0attering4 c"ild a0$se and di)erse t%#es o "arassment "a)e a
tra$matic im#act on t"e #"%sical and #s%c"ological sec$rit% o o)er "al t"e
#o#$lation4 0$t are largel% ignored 0% state agenciesF /"is conce#t o sec$rit% sets a
0road agendaF Deining #ro0lems s$c" as #o)ert%4 o##ression4 social inM$stice4 t"e
need or good go)ernance4 t"e $ne)en distri0$tion o income4 !ealt" and #o!er4
et"nic tensions4 #oor "ealt" acilities4 $nem#lo%ment4 A(D'4 dr$g traic6ing4 and t"e
need or land restit$tion4 as sec$rit% iss$es raises t"eir #olitical #roileF 'AD1 as a
comm$nit% "as considered t"ese actors as t"e greatest t"reats to domestic sta0ilit%
and economic de)elo#mentF /"ereore t"ese are !"at go)ernments and societies "a)e
to address on a contin$ing 0asisF All 'AD1<s #rotocols and terms o reerence on a
common regional sec$rit% a##roac" are 0ased on t"ese #ractical #rinci#les o t"e ne!
a##roac" to "$man sec$rit%F /"e% recogni5e t"e need to esta0lis" a rame!or6 and
mec"anisms to strengt"en regional solidarit% and #ro)ide or m$t$al #eace and
sec$rit%F7 /"e common sec$rit% regime !ill #ro)ideK earl% !arning o #otential
crisisN t"e 0$ilding o militar% conidence and sta0ilit% t"ro$g" disarmament and
trans#arenc% in deence mattersN engagement in Moint #ro0lem-sol)ing and t"e
de)elo#ment o colla0orati)e #rogrammes on sec$rit% iss$esN t"e negotiation o
m$ltilateral sec$rit% agreementsN and t"e management o conlict t"ro$g" #eace$l
meansF /"e #rotocols are 0ased on t"e recognition t"at !ar and insec$rit% are t"e
155
enemies o economic #rogress and social !elareF Good #olitical relations among t"e
co$ntries o t"e region4 toget"er !it" #eace and m$t$al sec$rit%4 are critical
com#onents o t"e total en)ironment or regional coo#eration and integrationF
5ethods and strateies on peace and security
'AD1 ado#ted t"e strategies o disarmament4 t"e #eace$l resol$tion o conlict and
instit$tional de)elo#ment as t"e o$ndations on !"ic" #eace4 "$man sec$rit% and
conlict #re)ention s"o$ld 0e 0$iltF 'AD1 also ado#ted a #olic% o Oreeing reso$rces
rom militar% to #rod$cti)e de)elo#ment acti)itiesF /"e rationale !as t"at an arms
0$ild-$# !as dangero$s or t"e region 0eca$se it "eig"tened #olitical insta0ilit%4 t"e
ris6 o armed "ostilities and t"e "$man and economic costs o !arareF F$rt"er4 it
di)erted reso$rces rom more #rod$cti)e ends and ca$sed a maMor net o$tlo! o
ca#ital4 in t"is !a% contri0$ting to $nderde)elo#ment in man% co$ntries and
contri0$tesF (t is not eas% to integrate ormer com0atants into ci)ilian societ% and to
ind em#lo%ment or t"emF (n t"e case o Cim0a0!e4 2ami0ia4 ,o5am0i>$e and
'o$t" Arica4 most o t"e demo0ili5ed soldiers remained $nem#lo%ed and resorted to
0anditr%F
Deence 0$dget c$ts oten lead to lo!er !ages and deteriorating conditions in t"e
armed orces4 !"ic" in t$rn create a crisis o morale4 !"ic" co$ld res$lt in an
attem#ted co$#4 as in 7esot"oF /"e 1old :ar #ers#ecti)e on t"e $se o militar%
orce as instr$ment o oreign #olic% "as not 0een com#letel% a0andoned 0% t"e
'AD1 statesF An eJam#le is t"e reinstatement o 7esot"o<s go)ernment ollo!ing
t"e co$# in 1==44 in !"ic" 'AD1<s di#lomatic eorts !ere Oreinorced< 0% t"e
t"reat o a militar% 0loc6ade against t"e land-loc6ed mo$ntain 6ingdomF11 A
$rt"er eJam#le is t"e 1==3 'AD1 *rogramme o Action4 !"ic" states4 Ot"ere is a
sense in !"ic" militar% orce is an acce#ta0le orm o oreign #olic%F 'AD1 !o$ld
need to agree on conditions $nder !"ic" t"e $se o armed orce !ill 0e acce#ta0le4
and also consider conditions $nder !"ic" militar% inter)ention anot"er mem0er
state mig"t 0e #ermissi0leF /"is s"o!s little a##reciation 0% 'AD1 o t"e most
$ndamental r$le o international la!4 t"at t"e $se or t"reat o orce in international
relations is onl% M$stiied in t"e case o sel-deence against an armed attac6 or4 in
t"e a0sence o an attac64 !it" t"e eJ#licit a$t"ori5ation o t"e U2 'ec$rit% 1o$ncilF
'AD1<s commitment to #eace$l conlict resol$tion needs to 0e gro$nded in a
ormal endorsement o t"e la! on armed conlictF
Proress on collective peace and security
156
(n #ast decades4 'AD1 "eads o state "a)e s$##orted meas$res t"at #romoted
collecti)e sec$rit% in t"e regionF On t"e #olitical ront4 t"ese meas$res incl$ded t"e
ormation o t"e F7' in 1=7D4 'AD11 in 1=8D and 'AD1 in 1==2F /"ro$g" t"ese
0odies4 'AD1 "as s$ccess$ll% esta0lis"ed a #olitical solidarit% t"at "as s$stained
and dee#ened t"e desire or regional integrationF 'AD1 "as also created common
#olitical )al$es4 s%stems and instit$tions in order to 0$ild a irm o$ndation or
democratic go)ernanceF /"is is ill$strated 0% t"e act t"at a maMorit% o ,em0er
'tates "as a0andoned mono-#art% one-#erson r$le and militar% a$t"oritarianism
since t"e 1==Ds4 and em0raced #olitical #l$ralism and reg$lar m$lti-#art% electionsF
/"is #rocess o n$rt$ring and consolidating democratic go)ernance in 'o$t"ern
Arica is cr$cial4 not onl% or t"e 0roadening o #olitical #artici#ation 0$t also to
ens$re t"e relati)e sta0ilit% o #olitical s%stems and t"e legitimac% o go)ernmentsF
'AD1 "as also made #rogress to!ards #olitical integration 0% esta0lis"ing t"e
'AD1 *arliamentar% For$m o$tside t"e ormal str$ct$resF /"is is a cons$ltati)e
0od% !"ic" lac6s s$icient legislati)e #o!ers to "a)e real im#act on 'AD1F
'AD1 "as also esta0lis"ed a 'AD1 .lectoral 1ommissions For$m4 !"ic" is again
a cons$ltati)e 0od%4 and also lac6s eJec$ti)e a$t"orit% to ma6e an% real im#act on
t"e electoral #rocess in 'AD1F Alt"o$g" m$c" #rogress "as 0een made in t"e
"olding o reg$lar elections4 t"e o0ser)ance o "$man rig"ts4 t"e strengt"ening o
local go)ernment4 t"e acti)e #artici#ation o ci)il societ% actors and t"e increased
#artici#ation o !omen in t"e #olitical #rocess4 m$c" remains to 0e done to
instit$tionali5e democrac% and translate t"e constit$tional #ro)isions o
$ndamental reedoms and rig"ts into t"e #olitical c$lt$re and #ractice o societies
in t"e regionF /"e ,ala!i '$mmit in A$g$st 2DD1 agreed on a consolidated teJt o
t"e 'AD1 treat% !"ic" incl$des some im#ortant amendmentsF /"e c"anges "a)e
made t"e 'AD1 0$rea$crac% 0igger in some !a%s4 0$t also clearerF /"ere is no! an
(ntegrated 1ommittee o ,inisters !"ic" re#orts to t"e 1o$ncil ater reac"ing
agreement 0% consens$sF (t !ill o)ersee core integration areas and 0e em#o!ered to
act !it"o$t a ormal 1o$ncil meeting !"ic" "as dela%ed matters in t"e #astF /"e
#art o t"e treat% concerning t"e Organ (Article 1Da) is made clearer (as disc$ssed
a0o)e) and t"e r$les o re#orting and decision-ma6ing are s#elled o$tF /"e 1o$ncil
!ill meet o$r times eac" %ear and !ill 0e s$##orted 0% t"e secretariatF /"e
secretariat4 !"ic" alread% "as a long list o $nctions4 is no! also res#onsi0le or4
amongst ot"ers Ogender mainstreaming<4 Ode)ising a##ro#riate strategies or sel-
inancing< and O$nderta6ing researc" on comm$nit% 0$ildingF
Proress on military and state security
157
A n$m0er o 0ilateral deence agreements "a)e 0een set $#F Among t"e more
#ractical meas$res !ere t"e creation o t"e 'AD1 Organ on *olitics4 Deence and
'ec$rit% 1o-o#eration in 1==64 and t"e esta0lis"ment o t"e (nterstate Deence and
'ec$rit% 1ommittee4 t"e +egional *eace-6ee#ing /raining 1entre and t"e 'o$t"ern
Arica *olice 1"ies< 1o-o#eration Organisation ('A+*11O)F ,ost o t"ese
arrangements are c$rrentl% o#erating4 alt"o$g" in conlict sit$ations t"ere are still
#ro0lems o o)erla# and di)ergent #erce#tions o !"at s"o$ld 0e done4 0% !"om4 and
"o!F /"ese #ro0lems s"o$ld 0e sol)ed in t"e near $t$re4 since t"e "eads o state
signed t"e *rotocol on *olitics4 Deence and 'ec$rit% 1o-o#eration at t"e -lant%re
'$mmit o A$g$st 2DD1 and t"e 1o$ncil o ,inisters a##ro)ed t"e ,$t$al Deence
*act *rotocol4 !"ic" "as to 0e or!arded to "eads o state or signat$re at t"e neJt
'AD1 '$mmitF /"e *act is im#ortant 0eca$se it is t"e legal instr$ment em#o!ering
t"e o#erational mec"anism o t"e 'AD1 Organ or m$t$al coo#eration in deence
and sec$rit% mattersF
1reating a c$lt$re o democrac% and tolerance !o$ld entail t"e creation o organs
o ci)il societ% to carr% o$t mass ed$cation on t"e conce#t and #ractice o
democrac% and toleranceF /"e esta0lis"ment o or$ms and medi$ms !o$ld allo!
go)ernment to interact !it" t"e )ario$s sectors o t"e #o#$lation4 #artic$larl% in t"e
design and im#lementation o #$0lic #oliciesF 1reating a "$man rig"ts c$lt$re is t"e
#illar $#on !"ic" a democratic societ% is 0$iltF (t is essential to esta0lis" and
strengt"en instit$tions t"at are s#eciicall% geared to inorming and ed$cating
#eo#le a0o$t t"eir rig"tsF /"ese 0odies co$ld also ser)e as !atc"dogs4 #re)enting
go)ernment eJcessesF 1reating a c$lt$re o constr$cti)e conlict resol$tion is
essentialF *ro#er tec"ni>$es and strategies or alternati)e conlict management and
resol$tion met"ods need to 0e de)elo#edF (t is im#erati)e t"at indigeno$s
mec"anisms o conlict resol$tion 0e eJ#lored4 as t"e% co$ld 0e a##lied to c$rrent
t%#es o conlictsF A !ide le)el o ed$cational training in t"e s6ills o conlict
management and resol$tion !o$ld need to 0e em#lo%edF *romoting !omen<s $ll
access to4 and control o)er4 #rod$cti)e reso$rces to red$ce t"e le)el o #o)ert%
among !omen is anot"er $rgent tas6 to 0ring a0o$t an im#ro)ement in social
conditionsF 'trengt"ening 'AD1 str$ct$res4 s$c" as t"e *arliamentar% For$m and
t"e .lectoral 1ommissions For$m4 !o$ld entail organi5ing !or6s"o#s in order to
e>$i# $nctionaries !it" t"e necessar% s6illsF (m#ro)ing t"e management o t"e
ed$cation s%stem4 a#art rom de)ising cost-eecti)e !a%s o deli)ering ed$cation
ser)ices s$c" as cost s"aring4 Moint #roc$rement o sc"ool materials and mo$nting
Moint training #rogrammes is an $rgent #riorit% or 'AD1 co$ntriesF
158
&el#ing to increase t"e ca#acit% or &(89A(D' a!areness cam#aigns4 or #lanning
and or researc"4 is an essential acti)it% to "el# address t"e A(D' e#idemicF
(nstit$ting an o#erational legal mec"anism to ma6e t"e *rotocol on *olitics4
Deence and 'ec$rit% 0inding on all ,em0er 'tates is anot"er im#ortant #riorit%F
/"is !o$ld also "el# to gi)e direction in some areas !"ere t"e *rotocol articles are
$nclearF .sta0lis"ing an earl%-!arning s%stem4 !it" !ell->$aliied #ersonnel and a
conlict management team to "el# deal !it" dis#$tes and also to ad)ise t"e ,em0er
'tatesF :o$ld assist 'AD1 in de$sing #otentiall% desta0ili5ing sit$ationsF /"e role
s$ggested a0o)e or ci)il societ% ass$mes t"at go)ernment and t"e #ri)ate sector
coo#erate and #artici#ate in t"e #rocessF Go)ernment can create t"e ena0ling
en)ironment in !"ic" ci)il societ% can 0e eecti)eF 7i6e!ise4 t"e #ri)ate sector can
assist 0% #ro)iding t"e necessar% reso$rces to carr% o$t s$c" acti)it%F
SOS ChildrenHs Billaes3 ,ots-ana
(n all co$ntries !"ere 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illages o#erates4 t"e aim is to orm a national
association !"ic" is its o!n legal entit%4 !it" its o!n stat$tes and -oard o DirectorsF
1ommon or all o t"em is mem0ers"i# o t"e international $m0rella association4 and
t"e act t"at t"eir -oard o Directors !or6 on an "onorar% 0asisF .ac" mem0er
association "as to com#l% !it" t"e international stat$tes and #rinci#les or ed$cation
and c"ild-care o 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illages (nternational4 and or inancial and
administrati)e #racticesF /"e national associations are registered and organised as a
o$ndation4 tr$st4 association4 non-#roit com#an% or societ%F As a $ll mem0er o
'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illages (nternational4 t"e% "a)e t"e rig"t to a##l% or $nding
t"ro$g" t"e $m0rella association4 and to re>$est ser)ices rom t"e General
'ecretariatF ,an% national 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage associations #resent t"emsel)es in
a )ariet% o !a%s to interested (nternet $sersF 8isit national !e0sites in t"e section
!"ere !e "el#F First contacts !ere made in 1=8D and t"e ollo!ing %ear t"e national
association4 L'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage Association o -ots!anaL !as o$ndedF (t !as
t"ree %ears later t"at constr$ction started on t"e irst 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage in
/lo6!eng4 a small to!n a0o$t 12 6m rom t"e ca#ital o Ga0oroneF :"en it !as
com#leted4 t"e 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage consisted o siJ amil% "o$ses4 a 6indergarten
and a c"ic6en armF D$e to t"e contin$all% increasing demand t"e 'O' 1"ildrenIs
8illage /lo6!eng !as eJtended in 1==1 and 1===4 irst to ten amil% "o$ses and
inall% to a total o iteenF /"e reason or t"e eJtensions !as t"at t"e or#"an sit$ation
in -ots!ana !as #ro)ing to 0e e)er-more diic$ltF Also4 t"e e)er-increasing n$m0er
o #eo#le !it" A(D' meant t"at t"ere !as going to 0e a dramatic increase in t"e
n$m0er o or#"ans in t"e co$ntr%F O)er t"e %ears t"e need or s$ita0le
accommodation or t"e %o$t"s !"o !ere o$tgro!ing t"e 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage also
15=
arose and so4 0et!een 1==3 and 1==54 t!o %o$t" "o$ses !ere constr$cted4 one on t"e
site o t"e 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage and t"e ot"er in Ga0orone itselF
7ocal s$##ort meant t"at in 1==7 it !as #ossi0le to add t!o sim#le )ocational
training centres or t"e %o$t"s to t"e 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illageF 1o$rses in car#entr%4
!elding4 "ome-economics and crat ind$stries are oered "ereF (n t"e same %ear4 t"e
cornerstone !as laid or t"e second 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage in Francisto!n4 in t"e
nort" o -ots!ana4 !"ic" started o#erating in 1==8F
(n 2DD6 t"e constr$ction o t"e t"ird 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage in 'ero!e startedF /"e
#roMect "as 0een esta0lis"ed in se)eral #"ases and t"e constr$ction #rocess co$ld 0e
com#leted in 2DD=F (n 2DD84 'O' 1"ildren<s 8illages started to o#erate Famil%
'trengt"ening *rogrammes4 !"ic" ena0le c"ildren !"o are at ris6 o losing t"e care
o t"eir amil% to gro! !it"in a caring amil% en)ironmentF /o ac"ie)e t"is4 'O'
1"ildren<s 8illages !or6s directl% !it" amilies and comm$nities to em#o!er t"em
to eecti)el% #rotect and care or t"eir c"ildren4 in coo#eration !it" local a$t"orities
and ot"er ser)ice #ro)idersF At #resent t"ere are t"ree 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illages in
-ots!ana4 t!o 'O' 3o$t" Facilities4 t"ree 'O' ;indergartens and t!o 'O' 'ocial
1entres (amil% strengt"ening #rogrammes)F
16D
SOS ChildrenHs Billae 6rancisto-n
/"e 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage in Francisto!n is located in t"e s$0$r0an area o
Francisto!n4 !"ic"4 !it" a##roJimatel% 6D4DDD in"a0itants4 is t"e second largest
cit% o -ot!anaF /"e "o$ses !ere 0$ilt in a sim#le !a% and t"eir st%le is ada#ted
to local traditionsF /"e site !as made a)aila0le to 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illages 0% t"e
go)ernment o -ots!anaF On 17 ,arc" 1===4 t"e 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage
Francisto!n !as oiciall% o#ened in t"e #resence o *rincess -enedi6te o
Denmar6 and "er "$s0and *rince +ic"ard4 ,inister ;!elago0e o -ots!ana and
man% ot"er "onorar% g$estsF :"en t"e 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage Francisto!n !as
o#ened in 1===4 it consisted o iteen amil% "o$ses4 and in 2DD4 an additional
amil% "o$se !as erectedF /oda%4 t"e 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage Francisto!n
com#rises not onl% siJteen amil% "o$ses4 0$t also an administration area4 a small
clinic and a m$lti#$r#ose "all4 and "o$ses or t"e )illage director and t"e 'O'
a$ntsF /"e 'O' ;indergarten on t"e same #remises "as 0een in o#eration since
'e#tem0er 1==8 and "as a ca#acit% or 1DD c"ildren4 !"o are loo6ed ater in o$r
gro$# roomsF A 6itc"en and #la%gro$nd also 0elong to t"e 'O' ;indergartenF (n
2DD44 an 'O' 3o$t" Facilit% consisting o t!o "o$ses !as o#ened4 !"ere $# to
t"irt% %o$t"s can sta% d$ring t"eir )ocational training or $rt"er ed$cation and
#re#are or 0ecoming inde#endentF 'ince t"e esta0lis"ment o t"e 'O' 1"ildrenIs
8illage in Francisto!n4 an increasing n$m0er o c"ildren "a)e o$nd a ne! "ome
t"ere and can li)e in #eace in t"eir amil% "o$ses s$rro$nded 0% large4 s"ad%
treesF
SOS ChildrenHs Billae Sero-e
'ero!e4 !it" its a##roJimatel% 8D4DDD in"a0itants4 is t"e ca#ital o -ots!anaIs
1entral District and is an im#ortant trade and commerce centreF (t lies a0o$t 25D
6ilometres nort"east o Ga0oroneF 'ero!e "as 0een t"e main )illage o t"e 2g!ato
#eo#le4 one o t"e eig"t #rinci#al tri0es o -ots!ana4 e)er since ;ing ;"ama mo)ed
t"ere in 1=D2F (n 1=744 it ins#ired t"e 'o$t" Arican-0orn !riter -essie &eadIs 0oo6
L'ero!eK 8illage o t"e +ain :indLF /oda%4 a##roJimatel% 3D4DDD or#"ans li)e in t"e
'ero!e area and t"e n$m0er o c"ild or grann% "eaded amilies is steadil%
increasingF /"e 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage is located on t"e o$ts6irts o 'ero!e4 in a
middle class residential areaF /"e #lot o land !as donated 0% t"e go)ernment o
-ots!anaF 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage 'ero!e c$rrentl% com#rises i)e amil% "o$ses4 an
administration 0loc6 and an 'O' ;indergartenF /"e 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage !ill 0e
eJtended ste# 0% ste# $ntil all acilities #lanned "a)e 0een com#letedF Ater its
com#letion4 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage 'ero!e !ill oer a ne! "ome to $# to 12D
c"ildrenF (t !ill com#rise t!el)e amil% "o$ses4 a "o$se or t"e )illage director4 sta
161
"o$ses4 an administration and ser)ice area and a comm$nit% "allF /"e 'O'
;indergarten on t"e same #remises "as a ca#acit% o 1DD c"ildren 0et!een t!o and
se)en %ears o age4 !"o are loo6ed ater in o$r gro$# roomsF A 6itc"en and
#la%gro$nd also 0elong to t"e 'O' ;indergartenF (t is o#en to c"ildren 0ot" rom t"e
'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage and rom t"e s$rro$nding comm$nit%4 !"ic" greatl% assists
!it" t"e integration o t"e 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illageF
SOS ChildrenHs Billae Tlok-en
/lo6!eng is a small to!n in t"e so$t"east o -ots!ana close to t"e 'o$t" Arican
0order4 a0o$t 12 6ilometres rom Ga0oroneF Ga0orone !as named ater ;gosi
Ga0orone !"o led t"e -atlo6!a tri0e into t"e area in t"e 188Ds4 !"en t"e% settled in
/lo6!engF (n t"e earl% 18=Ds a colonial ort !as 0$ilt in an area no! 6no!n as /"e
8illage near /lo6!engF /"e 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage /lo6!eng oers a ne! "ome to
$# to 1=2 c"ildren and !as oiciall% o#ened 0% t"e ,inister o &ome Aairs in
1=86F (t com#rises siJteen amil% "o$ses4 "o$ses or t"e )illage director and t"e 'O'
a$nts4 an administration area4 a small clinic and a m$lti-#$r#ose "allF
/"e ancillar% 'O' ;indergarten consists o o$r gro$# rooms4 a 6itc"en and a
#la%gro$nd4 and "as a ca#acit% or $# to 1DD c"ildrenF Fr$it orc"ards and )egeta0le
0eds !ere laid o$t on a0o$t t!o "ectares o land4 s$##l%ing t"e 'O' 1"ildrenIs
8illage !it" most o t"e ood neededF /"e 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage /lo6!eng also
incl$des t!o 'O' 8ocational /raining 1entres4 !"ic" !ere esta0lis"ed !it" local
inancial s$##ortF 8ocational training co$rses in !elding4 car#entr%4 se!ing4 coo6ing
and "ome-economics are oeredF /"e 'O' 3o$t" Facilit% accommodates %o$t"s
d$ring t"e time o t"eir )ocational training or ed$cation and gi)es t"em a c"ance to
#re#are or an inde#endent lie $nder t"e g$idance o t"eir %o$t" leadersF (t consists
o t"ree 0$ildings4 one on t"e #remises o t"e 'O' 1"ildrenIs 8illage4 one in t"e to!n
o /lo6!eng and one in Ga0orone4 and eac" "o$se "as a ca#acit% or iteen %o$t"sF
Civil Society -orkin 'or Promotin Human Security to Re'uees
/"e co$ntr% is a #art% to t"e 1=51 1on)ention relating to t"e 'tat$s o +e$gees4 t"e
1=67 *rotocol relating to t"e 'tat$s o +e$gees4 and t"e 1=6= Arican Union
1on)ention Go)erning t"e '#eciic As#ects o t"e +e$gee *ro0lem in AricaF /"e
go)ernment "as esta0lis"ed a s%stem or #ro)iding #rotection to re$geesF /"e
go)ernment granted re$gee stat$s or as%l$mF /"e go)ernmentIs s%stem or granting
re$gee stat$s !as accessi0le 0$t slo!F (n #ractice t"e go)ernment #ro)ided
#rotection against t"e eJ#$lsion or ret$rn o #ersons to co$ntries !"ere t"eir li)es or
reedom !o$ld 0e t"reatened on acco$nt o t"eir race4 religion4 nationalit%4
162
mem0ers"i# in a #artic$lar social gro$#4 or #olitical o#inionF /"e go)ernment also
#ro)ided tem#orar% #rotection to indi)id$als !"o ma% not >$ali% as re$gees $nder
t"e 1=51 1on)ention or t"e 1=67 *rotocolF D$ring t"e %ear e!er t"an 1DD #ersons
!ere granted re$gee stat$sF /"e go)ernment coo#erated !it" t"e U2&1+ and ot"er
"$manitarian organi5ations in assisting re$gees and as%l$m see6ersF /"e go)ernment
"eld ne!l% arri)ed re$gees and as%l$m see6ers4 #rimaril% rom Cim0a0!e4 in t"e
1enter or (llegal (mmigrants in Francisto!n $ntil t"e +e$gee Ad)isor% 1ommittee
(+A1)4 a go)ernmental 0od% !"ose c"air#erson is t"e district commissioner o
Francisto!n4 made a stat$s recommendationN t"e U2&1+ !as #resent at +A1
meetings in t"e stat$s o o0ser)er and tec"nical ad)isorF Once #ersons !ere granted
re$gee stat$s4 t"e go)ernment transerred t"em to t"e D$6!e +e$gee 1am#F
+e$gee a##licants !"o !ere $ns$ccess$l in o0taining as%l$m !ere nonet"eless
allo!ed to remain at D$6!e i t"e% !is"ed !"ile t"e go)ernment reerred t"eir cases
to t"e U2&1+F +e$gees in D$6!e !ere #ro)ided access to ed$cation and "ealt"
careF /"e U2&1+ critici5ed t"e detention o as%l$m see6ers at t"e 1enter or (llegal
(mmigrants on t"e gro$nds t"at as%l$m see6ers s"o$ld not 0e "eld in detention
acilities4 alt"o$g" as%l$m see6ers !ere "o$sed se#aratel% rom illegal immigrantsF
1onditions at t"e center !ere generall% ade>$ate4 0$t c"ildren in t"e center did not
"a)e s$icient access to ed$cation or t"e d$ration o t"eir detention4 !"ic" in a e!
cases lasted man% mont"sF A##roJimatel% 6DD o t"e co$ntr%Is 345DD registered
re$gees !ere li)ing and !or6ing o$tside D$6!e 1am# at t"e 0eginning o t"e %earF
'ince 1==7 t"e go)ernment "ad allo!ed re$gees to a##l% or s#ecial residenc%
#ermits to li)e and !or6 o$tside o t"e cam# or a one-%ear #eriod !it" t"e
#ossi0ilit% o rene!alF (n E$ne t"e go)ernment decided to restrict t"e a0ilit% o
registered re$gees to li)e and !or6 o$tside t"e cam#F /"e ,inistr% o Deense4
E$stice4 and 'ec$rit% inormed t"e re$gees t"at t"eir #ermits !o$ld not 0e rene!ed
and t"at t"e% !o$ld recei)e assistance !it" ret$rning to t"e cam# on a rolling 0asis as
#ermits eJ#ired and circ$mstances allo!ed4 incl$ding com#letion o sc"ool terms or
c"ildrenF /"e go)ernment stated t"at in some eJce#tional cases4 s$c" as or re$gees
enrolled in "ig"er ed$cation or !it" L$ni>$e s6ills4L residence o$tside t"e cam#
!o$ld 0e #ermittedF -% %earIs end =5 re$gees "ad ret$rned to D$6!eF
Re'uees in ,ots-ana
Residin in ,ots-ana
+e$gees 34D22
As%l$m 'ee6ers 2D6
+et$rned +e$gees D
(nternall% Dis#laced *ersons ((D*') D
163
+et$rned (D*s D
'tateless *ersons D
8ario$s D
/otal *o#$lation o 1oncern 34228
Oriinatin 'rom ,ots-ana
+e$gees 3D
As%l$m 'ee6ers 1=7
+et$rned +e$gees D
(nternall% Dis#laced *ersons ((D*') D
+et$rned (D*s D
8ario$s D
/otal *o#$lation o 1oncern 227
Source: http:,,***"unhcr"org,pages,/0e/12/23"html, Access on 44
nd
+arch, 4566
Nationalities o' Re'uee in ,ots-ana
'F2F 2ationalities *ercentage
1F Angola 55F4
2F Cim0a0!e 23F4
3F 'o$t" Arica 12F7
4F +!anda 2F2
5F 7esot"o 2F1
6F 7i0eria 2F1
7F Uganda 2F1
Total !%%
Source: ***"ditsh*anelo"org"b*,images,7efugee845Assessment"pdf,
)ccess on &&
nd
5arch8 &%!!
164
-ots!ana !as t"e irst co$ntr% in so$t"ern Arica to roll o$t an antiretro)iral
treatment #rogramme4 !"ic" no! "as almost $ni)ersal co)erage4 0$t is among t"e
last to incl$de its relati)el% small re$gee #o#$lationF Ater %ears o lo00%ing 0%
t"e U2 +e$gee Agenc% (U2&1+)4 and local Aids and "$man rig"ts gro$#s4 in
A#ril 2DD= t"e go)ernment agreed to relaJ a #olic% t"at eJ#licitl% 0arred non-
citi5ens rom accessing treatmentF /"e re)ised #olic% sto##ed s"ort o incl$ding
&(8-#ositi)e re$gees in t"e national treatment #rogramme4 0$t -ots!ana as6ed t"e
U' go)ernment to $nd a #arallel #rogramme or t"e a##roJimatel% 345DD re$gees
at D$6!i4 !"o are mostl% rom Cim0a0!e4 2ami0ia4 Angola and 'o$t" AricaF 'o
ar4 a0o$t 17D re$gees "a)e started A+8 treatment and a $rt"er 65 are 0eing
monitored in a #rogramme im#lemented 0% t"e -ots!ana +ed 1ross4 !it"
o)ersig"t 0% U2&1+ and $nding rom t"e U' *residentIs .mergenc% *lan or
Aids +elieF *re)ention o mot"er-to-c"ild transmission ser)ices is no! also
a)aila0le to &(8-#ositi)e #regnant !omen in t"e cam#F From 2DD4 $ntil 2DD=4 a
go)ernment-r$n clinic at D$6!i !as onl% a$t"ori5ed to #ro)ide s$c" ser)ices to
local -ats!ana !omenF 2o one 6no!s "o! long t"e U' !ill 6ee# $nding
treatment or t"e re$geesF L(tIs 6ind o dice% 0eing in a #ri)atel% $nded
#rogramme4L said U%a#o 2dadi4 Acting Director o t"e -ots!ana 2et!or6 on
.t"ics4 7a! and &(8 and Aids (-O2.7A)F /"e% !ill 0e in a #recario$s sit$ation i
t"e $nding endsF /"e go)ernmentIs decision to allo! re$gees to recei)e A+8s
!as a #artial )ictor%F :e eel t"e go)ernment s"o$ld "a)e integrated t"em into t"eir
mainstream #rogrammeF -O2.7A "as 0een lo00%ing t"e go)ernment to c"ange its
#olic% o eJcl$ding oreigners rom Aids treatment and U2&1+ is contin$ing its
ad)ocac% eortsF Gloria *$ertas4 t"e agenc%Is senior regional &(8 and Aids
coordinator4 said t"e go)ernmentIs arg$ments or not eJtending treatment to incl$de
re$gees t"at it !o$ld attract more re$gees to t"e co$ntr%4 and t"e% !ere alread%
str$ggling to #ro)ide treatment to t"eir o!n #eo#leF
Civil Society -orkin 'or "ndienous Community
&istor% "as it t"at t"e 'an #eo#le4 commonl% reerred to as -$s"men or -asar!a4
are t"e original in"a0itants o -ots!anaF /"e% originated in t"e nort" and grad$all%
migrated so$t"!ardsF A##roJimatel% 24DDD %ears later4 t"e &ottentots ollo!ed t"e
-$s" #eo#le !"o !ere t"en ollo!ed 0% -ant$ s#ea6ersF /"e irst /s!ana settled in
t"e so$t"-east o -ots!ana in a##roJimatel% t"e 15
t"
cent$r%4 #ossi0l% "a)ing
migrated rom t"e so$t"F
&o!e)er4 t"e 'an remain t"e single largest indigeno$s comm$nit% in t"e co$ntr%F
/"e% consist o man% dierent small tri0es and s#ea6 a )ariet% o lang$ages4 all o
!"ic" incor#orate Lclic6L so$ndsF /"e small -$s"men comm$nities "ad t"eir
165
c$stoms and ol6lore and !ere ond o games and t"eir traditional m$sic as a )ital
#art o t"eir li)esF /"e% also made t"eir o!n m$sical instr$ments and enMo%ed
dancingF
/"e -asar!a remain economicall% and #oliticall% marginali5ed4 "a)e lost access to
t"eir traditional land in ertile regions o t"e co$ntr%4 and remain )$lnera0le to
eJ#loitation 0% t"eir non -asar!a neig"0o$rsF /"eir isolation4 lac6 o ed$cation4
ignorance o ci)il rig"ts and lac6 o #olitical re#resentation "a)e st%mied t"eir
#rogressF (n 1=614 t"e colonial go)ernment o -ots!ana esta0lis"ed t"e more t"an
5248DD 6m^ 1entral ;ala"ari Game +eser)e (1;G+) to #rotect t"e ood s$##l% o
some -asar!a gro$#s still #$rs$ing a s$0sistence "$nter-gat"erer li)eli"oodF
&o!e)er4 in 1==74 t"e go)ernment 0egan to relocate t"e -asar!a to t!o settlements
M$st o$tside t"e 1;G+ V ;a$d!ane and 2e! ZadeF
A maMor de0ate relating to 'an rig"ts "as 0een o)er t"e 1entral ;ala"ari Game
+eser)e4 one o Arica<s largest conser)ation areasF /"e 1entral ;ala"ari Game
+eser)e co)ers a )ast area o 5248DD 6m^ and !as originall% esta0lis"ed in order to
#ro)ide #rotection or t"e 'an 0$s"men !"o li)ed in increasingl% small and remote
comm$nities !it"in t"e reser)eF /"e landsca#e is #redominantl% sand% !it" dr%
ossil )alle%s4 d$ne ields and grass% #lainsF -et!een 1==7 and 2DD24 t"e go)ernment
o -ots!ana decided to resettle residents o t"e 1entral ;ala"ari Game +eser)e to
ne!l% esta0lis"ed settlements o$tside t"e reser)eF (n res#onse to t"is eJercise4 a
coalition o local organi5ations !as ormed to dialog$e !it" t"e go)ernmentF /"is
coalition
166
9igure: A San )ushmen in Central :alahari Game 7eser#e of )ots*ana
4The Hindu Ne-spaper8 &$
rd
5arch8 &%!!9
Source5 http599www%thehindu%com9news9international9article$$*+.**%ece,
access on 23
rd
,arc"4 2D11
incl$ded local 2ongo)ernment organisations s$c" as t"e First *eo#le o t"e ;ala"ari
(;gei6ani ;!eni)4 ;$r$ De)elo#ment /r$st4 t"e :or6ing Gro$# o (ndigeno$s
,inorities in 'o$t"ern Arica4 and se)eral ot"er -ots!ana-0ased non-go)ernmental
organi5ations eFgF Dits"!anelo4 t"e -ots!ana 1o$ncil o 2on-Go)ernmental
Organi5ations (-O1O2GO) and t"e -ots!ana 1"ristian 1o$ncil (-11)F /"ese
2ongo)ernment organisations esta0lis"ed a cons$ltati)e gro$#4 called t"e
2egotiating /eam4 to carr% o$t disc$ssions !it" t"e go)ernment o -ots!ana on t"e
$t$re o t"e #eo#le o t"e 1entral ;ala"ari Game +eser)eF 2egotiations !it" t"e
go)ernment #ro)ed $tileF
/"e A##eal 1o$rt M$dgment is a remar6a0le )ictor% or t"e -$s"menF 2ot onl% "as
t"e co$rt $#"eld t"eir rig"t to !ater in t"e ;ala"ari Desert4 0$t it "as criticised t"e
go)ernmentIs treatment o t"e -$s"men as GdegradingHF '$r)i)al (nternational4 t"e
7ondon-0ased organisation !"ic" cam#aigns or t"e rig"ts o indigeno$s #eo#les and
"as strongl% 0ac6ed t"e -$s"men<s legal 0attle4 descri0ed t"e a##eal co$rtIs decision
as Gmomento$sHF .)er since 1==74 !"en t"e -ots!anan go)ernment decided to mo)e
t"e -$s"men o t"eir ancestral "$nting-gro$nd in t"e ;ala"ari4 t"e -$s"men<s 0attle
to ret$rn "as 0een a losing oneF (n 2DD24 t"e Arm% mo)ed t"e maMorit% o t"e
-$s"men o$t o t"e ;ala"ari4 oten 0r$tall%4 0$t some re$sed to lea)eF Ot"ers drited
0ac6 rom t"e so$lless s"ant% to!ns !"ere t"e% !ere orced to li)eF For tens o
167
t"o$sands o %ears4 t"e -$s"men "a)e managed to li)e and t"ri)e in t"is dee#l%
"ostile en)ironmentF /"e -ritis"4 !"o !ere t"e colonial #o!er in -ots!ana 0eore its
inde#endence4 #romised it to t"em in #er#et$it%F /"e -ots!ana go)ernmentIs
decision to mo)e t"e -$s"men ollo!ed t"e disco)er% o diamonds in t"e 1entral
;ala"ari Game +eser)e (1;G+)4 t"e "eart o t"e -$s"men<s territor%F (t "as oten
0een alleged t"at t"e t!o t"ings !ere lin6ed4 t"o$g" s$ccessi)e go)ernments "a)e
denied t"isF /"e legal 0attle oc$sed on a single !ell4 on !"ic" t"ose -$s"men !"o
still li)ed in t"e 1;G+ de#ended or t"eir !aterF /"e Arm% 0loc6ed $# t"e #i#e !it"
concrete and illed t"e 0asin !it" sandK a melanc"ol% sig"t in t"is in"os#ita0le desertF
2e)ert"eless t"e -$s"men managed to s$r)i)e !it"o$t t"e !ellF /"e% o$nd !ater in
t"eir traditional !a%s4 and sometimes t"e% managed to raise t"e mone% to 0$% 0ottled
!ater rom a store 486m a!a%F
On at least one occasion4 as a gro$# !as ret$rning rom t"e 1D8-6m !al6 carr%ing
"$ndreds o 0ottles4 t"e% !ere sto##ed 0% g$ards at t"e 1entral ;ala"ari Game
+eser)e4 !"o #o$red all t"e !ater on to t"e gro$ndF /"e 2D1D M$dgment4 !"ic" t"e
a##eal co$rt "as no! re)ersed4 !as criticised inside and o$tside -ots!ana or its
toneF *residing M$dge t"en E$dge :alia said t"e -$s"men "ad G0ro$g"t $#on
t"emsel)es an% discomort t"e% ma% end$reHF -ots!ana is in man% !a%s a model
Arican co$ntr%4 !ealt"%4 democratic and not o0)io$sl% corr$#tF -$t e)en its
s$##orters "a)e 0een em0arrassed 0% t"e treatment o t"e -$s"menF
Civil Society -orkin 'or Environmental Security
-ots!ana "as a re#$tation or o#en4 democratic instit$tionsF &o!e)er4 t"ese "a)e
almost all 0een im#osed rom a0o)eF /"ere "as 0een )er% little s#ontaneo$s
de)elo#ment o nongo)ernment organisations or ot"er instit$tions o ci)il societ%4
and t"ose !"ic" "as 0egan to gro! $# "a)e oten 0een co-o#ted or dominated 0%
go)ernment4 lea)ing ci)il societ% relati)el% !ea6 45olutsi and Holm8 !0.09F /"e
democratic acade "ides t"e act t"at t"e co$ntr% "as 0een r$led since inde#endence
0% t"e same small elite4 !it" senior ci)il ser)ants and #oliticians interc"anging
#ositions in a manner )er% rare in !estern li0eral democraciesF &a)ing !on all t"e
elections since inde#endence4 t"e -ots!ana Democratic *art (-O*) "as enMo%ed 28
%ears in #o!er4 !"ic" com#ares !it" o$rteen %ears or t"e conser)ati)es in t"e
United ;ingdom (UF;) and t"irteen %ears or CA2U (*F) in Cim0a0!eF
168
One indicator o t"e a##arent relati)e lac6 o im#ortance o nongo)ernment
organisations in -ots!ana is t"e relati)e lac6 o reerences on nongo)ernment
organisationsF Until )er% recentl% t"ere "as 0een no #$0lis"ed director%4 0$t a total
o onl% ort% o$r registered )ol$ntar% organi5ations !as listed 4Nteta8 !0..9F O
t"ese onl% t"ree co$ld 0e called national en)ironmental organi5ations4 namel% t"e
Forestr% Association o -ots!ana (FA-)4 ;ala"ari 1onser)ation 'ociet% (;1') and
:ildlie 1l$0sF +ecent inormal estimates #$t t"e n$m0er o 2ongo)ernment
organisations at national or district le)el !it" some en)ironmental interest at aro$nd
iteen to t!ent%4 o !"ic" #er"a#s e!er t"an "al-a-do5en !ere o#erating 0eore
a0o$t 1=8=F /"ese estimates #ro0a0l% do not incl$de international 2ongo)ernment
organisations or )er% local gro$#sF
16=
&o!e)er4 t"is is clearl% a rat"er small le)el o acti)it%F /"ere is some indication
t"at at local le)el as !ell t"e n$m0ers are relati)el% lo! traditional orms o
organi5ation ma% #redominate o)er )ol$ntar% gro$# ormation4 !"ic" ma% 0e seen
as alien 4Nteta8 !0..94 t"o$g" t"is is a to#ic re>$iring care$l st$d% 0eore an%
deine #rono$ncements s"o$ld 0e madeF 2ongo)ernment organisations are o man%
t%#es4 and se)eral !riters "a)e #$t or!ard t%#ologies or s$ggested #rinci#les or
disting$is"ing4 sa%4 Grassroots Organi5ations (G+Os) rom ot"er nongo)ernment
organisations 4;pho''8 !00$9F /"e a$t"or "as s$ggested else!"ere 4Thomas8 !00&9
t"at it is im#ortant to disting$is" m$t$al 0eneit organi5ations4 0ased on
mem0ers"i#4 rom #$0lic 0eneit organi5ations4 incl$ding c"arities and ot"er
nongo)ernment organisations set $# to s$##l% ser)ices to ot"ers as !ell as
cam#aigning or researc" organi5ations !"ic" do not necessaril% "a)e a deined4
client gro$#F (t is also im#ortant to recognise dierences in sco#e and scaleN
nongo)ernment organisations !or6ing amo$sl% at local4 national and international
le)els s"o$ld not 0e eJ#ected to !or6 in similar !a%sF (n -ots!ana4 t"ere are
im#ortant dierences 0et!een nongo)ernment organisations in terms o t"eir
c$lt$ral 0ac6gro$nd and "istorical de)elo#ment as mo)ementsF (n #artic$lar4
:estern-st%le conser)ationist nongo)ernment organisations4 !it" acti)ities
incl$ding )ol$ntar% eorts in s$##ort o !ildlie and so ort"4 m$st 0e disting$is"ed
rom indigeno$s national and comm$nit% 0ased nongo)ernment organisationsF
Alt"o$g" e! in n$m0er4 t"e ormer t%#e incl$de some longstanding eJam#les s$c"
as t"e ;ala"ari 1onser)ation 'ociet%4 t"e Forestr% Association o -ots!ana and t"e
:ildlie 1l$0sF /"ese !ere originall% eJ#atriate-led and4 alt"o$g" t"e% are not
identiied !it" #artic$lar economic interests li6e t"eir settler-led e>$i)alents in4 sa%4
Cim0a0!e4 t"eir concerns are still sometimes dismissed as a !"ite manIs #ro0lemF
(n act4 to >$ite a large eJtent t"e !"ole nongo)ernment organisations mo)ement in
-ots!ana "as $ntil recentl% 0een identiied !it" t"e eJ#atriate !"ite comm$nit%F
&o!e)er4 !it" t"e gro!t" o an $r0an salaried middle class t"ese conser)ationist
nongo)ernment organisations ma% 0e ta6ing on ne! 0lac6 leaders"i# toget"er !it"
some o t"e c"aracteristics o en)ironmental #ress$re gro$#s in .$ro#e or t"e U'AF
One ne! nongo)ernment organisations4 'omarelang /i6ologo (.n)ironmental
:atc") -ots!ana ma% 0e considered in t"is regardF
Generall% s#ea6ing t"e >$estion o land ten$re s%stems and t"eir reorm is one !"ic"
is diic$lt or nongo)ernment organisations to addressF (n -ots!ana4 an e>$all%
diic$lt orm o reso$rces or 2ongo)ernment organisations to address is cattleF /"is
t"ird )ie! !o$ld4 in t"e case o -ots!ana4 loo6 at t"e distri0$tion o cattle as !ell as
o access to land and ot"er nat$ral reso$rcesF One s#eciic #oint "ere !o$ld 0e t"e
>$estion o Ld$al gra5ing rig"tsL4 !"ere an indi)id$al !it" a commercial "erd ma%
17D
retain "ereditar% rig"ts to comm$nal gra5ing and t"$s 0e a0le to mo)e cattle 0et!een
comm$nal and commerciall% 5oned areas4 to t"e en)ironmental detriment o t"e
ormerF (n -ots!ana t"e rig"t to consolidate !ealt" t"ro$g" cattle is o great
im#ortance4 and t"is a##lies also to $r0ani5ed mem0ers o t"e #olitical elite4 some o
!"om 0eneit rom d$al gra5ing rig"tsF 2ongo)ernment organisations cannot c"oose
o##osition as a constant strateg% - t"eir interests oten coincide at least #artiall% !it"
t"ose o decision-ma6ers in Ggo)ernment and else!"ereF &o!e)er4 i t"ere is clear
conlict 0et!een #olic% stated as a0o$t to 0e im#lemented and interests re#resented
0% 2ongo)ernment organisations4 t"e a0o)e stories tend to s"o! t"at o$trig"t
o##osition ma% 0e more li6el% to get res$lts t"an tr%ing to colla0orate and "o#ing or
agreed modiicationsF(nternational lin6s are #ro0a0l% essential i o##osition is to
s$cceedF /"e% can onl% !or6 i t"ere is gen$inel% an international dimension to t"e
#artic$lar iss$e - 0$t t"en t"ere is t"e danger o dierent #erce#tions o an iss$e rom
o$tside t"an !it"in -ots!ana itselF
On more local iss$es4 indirect cam#aigning ma% 0e more li6el% to s$cceed4 t"o$g" its
eects are so long term4 t"an attem#ts at lo00%ing on a colla0orati)e 0asisF +eal
o##ort$nities or nongo)ernment organisations acti)ists to enter t"e #olic% net!or6s
are li6el% to remain )er% e! and ar 0et!een4 and to carr% )er% strong dangers o co-
o#tation !"en t"e% do arise or certain eminent indi)id$alsF U# to no!4 international
concern or en)ironment in Arica and -ots!ana in #artic$lar "as mostl% related to
iss$es aro$nd !ildlie and 0io-di)ersit%F /"e desertiication con)ention is attracting
m$c" less #artici#ation rom 0ig 2ort"ern 2ongo)ernment organi5ations t"an does
t"e 0io-di)ersit% con)ention4 or eJam#leF &o!e)er4 t"e desertiication con)ention is
no! signed and incl$des reerence to comm$nit%-0ased s$staina0le de)elo#ment4 t"e
im#ortance o indigeno$s 6no!ledge and tec"ni>$es4 and t"e need or inde#endent
.(As on 0ig engineering #roMectsF (t ma% t"en 0ecome #ossi0le or 2ongo)ernment
organi5ations in -ots!ana to in)o6e t"is international con)ention and gain
international s$##ort at t"e #olic% orm$lation or e)en agenda-setting stage or a
0roader4 more #artici#ati)e a##roac" to en)ironmental iss$es s$c" as t"eseF
Re'erences
$% -F :eimer4 O/"e 'o$t"ern Arican De)elo#ment 1o-ordination
1onerenceK *ast and F$t$re<N Arica (nsig"t4 8olF 214 2oF 24 1==14 ##F78-
8=
)% -att"%an%4 ; (2DD4) GO0stacles to "$man sec$rit% Anal%sis o t"e 2DD4
'ocial :atc" national re#ortsH4 /"e -ig (ss$esK +e#orts 0% 1ommitment4
"tt#K99!!!Fsocial!atc"Forg9en9inormes/ematicos97DF"tmlF
171
(% -ots!ana 1o$ncil o 2on-Go)ernmental Organi5ations (-O1O2GO)N
("tt#K990ocongoForgF0!9)F
*% 1a!t"ra4 G (2DD4)4 A 1once#t$al Frame!or6 or +egional 'ec$rit% 4
Field4 ' (ed) *eace in AricaK /o!ards a 1olla0orati)e 'ec$rit% +egime4
Eo"annes0$rgK (nstit$te or Glo0al Dialog$eF
.% 1"ari4 *F+ (2DD1) G'ec$rit% and Go)ernance in 'o$t" AsiaK /"eir
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173
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175
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178
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'0% ,olomo ,F 2DD5F .lectoral s%stems and democrac% in -ots!ana4 in
,a$ndeni C (ed)4 *+ Eears of Democracy in Botswana $'0.8)++.4
Ga0oroneK ,megi *$0lis"ingF
'1% ,ol$tsi4 *F 2DD5F -ots!ana<s democrac% in a 'o$t"ern Arica regional
#ers#ecti)e4 in ,a$ndeni C (ed)4 *+ years of democracy in Botswana $'0.8
)++.F Ga0oroneK ,megi *$0lis"ingF
'4% ,orna 17F 2DD5F Missin the Mar75 Audit of the SAD! Declaration on
,ender and Development in Decision8Ma7inF '!edenK (nternational (deaF
''% ,#a0anga DF 2DDDF Declining )oter #artici#ation in -ots!anaK /rends and
#atterns4 #ula5 Botswana Journal of African Studies 14(1)4 ## 47-58F
$++% ,#a0anga DF 2DD4F &$man reso$rce management in -ots!ana4 in
;amoc"e ;4 De0ra" 34 &or!it5 F ` 26om0o ,$$6a G (eds)4 Manain
&uman Resources in AfricaF 7ondonK +o$tledgeF
$+$% 2tseane D ` 'ents"o EF 2DD5F :omen<s re#resentation in #arliament and
co$ncilK A com#arati)e anal%sis4 in ,a$ndeni C4 *+ Eears of Democracy in
BotswanaF ,megi *$0lis"ing &o$seK Ga0oroneF
$+)% Osei-&!edie - ` 'e0$d$0$d$ DF 2DD4F Strenthenin #arliamentary
Democracy in SAD! !ountries5 Botswana !ountry ReportF *arliaments o
t"e 'o$t" 'eries editor4 / &$g"esF Eo"annes0$rgK 'o$t" Arican (nstit$te o
(nternational AairsF
$+(% Osei-&!edie -F 2DD1F /"e #olitical o##osition in -ots!anaK /"e #olitics o
actionalism and ragmentation4 Transformation 454 ## 57-77F Ot"ata O `
'ele6e /F 2DD6F O/"e -$siness 'ector as *art o t"e 2ational (ntegrit%
'%stem in -ots!ana<F *art o ongoing researc" or /rans#arenc%
(nternationalF
$+*% *icard 7AF 1=7=F District co$ncils in -ots!ana V a remnant o local
a$tonom%4 Journal of Modern African Studies 71(2)4 ## 2=5-3D8F
181
$+.% *icard 7AF 1=87F The #olitics of Development in Botswana5 A Model for
SuccessF 7%nne +einnerK -o$lder
$+0% +etengF 2DD5F 7et -asar!a li)e in 1;G+4 Botswana ,uardian4 28 Octo0er
2DD5F
$+1% 'al6in E4 ,#a0anga D4 'el!e E ` :rig"t , (eds)F 1==7F Aspects of the
Botswana 6conomy5 Selected #apers% Ga0oroneK 7ents!e la 7esediF
$+4% 'e0$d$0$d$ D ` Osei-&!edie C-F 2DD5F Democratic !onsolidation in
SAD!5 BotswanaFs 2DD4 .lectionsF Eo"annes0$rgK .('AF
$+'% 'e0$d$0$d$ DF 1==8F OA 2eeds Assessment *roile or *arliamentarians
and 1o$ncillors in -ots!ana<F *a#er #resented at a !or6s"o# on
OGo)ernance in 'o$t"ern AricaK /raining o *arliamentarians and
1o$ncillors<4 'A*.' /r$st4 &arare4 =-1D 'e#tem0er 1==8F
$$+% 'e0$d$d0$d$ DF 2DD4F /"e role o #olitical rallies in -ots!ana<s electoral
#rocess4 6lection Tal7 134 14 ,a% 2DD4F
$$$% 'elol!ane O4 2DD1F O,ono#ol% *oliti6osK &o! -ots!ana<s O##osition
*arties &a)e &el#ed '$stain One-*art% Dominance<F *a#er #resented at a
De#artment o 'ociolog% seminar4 Uni)ersit% o -ots!ana4 27 'e#tF
$$)% /a%lor (F 2DD3F As good as it getsR -ots!ana<s Odemocratic de)elo#ment<4
Journal of Modern African Studies 21(2)F
$$(% /a%lor (F 2DD6F ,rowin Authoritarianism in the African Miracle @ Should
Botswana Be a !ause for !oncernG Danis" (nstit$te or (nternational
't$dies4 D((' :or6ing *a#er 2o 2DD5924F
$$*% /a%lor (F 2DD6F /"e 7imits o t"e Arican ,iracleK Academic reedom in
-ots!ana and t"e De#ortation o ;ennet" Good4 Journal of !ontemporary
African Studies 24(1)4 ## 1D1-122F
$$.% /ordo :F 1=88F 7ocal administration in -ots!ana4 #u-lic Administration
" Development4 84 ## 183-2D2F
$$0% :allis E ` Doller% -F 2DD2F 2ocal ,overnment !apacity and Social
!apital4 .conomic Disc$ssion *a#ers 2oF D2D74 Uni)ersit% o OtagoF
$$1% :$sc" E'F 2DD4F Decentrali5ation4 local go)ernment and t"e democratic
transition in 'o$t"ern AricaK A com#arati)e anal%sis4 African Studies
182
Quarterly4 /"e Online Eo$rnal or Arican 't$dies4
a"tt#K99!e0FaricaF$lFed$9as>9)29)2ila2F"tmbF
183
184
Chapter3 6ive
Human Security
as Human
Development in
,ots-ana
Human Security as Human Development in ,ots-ana
/"e 0asic o0Mecti)e o de)elo#ment is to create an ena0ling en)ironment or
#eo#le to enMo% long4 "ealt"% and creati)e li)esF /"is ma% a##ear to 0e a sim#le tr$t"F
-$t it is o ten orgotten in t"e immediate concern !it" t"e acc$m$lation o
commodities and inancial !ealt"F /ec"nical considerations o t"e means to ac"ie)e
"$man de)elo#ment and t"e $se o statistical aggregates to meas$re national income
and its gro!t" "a)e at times o0sc$red t"e act t"at t"e #rimar% o0Mecti)e o
de)elo#ment is to 0eneit #eo#leF /"ere are t!o reasons or t"isF First4 national
income ig$res4 $se$l t"o$g" t"e% are or man% #$r#oses4 do not re)eal t"e
185
com#osition o income or t"e real 0eneiciariesF 'econd4 #eo#le oten )al$e
ac"ie)ement s t"at do not s"o! $# at all4 or not immediatel%4 in "ig"er meas$red
income or gro!t" ig$resK 0etter n$trition and "ealt" ser)ices4 greater access to
6no!ledge4 more sec$re li)eli"oods4 0etter !or6ing conditions4 sec$rit% against
crime and #"%sical )iolence4 satis%ing leis$re "o$rs4 and a sense o #artici#ating in
t"e economic4 c$lt$ral and #olitical acti)ities o t"eir comm$nitiesF
O co$rse4 #eo#le also !ant "ig"er incomes as one o t"eir o#tionsF -$t income is not
t"e s$m total o "$man lieF
/"is !a% o loo6ing at "$man de)elo#ment is not reall% ne!F /"e idea t"at social
arrangements m$st 0e M$dged 0% t"e eJtent to !"ic" t"e% #romote L"$man goodL
goes 0ac6 at least to AristotleF &e also !arned against M$dging societies merel% 0%
s$c" t"ings as income and !ealt" t"at are so$g"t not or t"emsel)es 0$t desired as
means to ot"er o0Mecti)esF L:ealt" is e)identl% not t"e good !e are see6ing4 or it is
merel% $se$l and or t"e sa6e o somet"ing elseF
Aristotle arg$ed or seeing t"e dierence 0et!een a good #olitical arrangement and a
0ad one in terms o its s$ccesses and ail$res in acilitating #eo#leIs a0ilit% to lead
lo$ris"ing li)esLF &$man 0eings as t"e real end o all acti)ities4 !as a rec$rring
t"eme in t"e !ritings o most o t"e earl% #"iloso#"ersF .mman$el ;ant o0ser)edK
L'o act as to treat "$manit%4 !"et"er in t"eir o!n #erson or in t"at o an% ot"er4 in
e)er% case as an end !it"al4 ne)er as means onl%F &as o0sc$red t"at #o!er$l
#ers#ecti)e4 s$##lanting a oc$s on ends 0% an o0session !it" me rel% t"e meansF
+ecent de)elo#ment eJ#erience "as once again $nder lined t"e need or #a%ing
/"e 0asic #$r#ose o de)elo#ment is to enlarge #eo#leIs c"oicesF (n
#rinci#le4 t"ese c"oices can 0e ininite and can c"ange o)er timeF *eo#le oten )al$e
ac"ie)ements t"at do not s"o! $# at all4 or not immediatel%4 in income or gro!t"
ig$resK greater access to 6no!ledge4 0etter n$trition and "ealt" ser)ices4 more sec$re
li)eli"oods4 sec$rit% against crime and #"%sical )iolence4 satis%ing leis$re "o$rs4
#olitical and c$lt$ral reedoms and sense o #artici#ation in comm$nit% acti)itiesF
/"e o0Mecti)e o de)elo#ment is to create an ena0ling en)ironment or #eo#le to
enMo% long4 "ealt"% and creati)e li)esF 45ah2u2 ul HaG9
&$man de)elo#ment4 as an a##roac"4 is concerned !it" !"at ( ta6e to 0e t"e 0asic
de)elo#ment ideaK namel%4 ad)ancing t"e ric"ness o "$man lie4 rat"er t"an t"e
ric"ness o t"e econom% in !"ic" "$man 0eings li)e4 !"ic" is onl% a #art o itF
4)martya Sen9
186
/"e &$man De)elo#ment (ndeJ is an a)erage meas$re o a M$risdiction
ac"ie)ement in t"e t"ree essential dimensions o "$man de)elo#ment a long and
"ealt"% lieN 6no!ledgeN and a decent standard o li)ingF /"e #roJ% )aria0les $sed in
eac" case are res#ecti)el%4 lie eJ#ectanc% at 0irt"4 t"e ad$lt literac% rate and income
#er ca#itaF /"e GD( meas$res dis#arities in "$man de)elo#ment o$tcomes or men
and !omen in t"e same dimensions o "$man de)elo#ment co)ered 0% t"e &D(F /"e
G., is %et anot"er de)elo#ment indeJ t"at eJ#licitl% eJamines dierential o$tcomes
or men and !omenF (t eJamines !omen em#o!erment in terms o re#resentation in
instit$tions o #olitical and economic decision ma6ingF /"e &*( meas$res "$man
#o)ert%4 !"ic" is deined as de#ri)ation in a m$lti#licit% o dimensions o ca#a0ilities
long and "ealt"% lie4 6no!ledge4 income and #artici#ationF /"e &*( is a !eig"ted
a)erage o t"ree )aria0lesK t"e #ercentage o #eo#le eJ#ected to die 0eore age 4D4 t"e
ad$lt illiterac% rate and de#ri)ation in o)erall economic #ro)isioning #$0lic and
#ri)ateF /"e #roJ% )aria0le or de#ri)ation in o)erall economic #ro)isioning is a
com#osite o t"e #ercentage o #eo#le !it"o$t access to 0asic "ealt" ser)ices and sae
!ater and t"e #ercentage o $nder!eig"t c"ildrenF &$man de)elo#ment is too
com#leJ and too ric" a conce#t to 0e red$ced to a single com#osite indeJF
2onet"eless4 signiicant attem#ts "a)e 0een made to ca#t$re and meas$re t"e
conce#tF Until 1==D4 GD* #er ca#ita !as t"e dominant com#osite meas$re o
de)elo#ment des#ite its o0)io$s limitations4 in #artic$lar t"e state4 in ens$ring
indi)id$als access to t"e attendant reedomsF /"$s4 as a $ni)ersal claim4 t"e rig"t to
ed$cation4 or instance4 0$ttresses t"e 6no!ledge ca#a0ilit% 0% o0liging t"e state to
#ro)ide $ni)ersal access to >$alit% 0asic ed$cation and o0liging #arents to send t"eir
c"ildren to sc"oolF
/"e "$man rig"ts agenda also 0eneits rom "$man de)elo#mentF &$man
de)elo#ment4 0% its )er% nat$re4 $lils "$man rig"tsF At a minim$m4 "$man
de)elo#ment is meas$red in terms o t"e eradication o "$man #o)ert%F /"is coners
$#on indi)id$als a m$lti#licit% o reedoms amongst t"em reedom rom !ant4
reedom rom discrimination4 reedom to de)elo# and reedom to #artici#ate
associated !it" t"e social and #olitical rig"ts $nder#inned 0% t"e Uni)ersal
Declaration o &$man +ig"tsF (t is also in t"e nat$re o "$man 0eings to demand o
"ig"er rig"ts and reedoms as more o t"eir 0asic !ants are met4 or "$man
de)elo#ment is an em#o!ering #rocessF /"$s4 in 'o$t" .ast Asia4 economic
#ros#erit% "as led to a stronger mo)ement or #olitical and ci)il rig"ts and t"e rig"t to
c"ooseF (n )irt$all% all societies4 t"e relati)el% more de)elo#ed sections o societ%
"a)e led t"e str$ggle or greater democrati5ationF
187
A rec$rring #ro0lem in t"e rig"ts disco$rse is t"e legal enorcea0ilit% o "$man
rig"tsF (n t"e rig"ts a##roac" to "$man de)elo#ment4 a distinction is made 0et!een
"$man rig"ts and legal rig"tsF 7egal rig"ts are 0% t"eir )er% nat$re enorcea0le
t"ro$g" t"e co$rt s%stem 0eca$se t"e% deri)e rom eJisting la!sF &$man rig"ts on
t"e ot"er "and transcend t"e limits o legal enorcea0ilit%F /"e% eJist #rior to t"e
eJistence o t"e str$ct$res o t"eir enorcement and t"ereore cannot 0e s$0Mect to t"e
same #rinci#les o legal enorcea0ilit% t"at legal rig"ts areF :"ilst man% o t"e
re>$entl% $n$lilled rig"ts o *7:A are legal rig"ts4 man% are notF /"is neit"er
denies t"eir eJistence nor M$stiies t"eir non-$lilmentFits red$ction o de)elo#ment
to economic gro!t"F /"e &$man De)elo#ment (ndeJ (&D()4 in $se since 1==D !"en
t"e irst &$man De)elo#ment +e#ort !as #rod$ced4 adds t!o dimensions t"at relect
"$man o$tcomes to #er ca#ita GD* in t"e meas$rement o "$man de)elo#mentF
Alt"o$g" it co)ers onl% t"ree dimensions o "$man de)elo#ment4 it is a $se$l
com#liment4 i not alternati)e4 to #er ca#ita GD*F (t ne)ert"eless is not
com#re"ensi)e eno$g"F
1onse>$entl%4 com#lementar% meas$res are $sed conc$rrentl% !it" &D(F /"ese
incl$de t"e &$man *o)ert% (ndeJ (&*()4 !"ic" meas$res t"e distri0$tion o #rogress
in "$man de)elo#ment 0% oc$ssing on "$man de#ri)ationF /!o gender-related
meas$res are also $sedF
/"e Gender-related De)elo#ment (GD() considers dis#arities in o$tcomes or men
and !omen in t"e same dimensions o "$man de)elo#ment t"at &D( co)ersF
/"e Gender .m#o!erment ,eas$re (G.,) loo6s at !omen #artici#ation in t"e
economic and #olitical li)es o t"eir comm$nitiesF /"e $se o t"e indices t"at
com#lement &D( - GD(4 G., and &*( testiies to t"e eJistence o man% dimensions
o "$man de)elo#mentF /"e incl$sion o #er ca#ita income in &D( attests to t"e
im#ortance o income and economic gro!t" in t"e #rocess o "$man de)elo#mentF
-$t t"e ail$re o tric6ledo!n economics s$ggests t"at t"e o$tcome o economic
gro!t" co$ld 0e !ider income dis#arities rat"er t"an t"e red$ction o #o)ert%F
O)ercoming "$man #o)ert% re>$ires #ro #oor gro!t" or gro!t" !it" e>$it%F &$man
reedom is t"e $ltimate eJ#ression o "$man de)elo#mentF (n #olitics and social
d%namics4 it inds eJ#ression in $ni)ersal acce#tance o t!o 0asic #rinci#lesK t"at
"$man dignit% is in"erentl% sacrosanctN and t"at "$man 0eings are 0orn ree and
e>$al in dignit% and rig"tsF At t"e economic le)el4 it inds eJ#ression in ade>$ate
#ro)isioning or "$man needs t"ro$g" #$0lic and #ri)ate meansF /"ereore4 in its
totalit%4 "$man reedom g$arantees t"e dignit% and !ort" o t"e "$man #erson
Uni)ersal Declaration o &$man +ig"tsF
188
Human Development "nde?
/"e irst &$man De)elo#ment +e#ort introd$ced a ne! !a% o meas$ring
de)elo#ment 0% com0ining indicators o lie eJ#ectanc%4 ed$cational attainment and
income into a com#osite "$man de)elo#ment indeJ4 t"e &D(F /"e 0rea6t"ro$g" or
t"e &D( !as t"e creation o a single statistic !"ic" !as to ser)e as a rame o
reerence or 0ot" social and economic de)elo#mentF /"e &D( sets a minim$m and a
maJim$m or eac" dimension4 called goal#osts4 and t"en s"o!s !"ere eac" co$ntr%
stands in relation to t"ese goal#osts4 eJ#ressed as a )al$e 0et!een D and 1F
'o$rcesK U2D* +e#ort 1==1
/"e ed$cation com#onent o t"e &D( is no! meas$red 0% mean o %ears o
sc"ooling or ad$lts aged 25 %ears and eJ#ected %ears o sc"ooling or c"ildren o
sc"ool entering ageF ,ean %ears o sc"ooling are estimated 0ased on ed$cational
attainment data rom cens$ses and s$r)e%s a)aila0le in t"e U2.'1O (nstit$te or
'tatistics data0ase and -arro and 7ee (2D1D) met"odolog%)F .J#ected %ears o
sc"ooling estimates are 0ased on enrolment 0% age at all le)els o ed$cation and
#o#$lation o oicial sc"ool age or eac" le)el o ed$cationF .J#ected %ears o
sc"ooling are ca##ed at 18 %earsF /"e indicators are normali5ed $sing a minim$m
)al$e o 5ero and maJim$m )al$es are set to t"e act$al o0ser)ed maJim$m )al$e o
mean %ears o sc"ooling rom t"e co$ntries in t"e time series4 1=8DV2D1D4 t"at is 13F1
%ears estimated or 15ec" +e#$0lic in 2DD5F .J#ected %ears o sc"ooling are
18=
maJimi5ed 0% its ca# at 18 %earsF /"e ed$cation indeJ is t"e geometric mean o t!o
indicesF
/"e lie eJ#ectanc% at 0irt" com#onent o t"e &D( is calc$lated $sing a minim$m
)al$e o 2D %ears and maJim$m )al$e o 83F4 %earsF /"is is t"e o0ser)ed maJim$m
)al$e o t"e indicators rom t"e co$ntries in t"e time series4 1=8DV2D1DF /"$s4 t"e
longe)it% com#onent or a co$ntr% !"ere lie eJ#ectanc% 0irt" is 55 %ears !o$ld 0e
DF552F
For t"e !ealt" com#onent4 t"e goal#ost or minim$m income is Q1DD (***) and t"e
maJim$m is Q1D74721 (***)4 0ot" estimated d$ring t"e same #eriod4 1=8D-2D11F
/"e decent standard o li)ing com#onent is meas$red 0% G2( #er ca#ita (***Q)
instead o GD* #er ca#ita (***Q) /"e &D( $ses t"e logarit"m o income4 to relect
t"e diminis"ing im#ortance o income !it" increasing G2(F /"e scores or t"e t"ree
&D( dimension indices are t"en aggregated into a com#osite indeJ $sing geometric
meanF
,ots-ana<s Economic Development
-ots!ana is reno!ned or its consistent so$nd macroeconomic #olic%4
good go)ernance and or its diamond ind$str%4 0eing t"e !orld<s largest #rod$cer 0%
)al$eF /"e role o diamonds in economic de)elo#ment is addressed 0elo!F ,$c" o
t"e #rogress made in economic4 social and #olitical de)elo#ment is meas$red and
relected in statistics on GD*4 #er ca#ita income4 em#lo%ment rates4 oreign eJc"ange
reser)es4 le)els o #o)ert%4 ed$cational enrolment and attainment4 literac% rate4
mortalit% rate4 lie eJ#ectanc%4 access to "ealt" acilities4 #ota0le !ater and
electricit%4 indices o "$man de)elo#ment4 and ratings on trans#arenc%4 go)ernance
and credit-!ort"inessF O0ser)ers "a)e also noted t"at -ots!ana<s record o close to
o$r decades o ra#id economic gro!t" "as e! #arallels in modern economic "istor%F
.)en more nota0le is t"e act t"at -ots!ana "as not s$cc$m0ed to t"e Greso$rce
c$rseH4 !"ic" "as oten derailed reso$rce-ric" co$ntries rom transorming mineral
!ealt" into s$stained economic de)elo#mentF -ots!ana<s eJce#tional record o
gro!t" deri)es irst and oremost rom t"e so$nd4 gro!t" #romoting economic
#olicies !"ic" t"e co$ntr% #$rs$edF /"ese #olicies !ere s"a#ed 0% leaders !"o "ad
t"eir origins in4 and !ere conditioned 0%4 traditional societ%F /"eir leaders"i# st%le
relected t"e 0roader interests o t"e democratic nat$re o -ots!ana societ%F
/"e 0ac60one o economic #olic% management is t"e instit$tion o 2ational
De)elo#ment *lans (2D*s)4 t"e irst o !"ic" !as in #lace e)en 0eore
inde#endenceF /"$s4 t"e #re-re>$isites or so$nd #olicies !ere in #lace !ell 0eore
1=D
diamonds 0ecame an im#ortant actorF /"e irst GBechuanaland #rotectorate
Development #lan, $'0(804H re#orted t"at minerals contri0$ted onl% 5F5 #ercent to
national eJ#orts4 !it" t"e 0$l6 coming rom as0estosF .nco$raging #ros#ects or 0ot"
co##er and coal !ere re#orted4 0$t diamonds !ere not mentioned4 #artl% 0eca$se
#ros#ecting "ad not %et %ielded a desira0le res$ltF
/"e #rocess o #re#aring 2D*s "as ser)ed to 6ee# go)ernment eJ#endit$res rom
gro!ing aster t"an go)ernment re)en$es o)er t"e long termF '$r#l$s re)en$es "a)e
res$lted in t"e acc$m$lation o go)ernment sa)ings in t"e orm o oreign eJc"ange
reser)es4 !"ic" are c$rrentl% e>$i)alent to a##roJimatel% 3D mont"s o im#ort co)er
o goods and ser)icesF /"is sa)ing o go)ernment re)en$es in good %ears "as
#ro)ided an im#ortant c$s"ion t"at "as ena0led t"e co$ntr%<s #olic% ma6ers to deal
!it" intermittent do!nt$rns in t"e diamond mar6et4 !it"o$t "a)ing to resort to
str$ct$ral adM$stment #rogrammes and maMor contractions in #lanned go)ernment
eJ#endit$resF
(t is im#ortant to note t"at -ots!ana<s a##roac" to inancial #r$dence !as de)elo#ed
in t"e conteJt o limited reso$rcesF .)en !"en con)erted into toda%<s #rices4 a)erage
ann$al eJ#endit$re 0% t"e Go)ernment in t"e #eriod 1=66V1=7D !as a##roJimatel%
*8DD million (a0o$t U'D 13D million)4 or less t"an t"ree #ercent o t"e amo$nt
anno$nced in t"e 2DD8 -$dget '#eec"F (n t"e same #eriod4 donor grants a)eraged 6D
#ercent o ann$al re)en$es4 and t"e irst iscal o0Mecti)e !as to ac"ie)e inancial
inde#endence 0% eliminating reliance on grants or rec$rrent $ndingF /"is !as
ac"ie)ed not long ater inde#endence and4 0% t"e earl% 1=7DsN t"e s#ecial $nds to
ser)ice #$0lic de0t and co)er re)en$e s"ortalls !ere esta0lis"edF (t is clear rom
t"ese earl% initiati)es t"at t"e #rinci#les o iscal s$staina0ilit% !ere standard #ractice
in -ots!ana 0eore t"e% 0ecame !idel% as"iona0le else!"ereF
Fort% %ears on4 t"e sit$ation "as c"anged a)o$ra0l%F 'ince t"e earl% 1=8Ds4 t"e
ann$al 0$dget "as 0een in s$r#l$s on all 0$t t"ree occasions4 and iscal #olic% "as
e)ol)ed to 6ee# t"e #rinci#le o #r$dence rele)ant to c"anging circ$mstancesF Fiscal
#olic% is no! 0ased on some r$les aimed at limiting total #$0lic eJ#endit$re4
containing 0$dget deicits !it"in reasona0le limits4 and ens$ring t"at t"e re)en$es
rom diamonds4 !"ic" is an eJ"a$sti0le reso$rce4 are #$t to #rod$cti)e $seF
5onetary D E?chane Rate Policies
'ince 1=764 monetar% inde#endence "as 0een a #art o t"e #olic% miJF For
man% %ears t"e o0Mecti)e "as oc$ssed on maintaining inlation at lo!4 #redicta0le
1=1
and s$staina0le le)elsF -$t4 as !it" iscal #olic%4 t"e cond$ct o monetar% #olic% "as
e)ol)ed o)er time and !ill contin$e to do soF
/"e o0Mecti)e o ac"ie)ing and maintaining #rice sta0ilit% "as #ro)ed a c"allenging
assignment or t"e -an6 o -ots!anaF /"e econom% is o#en and )er% s$sce#ti0le to
eJternal inlationar% s"oc6s4 s$c" as t"e recent eJ#erience o rising oil and ood
#ricesF (n addition4 t"ere "a)e 0een domestic #rice s"oc6s4 s$c" as t"e introd$ction o
8al$e Added /aJ (8A/) in 2DD2 and t"e 2DD4 and 2DD5 c$rrenc% de)al$ations4 !"ic"
!ere ollo!ed 0% t"e ado#tion o t"e cra!ling 0and eJc"ange rate regimeF (t ma% 0e
as6ed i t"e central 0an6 is not "el#less in t"e ace o s$c" de)elo#mentsF /"e ans!er
is t"at4 !"ile t"e initial #rice s"oc6 m$st 0e a0sor0ed4 t"ere is m$c" t"at can 0e done4
t"ro$g" monetar% #olic%4 to control "o! s"oc6s aect t"e econom% more !idel%F (n
t"is res#ect4 a 6e% com#onent o monetar% #olic% in -ots!ana "as 0een t"e ann$al
,onetar% *olic% 'tatements and t"e mid-%ear re)ie!s4 !"ic" "el# to eJ#lain recent
#olic% de)elo#mentsN t"e% also inl$ence eJ#ectations on $t$re inlation trends and
"el# contain second ro$nd eectsF 1losel% related to monetar% #olic%4 t"ere is t"e
"otl%-de0ated >$estion o setting an a##ro#riate #olic% or t"e )al$e o t"e eJc"ange
rate (*$la)F /"is de0ate !ill ne)er end in $ni)ersal consens$s4 or t"e sim#le reason
t"at #eo#le 0$% and sell c$rrencies or di)erse reasonsF &o!e)er4 in t"e conteJt o
-ots!ana4 it is diic$lt to arg$e against t"e #riorit% accorded to maintaining t"e real
eecti)e eJc"ange rate at a le)el t"at is s$##orti)e o t"e com#etiti)eness o local
ind$str%F /"is "as meant ta6ing meas$res to a)oid !"at is reerred to as t"e GD$tc"
diseaseH4 !"ere allo!ing t"e eJc"ange rate to 0e determined 0% large inlo!s o
diamond re)en$es !o$ld "a)e se)erel% com#romised eJternal com#etiti)enessF (n
an% case4 e)en !"en a##ro#riatel% set4 t"e eJc"ange rate cannot4 0% itsel4 ens$re
com#etiti)enessF Ultimatel% t"is re>$ires attention to t"e more $ndamental iss$es o
#rod$cti)it%F
The economic role o' diamond minin
/"e role o diamonds in de)elo#ing -ots!ana<s econom% is largel% sel-
e)ident4 #artic$larl% or t"ose amiliar !it" t"e co$ntr%F /"e de)elo#ment o t"e
ca#ital cit%4 Ga0orone4 is a good case in #ointF /"e original to!n #lanners t"o$g"t
t"at t"e #o#$lation o t"e cit% !o$ld gro! to 3D DDD 0% t"e late 1=8Ds4 0$t it "ad
gro!n ar 0e%ond t"e n$m0er at t"e timeF (n act 0% 2DD1 t"e #o#$lation "ad risen to
a0o$t 1=D DDD4 and t"is does not incl$de t"ose li)ing in s$0$r0an areas aro$nd t"e
cit%F 1$rrentl%4 diamonds contri0$te a##roJimatel% 5D #ercent to go)ernment
re)en$e4 3D #ercent to GD* and com#rise a0o$t 8D #ercent o eJ#ortsF /"e economic
orecasts or 2D* 6 (1=85986V1==D9=1) ass$med t"at diamond o$t#$t "ad alread%
reac"ed a #latea$ at aro$nd 15 million carats #er ann$mN 0$t #rod$ction more t"an
1=2
do$0led in 2DD7 to a0o$t 33 million caratsF (n realit%4 t"e m$c"-tal6ed-a0o$t ail$re
to di)ersi% t"e econom% is in large #art d$e to t"e contin$ed s$ccess o diamond
mining rat"er t"at a lac6 o gro!t" in ot"er sectorsF
/"e Go)ernment is t"e single most im#ortant mec"anism lin6ing t"e mining sector to
t"e rest o t"e econom%F /"is is done 0% c"annelling diamond re)en$es to ot"er
sectors o t"e econom% t"ro$g" in)estments in "$man ca#ital ormation4
inrastr$ct$ral de)elo#ment and incenti)es or non-mining acti)itiesF /"e s$0stantial
"$man de)elo#ment "as transormed a largel% r$ral4 agrarian #o#$lation into an
increasingl% ed$cated and trained $r0an la0o$r orceF :"ile t"e sco$rge o
&(89A(D' t"reatens to t$rn 0ac6 m$c" o t"e "$man de)elo#ment #rogress4 t"ere
contin$es to 0e in)estments in "ealt" and s6ills de)elo#mentF Alt"o$g" income
ine>$alit%4 as meas$red 0% t"e Gini coeicient4 is "ig" and "as not 0een red$ced o)er
t"e #ast t!o decades4 t"e gro!t" o real incomes "as 0een s#read t"ro$g"o$t t"e
econom%4 and a s$0stantial #ortion o t"e #o#$lation "as 0een resc$ed rom #o)ert%F
/"e one area !"ere diamonds "a)e not directl% contri0$ted in #ro#ortion to t"e
im#ortance o t"e sector is em#lo%mentF According to t"e most recent estimates4
mining acco$nts or onl% 4 #ercent o total ormal sector em#lo%ment4 and man% o
t"ese em#lo%ees !or6 or non-diamond mining o#erationsF (ndeed t"e creation o
additional em#lo%ment o##ort$nities is a #rinci#al o0Mecti)e o t"e ongoing
0eneiciation initiati)eF
Possi2le lessons 'or other )'rican countries
1an -ots!ana<s relati)e economic s$ccess #ro)ide lessons or ot"er co$ntries to
ollo!R (n ans!ering t"is >$estion4 it co$ld 0e s$ggested t"at t"e anatom% o
-ots!ana<s de)elo#ment s$ccess can 0e anal%sed in i)e interrelated actors !"ic"
can 0e re#licated in similar economic settingsF
(1) Ad"erence to democrac% and good go)ernance
(2) Disci#lined and #r$dent macroeconomic management
(3) 1ommitment to ac"ie)ing #riorit% de)elo#ment goals
(4) Disco)er% and eJ#loitation o mineral !ealt"N and
(5) (nternational good!ill
As a res$lt o t"e a)o$ra0le #rogress realised in all t"e i)e areas4 -ots!ana "as
ac"ie)ed ra#id economic de)elo#ment and !ides#read gains in "$man !elareF /"ese
1=3
i)e de)elo#ment actors relate to t"e 6e% economic #olicies -ots!ana ado#ted and
t"e instit$tions s"e esta0lis"ed to im#lement t"ose #oliciesF /"e ado#tion o s$c"
so$nd #ro-de)elo#ment #olicies !as t"e res$lt o -ots!ana<s democratic s%stem4
!"ic" is tem#ered 0% tradition4 instit$tions4 leaders"i# and a modic$m o iscal
disci#lineF
One actor to em#"asise is t"e im#ortance o instit$tional >$alit%F For #$r#oses o
economic #olic%4 0ot" t"e ,inistr% o Finance and De)elo#ment *lanning and t"e
-an6 o -ots!ana are "eld in "ig" regard internationall%F From t"is comes tr$st t"at
a##ro#riate #olicies !ill contin$e to 0e de)elo#edF As a related matter4 gi)en t"e
relati)e o#enness in economic #olic% ma6ing4 t"e entrenc"ed role o t"e A$ditor
General and inde#endent M$diciar%4 -ots!ana is less inclined to!ards corr$#t
#racticesF &ence /rans#arenc% (nternational "as ran6ed t"e co$ntr% relati)el% "ig"l%
com#ared to man% de)elo#ing co$ntriesF -ots!ana<s democratic #olitical
dis#ensation4 ree #ress and )i0rant ci)il societ% are also a good c"ec6 against
corr$#tionF
-ots!ana "as also recei)ed international recognitionF For eJam#le4 in 2DD14 0ot"
leading credit rating agencies4 'tandard ` *oor<s and ,ood%<s (n)estors 'er)ice
assigned -ots!ana t"e "ig"est so)ereign credit ratings in AricaF /"ese are
com#ara0le !it" t"ose o se)eral more ad)anced economies4 and "a)e 0een
s$ccess$ll% maintained e)en in t"e ace o recent economic c"allengesF /"ere are
ot"er enco$raging #erormance indices as !ell4 s$c" as t"ose o t"e :orld .conomic
For$m and t"e :orld -an6F
Alt"o$g" some de)elo#ment eJ#erts attri0$te -ots!ana<s relati)e s$ccess to t"e
eJ#loitation o diamond de#osits4 t"is is onl% #art o t"e stor%F 2at$ral reso$rces4 no
matter "o! endo!ed and l$crati)e4 cannot4 on t"eir o!n4 de)elo# a co$ntr%F :"at is
im#ortant is t"e >$alit% o economic #olic% ma6ing4 and it is in t"is s#"ere t"at
-ots!ana is disting$is"ed rom some de)elo#ing co$ntries4 certainl% not onl% 0% t"e
good ort$ne o "a)ing diamondsF
/"ere are se)eral im#ortant dimensions to -ots!ana<s s$ccess$l economic #olic%
ma6ingF /"e irst 6e% element is com#limentaril% regarding iscal4 monetar% and
eJc"ange rate #oliciesF /"e second is #olic% consistenc% and ac"ie)ing sta0ilit% in t"e
#olic% en)ironment4 gi)en t"eir #artic$lar im#ortance to 0ot" domestic and oreign
in)estorsF /"e t"ird element is co"erence and creation o s%nergies in #olic%
im#lementationF
1=4
Admittedl%4 -ots!ana can learn rom ot"er (de)elo#ing) co$ntries as !ellF /"is
a##lies in #artic$lar to en"ancing #rod$cti)it% !"ere4 alt"o$g" rele)ant data is in
scarce s$##l%4 it is clear t"at t"ere is m$c" to 0e learntF (m#ro)ing #rod$cti)it% is t"e
res#onsi0ilit% o e)er%one in -ots!ana4 going !ell 0e%ond t"e Go)ernment<s
commitment to remo)e $nnecessar% 0$rea$crac%F -$siness o!ners and em#lo%ees
m$st loo6 at !a%s to !or6 "arder and smarterF As a related matter4 t"ere is a need to
de)elo# a la0o$r orce t"at does not M$st #ossess academic >$aliications4 0$t one t"at
can also #ro)ide t"e s6ills re>$ired 0% 0$sinessesF
F$rt"ermore4 as indicated a0o)e4 t"ere is a !orr%ing trend in recent $#dates o
#erormance indices t"at -ots!ana co$ld loose #osition to t"ose co$ntries read% to
$nderta6e reorms t"at im#ro)e t"e 0$siness en)ironmentF (n t"is res#ect4 it is
enco$raging t"at t"e a$t"orities recognise t"e $rgent need to remo)e t"e remaining
administrati)e 0arriers and 0ottlenec6s t"at contin$e to "am#er 0$siness o#erationsF
Anot"er area t"at -ots!ana can learn rom ot"er co$ntries is di)ersiication o t"e
econom%F 2ot onl% does mining eJert a strong inl$ence on t"e econom%4 it also
eJ#oses t"e econom% to t"e ris6s o signiicant eJternal s"oc6s d$e to l$ct$ations in
t"e international minerals mar6etsF (n order to contain s$c" ris6s4 -ots!ana needs a
m$c" more di)ersiied econom%F
+ecent indicators o rene!ed gro!t" in t"e non-mining #ri)ate sector are
enco$ragingN and some o##ort$nities eJist across a range o -ots!ana<s economic
sectorsF First4 0eneits rom diamond mining s"o$ld s#read t"ro$g" man$act$ring
into increased demand or related ser)icesF 'econd4 mining is ra#idl% di)ersi%ing
a!a% rom diamonds to a )ariet% o ot"er minerals4 !it" #otential or s$##orting
maMor energ%-related #roMects to ser)e t"e regionF 7ast 0$t not least4 recent st$dies
"a)e indicated tremendo$s #otential or di)ersiied de)elo#ment o t"e to$rism
sectorF
/"ere is no do$0t t"at4 in order to sei5e t"ese o##ort$nities4 -ots!ana m$st 0e $ll%
a!are o t"e constraints t"at need to 0e o)ercome4 and some o t"em re>$ire ta6ing
diic$lt #olic% decisionsF (n recent re)ie!s4 0ot" ,ood%<s (n)estors 'er)ice and
'tandard ` *oor<s "a)e made it clear t"at -ots!ana needs to ste# $# at least one gear
i t"ere is to 0e an $#gradeF (t goes !it"o$t sa%ing4 t"ereore4 t"at a lot o #rogress
still needs to 0e made to maintain t"e c$rrent so)ereign credit ratingsF
/"ose tas6ed !it" maintaining so$nd macroeconomic #olicies also ace c"allengesF
/"e Go)ernment needs to #lan or a sit$ation !"ere re)en$es rom diamonds !ill
start to slo! do!nF /"is !ill re>$ire a #ro#er control o s#ending #rogrammes and
1=5
#ossi0l% a 0$ild-$# o ade>$ate oreign eJc"ange reser)es or sa)ingsF For t"e -an6 o
-ots!ana4 t"e c"allenge o containing inlation and ens$ring t"at it is lo!4 sta0le and
#redicta0le is $nendingF Discerni0le #rogress is 0eing made on all t"ese ronts4 and
t"is s"o$ld sec$re good #ros#ects or -ots!ana<s econom%F
Socio#Economic Chanes and Social Development
Human development in ,ots-ana
Alt"o$g" #o)ert% "as declined rom 5= #ercent in 1=86 to 3D #er cent in
2DD3 (,ogae 2DD5)4 #o)ert% is still #er)asi)eF /"e United 2ations De)elo#ment
*rogramme (U2D*) re#orts t"at 55F5 #er cent o t"e #o#$lation li)e 0elo! t"e
#o)ert% line o t!o dollars #er da%4 and "al o all emale-"eaded "o$se"olds li)e on
less t"an one dollar a da% (U2D* 2DD7)F /"e #ro#ortion o -ots!ana<s !"o are
$nderno$ris"ed "as increased rom 1==D-1==2 le)els o 23 #er cent to 32 #er cent or
t"e #eriod 2DD2-2DD4 (U2D* 2DD7)F
Economic ro-th and employment in ,ots-ana
U# to t"e time o its inde#endence in 'e#tem0er 1=664 -ots!ana !as
one o t"e least de)elo#ed and #oorest nations in t"e !orld4 !it" a #er ca#ita income
estimated at 0et!een U'Q7D and U'Q=D (,ogae 2DD5)F /"e maMorit% o t"e
#o#$lation !as de#endent on s$0sistence agric$lt$re4 !it" 0ee #rod$ction or eJ#ort
as t"e mainsta% o t"e econom%F 'ince inde#endence4 -ots!ana<s economic gro!t"
as meas$red 0% GD* "as 0een !as one o t"e !orlds "ig"estF -et!een 1=8D and
1=8=4 economic gro!t" a)eraged 11 #er cent #er %ear (-/( 2DD8)F (n t"e earl% 1==Ds4
economic gro!t" declined 0$t s"o!ed stead% gains 0et!een 1==4 and 1==74 #ea6ing
at 7 #er cent4 and4 in t"e last decade4 t"e econom% !as gro!ing ann$all% at 5F4 #er
cent $# to 2DD7 ((,F 2DD7)F /"e orecast or GD* gro!t" in 2DD8 !as eJ#ected to 0e
4 #er cent (O.1D and Arican De)elo#ment -an6 2DD8)F -ots!anaIs la$da0le
economic record "as 0een 0$ilt on t"e o$ndation o $sing re)en$e generated rom
diamond mining to s$stain economic gro!t"F (U'A De#artment o 'tate 2DD8)F /"ere
is also a rigoro$s ad"erence to de)elo#ment #lans t"at are dri)en 0% consens$s-
see6ing across dierent sectors o societ%4 !"ic" $rt"er strengt"ens -ots!ana<s
economic #erormance (,ogae4 2DD5)F
2onet"eless4 "idden 0e"ind -ots!ana<s "ealt"% economic gro!t" are "ig" le)els o
ine>$alit%4 #o)ert%4 and $nem#lo%mentF -ots!ana remains o)erl% reliant on mining
or economic gro!t"4 #artic$larl% t"e mining o diamondsF ,ining acco$nts or 41F1
#er cent o GD* (U'A4 De#artment o 'tate 2DD8)F Ot"er sectors4 s$c" as agric$lt$re4
1=6
man$act$ring and to$rism4 acco$nt or 1F7 #er cent4 4F1 #er cent and 1D #er cent
(Good 2DD7) o GD* res#ecti)el%F
-ots!ana<s slo!ing gro!t" rate "as translated into rising $nem#lo%ment4 increasing
rom 21 #er cent o t"e la0o$r orce in 2DD1 to 24 #er cent in 2DD3 ('e0$d$0$ and
Osei&!edie 2DD5)4 rising again to 27 #er cent in 2DD7 (.('A -ots!ana Fact File
2DD8)F Aro 0arometer '$r)e% indings (2DD5) "ig"lig"t citi5en concerns a0o$t
$nem#lo%ment in -ots!anaF :"en res#ondents !ere as6ed !"at !ere t"e most
im#ortant #ro0lems acing t"e co$ntr% t"at go)ernment s"o$ld address4 t"e #ro0lem
o $nem#lo%ment !as raised most re>$entl%F /"e most n$m0er o res#onses (41 #er
cent) !ere or t"is iss$eF
(n t"e gro$# disc$ssions and in-de#t" inter)ie!s4 res#ondents in ,an%an%a4 'ero!e
and D$tl!e comm$nities #ercei)ed $nem#lo%ment and lac6 o inrastr$ct$ral4
man$act$ring and ind$strial de)elo#ment as t"e maMor c"allenges aecting t"e
co$ntr%<s de)elo#mentF /"e ollo!ing comments rom res#ondents "ig"lig"t
-ats!anans concerns a0o$t t"e econom% and t"e #ro0lems o $nem#lo%mentK
Social development
/"is section "ig"lig"ts some o t"e social de)elo#ment #rogrammes in
-ots!ana t"at address t"e c"allenges o #o)ert%4 t"e de)elo#ment o social and
#"%sical inrastr$ct$re s$c" as sc"ools4 "o$sing and roads4 and in addressing t"e
needs o )$lnera0le gro$#s incl$ding older #ersons and t"ose inected !it"
&(89A(D'F
1omm$nities in -ots!ana organise t"emsel)es to #ro)ide comm$nal s$##ort or
mem0ers in need (-ro!n 1==6K68)F /"$s4 go)ernment eorts at comm$nit%
de)elo#ment t"ro$g" t"e 1omm$nit% De)elo#ment De#artment "a)e demonstrated a
le)el o incl$sionF
/"ere "a)e 0een some s$ccess$l road4 "o$sing and sc"ools #roMects t"ro$g"
comm$nit% #artici#ation (-ro!n 1==6N 7D)F
:elare and social s$##ort #rogrammes in -ots!ana ollo! $ni)ersal standards in
#ro)iding care and s$##ort4 and t"ere "a)e 0een reg$lar inter)entions in t"e
de)elo#ment o social s$##ort and !elare #rogrammes in res#onse to c"anging
social #atterns and t"e emergence o social #ro0lemsF /"e -ots!ana go)ernment
#ro)ides a !ide range o ser)ices aimed at red$cing #o)ert% and #ro)iding a social
saet% net or )$lnera0le gro$#sF 'ome o t"ese incl$de t"e *rogram or Destit$te
*ersons4 t"e Or#"an 1are *rogram in res#onse to t"e
1=7
&(89A(D' #andemic4 '$##lementar% Feeding or 8$lnera0le Gro$#s and t"e
$ni)ersal old age #ension (0ot" introd$ced in 1=66) (-ots!ana Federation o /rade
Unions4 2DD7)4 :orld :ar /"e im#act o democrac% in -ots!ana 13(( 8eterans
(introd$ced in 1==8)4 and 7a0o$r -ased Dro$g"t +elie *rogram (introd$ced
in1=67)F
Additionall%4 d$e to t"e "ig" #re)alence rate o &(89A(D' (disc$ssed later)4
-ots!ana r$ns social assistance sc"emes or t"ose aected and inected 0%
&(89A(D'F /"ese sc"emes are integrated into t"e general #olic% and #rogrammatic
res#onse to t"e &(8 #andemicF
'ome o t"ese #rogrammes are t"e or#"an care #rogramme (as noted a0o)e)4 t"e
national destit$te #rogramme4 t"e comm$nit% "ome-0ased care #rogramme4 t"e
antiretro)iral t"era#% (A+8) #rogrammeF (n act e)er% decade "as seen t"e
introd$ction and de)elo#ment o some 6ind o social s$##ort or !elare-related
inter)ention in -ots!anaF
Healthcare
7ie eJ#ectanc% at 0irt" rose rom 48 %ears in 1=66 to 65F3 %ears in 1==14
0eore declining to 55F7 %ears in 2DD14 and s"o!ing a $rt"er decline in 2DD4 to 4D
%ears or 0ot" males and emalesF /"is signiicant dro# in lie eJ#ectanc% is
attri0$ta0le largel% to t"e &(89A(D' #andemic t"at "as lo!ered a)erage lie
eJ#ectanc%F According to :&O (2DD6)4 &(89A(Ds related deat"s acco$nted or 8D
#er cent o total deat"s in 2DD5F /"e inant mortalit% rate declined rom 1DD #er 1DDD
li)e 0irt"s in 1=71 to 55 in 2DD1 45oae &%%/98 0$t increased to again to 75 #er 1DDD
li)e 0irt"s in 2DD4F -ots!ana does considera0l% 0etter t"an t"e rest o t"e :&O
Arica region4 !"ere 1DD #er 1DDD li)e 0irt"s is t"e meas$red norm or t"e region
(:&O 2DD6)F
:"ereas #$0lic eJ#endit$re on ed$cation !as 6 #er cent o GD*4 eJ#endit$re on
"ealt" care "as 0een lo!erF (n 2DD4 it com#rised 4 #er cent o GD* (U2D* 2DD7) and
increased to 5F6 #er cent o GD* in 2DD6F +es#ondents "ig"lig"ted t"e lac6 o
"ealt"care inrastr$ct$re (incl$ding "os#itals and clinics) as !ell as t"e s"ortage o
medical #roessionals to manage4 co-ordinate and #ro)ide ade>$ate "ealt" ser)icesF
:"ile t"e decentralised "ealt" care s%stem is relati)el% !ell de)elo#ed and almost
ree in -ots!ana4 c"allenges remain !it" res#ect to #ro)iding $ni)ersal "ealt"care to
citi5ens4 e)en t"o$g" all )illages are ser)ed 0% a #rimar% "ealt" care clinic4 or at t"e
)er% least 0% a mo0ile clinic4 as t"e ollo!ing >$ote rom a res#ondent indicatesK
1=8
G.)er% #erson in -ots!ana is located !it"in a radi$s o t"irt% 6ilometres o a "os#ital
o #rimar% "ealt" care clinic4 e)en in )illages t"at are ser)ed onl% 0% a mo0ile $nitH
H"B:)"DS prevalence
An estimated 25 #er cent4 or ro$g"l% 3DD DDD (in 2DD7) #eo#le in -ots!ana
are &(8- #ositi)eF ,ore t"an =D #er cent o t"ose inected are 15 %ears or olderF
(:&O4 U2A(D'4 U2(1.F 2DD8)F /"e incidence o &(8 inection in t"e most
economicall% acti)e segment o t"e #o#$lation (#eo#le aged 15-4= %ears) is 24F= #er
cent4 do!n rom 27F8 #er cent in 2DD1(i0id)F /"ere are an estimated =5 DDD (in 2DD7)
c"ildren or#"aned d$e to &(89A(D'4 an increase rom t"e 57 DDD estimated in 2DD1F
Go)ernment eJ#endit$re on &(89A(D' #rogrammes4 "as steadil% increased since
2DD5F (n 2DD54 U'Q165 million !as allocated4 and 0% 2DD7 some U'Q2D3F8 million
!as s#ent ig"ting t"e disease (U2A(D' 2DD8)F (nter)entions incl$de ca#acit%
0$ilding (inrastr$ct$re and "$man reso$rces)4 t"e #re)ention o mot"er-to-c"ild
transmission4 or#"an care4 ro$tine &(8 testing4 comm$nit%-0ased "ome care4 and
eJtensi)e inormation4 ed$cation and comm$nication cam#aigns (,ogae 2DD5)F As at
2DD74 =3 DDD o t"e 12D DDD #eo#le t"at re>$ire antiretro)iral (A+8) t"era#% !ere
recei)ing t"e treatmentF (:&O4 U2A(D'4 U2(1.F 2DD8)F
Education and 1iteracy
7e)els o ed$cation and literac% "a)e increased s$0stantiall% since
inde#endenceF At inde#endence in 1=664 t"ere !ere onl% t"ree secondar% sc"ools in
-ots!anaN secondar% sc"ools n$m0ered a0o$t 3DD in total 0% 2DD3 (1lo)er 2DD3)F
/"e ad$lt literac% rate (15 %ears and older) im#ro)ed s$0stantiall% rom 68F8 #er cent
in 1==5 to 81F2 #er cent in 2DD5 and t"e %o$t" literac% rate (aged 15-24) less
s$0stantiall%4 0$t still signiicantl%4 rom 8=F3 #er cent in 1==5 to =4 #er cent in 2DD5
(&$man De)elo#ment +e#ort 2DD792DD8)F /"is s"o!s e)idence o a s$stained oc$s
on #rimar% ed$cation and contin$ing ad$lt ed$cationF At #rimar% sc"ool le)el4
enrolment rose rom 66 1DD in 1=66 to 327 6DD in 2DDD4 re#resenting an a)erage
com#o$nd gro!t" rate o 4F8 #er cent #er ann$m (,ogae 2DD5)F -% 2DD7 -ots!ana
"ad ac"ie)ed its millenni$m de)elo#ment goal (,DG) target o a 1DD #er cent
enrolment rate at #rimar% sc"ools4 and a $rt"er 1DD #er cent transition rate rom
#rimar% sc"ool into M$nior secondar% ed$cation (O.1D and Arican De)elo#ment
-an6 2DD8)F /"ere is also a #olic% oc$s on t"e im#ro)ement o t"e >$alit% o
ed$cation on oer4 !it" a strong em#"asis on tec"nical4 management and )ocational
ed$cation and s6ills trainingF Go)ernment in)estment in ed$cation is s$0stantialN
ed$cation stands at 21 #er cent o t"e 0$dgetF
1==
.J#ressed as a #ercentage o GD*4 ed$cation eJ#endit$re or t"e #eriod 2DD2-2DD5
remainedconstant at 1DF7 #er cent V almost do$0le !"at is s#ent on "ealt" (&$man
De)elo#ment +e#ort 2DD792DD8)F /"e eJtent o in)estment in #"%sical inrastr$ct$re
and 0$ilding t"e ca#acit% o teac"ers is relected in statistics and also in t"e res#onses
rom oc$s gro$#sF ,oreo)er4 oc$s gro$# indings re)eal t"at go)ernment
in)estment in ed$cation in t"e area o ed$cation s$0sidies and teac"er training is
#a%ing di)idends in terms o >$alit% and commitment o ed$cators4 as res#ondents
seem to 0e "ig"l% satisied !it" t"e >$alit% o and access to ed$cationF
>ater8 Sanitation8 and Electri'ication
Access to 0asic ser)ices in -ots!ana "as im#ro)ed o)er t"e %earsF :it"
regard to 0asic ser)ices4 im#ro)ements in access to clean4 $sa0le and drin6a0le !ater4
increased rom 77 #er cent in 1==6 to =7F7 #er cent in 2DDDF Alt"o$g" t"e ig$re
marginall% declined (=6 #er cent) in 2DD54 t"e go)ernment #ro)ides and maintains at
least one stand#i#e in eac" o -ots!ana<s oiciall% recognised settlements G:it"
regard to r$nning !ater V e)er% "o$se"old !ill at least "a)e a %ard stand#i#eF /"e
distri0$tion o t"e net!or6 is !ideUH Alt"o$g" t"ere are dis#arities 0et!een $r0an
and r$ral areas in terms o access to !ater4 t"e :orld &ealt" Organisation (:&O
2DD6) statistics4 s"o! increases in t"e #ercentage o t"e #o#$lation t"at "as access to
im#ro)ed !ater so$rces 0ot" in $r0an and r$ral areasF ,odest im#ro)ements "a)e
0een made on sanitation4 as 41 #er cent o -ots!ana<s r$ral and $r0an #o#$lations
"a)e access to sanitation acilities (O.1D and Arican De)elo#ment -an6 2DD7N
:&O 2DD8)F /"e electriication rate in -ots!ana is s$0stantiall% lo!er at 3= #er
cent o)erall
(&$man De)elo#ment +e#ort4 2DD792DD8)4 re#resenting m$c" slo!er #rogress as
com#ared to !ater and sanitationF 1iti5ens< #erce#tions o democrac% seem to also
s$ggest t"at a maMorit% o t"e #eo#le in -ots!ana are satisied t"at democrac% !or6s
4)'ro2arometer Survey &%%/9F -ots!ana is also !idel% )ie!ed as an Arican
s$ccess stor% !it" res#ect to go)ernance and de)elo#ment #rogressF &o!e)er4 t"e
co$ntr% does ace some distinct go)ernance and de)elo#ment c"allengesN t"e main
c"allenges concern t"e acco$nta0ilit% o local leaders and t"e co-ordination o
de)elo#ment eortsF Findings rom t"is researc" s$ggest t"at a #erce#tion o
#olitical acco$nta0ilit% o local #olitical leaders does not matc" -ots!ana<s #olic% o
strengt"ening #olitical acco$nta0ilit% and deli)er% at t"e local comm$nit% le)elF For
eJam#le4 !"ile t"e maMorit% o citi5ens a##eared to 0e a!are o !"om t"eir elected
local leaders !ere4 man% citi5ens "ad ne)er contacted an% o t"ese leaders4 !"en
t"ere !as a need 4)'ro2arometer Survey &%%/9F
2DD
-ots!ana "as eJ#erienced s$stained de)elo#ment o)er t"e decades since it ac"ie)ed
inde#endenceF /"e co$ntr% "as 0eneited rom its ric" minerals #artic$larl% diamonds
and "as $sed its reso$rces !ell to im#ro)e t"e li)es o its #eo#leF -ots!ana "as 0een
credited !it" "a)ing a state !it" an eecti)e and eicient 0$rea$crac%4 committed to
socio-economic de)elo#mentF (t co$ld 0e arg$ed t"at -ots!ana<s economic
ac"ie)ements "a)e ser)ed democrac% !ellF /"e relations"i# 0et!een de)elo#ment
and democrac% in t"e co$ntr% is m$t$all% reinorcing4 0eca$se citi5ens a##ear to 0e
satisied !it" democrac% 0eca$se t"e% attri0$te t"eir im#ro)ed >$alit% o lie in #art
to t"e c$rrent #olitical s%stemF
-ots!ana "as a strong trac6 record in economic and "$man de)elo#mentF From 0eing
among t"e #oorest co$ntries in Arica at inde#endence t"e co$ntr% no! "as t"e
"ig"est #er ca#ita GD* on t"e continent d$e to its s$0stantial mineral !ealt"F
.conomic gro!t" com0ined !it" in)estment in "ealt"4 ed$cation and !elare "a)e
led to mar6ed im#ro)ements in man% indicators o de)elo#ment4 ranging rom lie
eJ#ectanc% and "ealt" stat$s4 literac% and access to "ealt" ser)icesF -ots!ana is one
o )er% e! Arican co$ntries !it" an esta0lis"ed social !elare s%stem !"ic"
incl$des grants and ot"er s$##ort or t"e )er% #oor and )$lnera0leF
/"ro$g" #r$dent iscal #olicies4 t"e -ots!ana go)ernment "as ens$red in)estment o
s$0stantial s$r#l$ses rom mineral income to #ro)ide or longer-term economic
s$staina0ilit%F /"e co$ntr%<s sta0le democratic go)ernment "as o)erseen t"e co$ntr%<s
dramatic de)elo#ment and ens$red social sta0ilit%4 as !ell as "ig" le)els o
acco$nta0ilit% and lo! le)el o corr$#tionF (n addition4 it "as #laced em#"asis on
im#ro)ing t"e lie c"ances o c"ildren and %o$t" in its de)elo#ment #rogramme and
is a signator% o t"e United 2ations 1on)ention on t"e +ig"ts o t"e 1"ildF /"is
commits go)ernment to ma6ing t"e needs o c"ildren #aramo$nt t"ro$g"o$t its
de)elo#ment strategies and to #rioritise t"e o$r #illars o t"e 1on)entionK s$r)i)al
rig"ts4 de)elo#ment rig"ts4 #rotection rig"ts and #artici#ation rig"tsF
Role o' Civil Society in H"B and )"DS Response
/"e &ealt" 'ector in -ots!ana reers to all organi5ations t"at #ro)ide ser)ices and
t"is incl$des t"e #$0lic4 #ri)ate and ci)il societ% organi5ationsF /"e ,inistr% o
&ealt" (,O&) "as t"e leaders"i# and ste!ards"i# roleF (n its mandate t"e ,O&
orm$lates "ealt" #olicies4 g$idelines and de)elo# standards o 1areF (t also "as t"e
mandate to ens$re t"at t"ere is rele)ant ca#acit% and com#etenc% or ser)ice deli)er%
across t"e "ealt" deli)er% s%stemF &ealt" ser)ice s$##ort re#resent a 0road 0ased
m$ltidisci#linar% a##roac" !"ic" dra!s rom 1i)il 'ociet% Organi5ations4 amilies
and comm$nit% t"ro$g" s$##ort rom t"eir net!or6sF /"e 1i)il 'ociet%
2D1
Organi5ations (1'Os) commonl% "as 6no!n as &ealt" 'er)ice '$##ort 2et!or6
com#lements t"e go)ernment in "ealt" ser)ice deli)er%F /"e% are t"e maMor
sta6e"olders in im#lementation o &(8 and A(D' #rogrammesF 'ome o t"e actors
t"at inl$enced t"e gro!t" o 1'Os #artici#ation in "ealt" iss$es in -ots!ana incl$de
t"e ollo!ingK
t"e Alma Ata Declaration !"ic" em#"asised comm$nit% #artici#ation and
#artners"i# 0$ilding to attain "ealt" or all4
5Dt" :&A resol$tion in 1==7 as a means o reac"ing )ision o "ealt" or all 0%
strengt"ening *artners"i# or colla0oration 0et!een go)ernments4 :&O and
2on go)ernmental organisation (2GOs) in t"e "ealt" sector
:&O9AF+O resol$tion in Da6ar in Fe0r$ar%4 1==8F
(n -ots!ana t"e tri#artite #artners"i# meeting too6 #lace in 'e#tem0er4 1==8
!"ere resol$tion !as made to strengt"en t"e Go)ernment and 2GOs
#artners"i# in "ealt" ser)ice deli)er%F
(n -ots!ana t"e in)ol)ement o 1'Os in t"e "ealt" sector and &(8 and
A(D' res#onse 0ecame more e)ident in t"e earl% 1==Ds !"en t"e &(8 and A(D'
e#idemic 0ecame more mat$red res$lting in o)er!"elming t"e ca#acit% o t"e #$0lic
sector to deli)er ser)ices to all #eo#le in needF (n 1==54 t"e go)ernment ado#ted
comm$nit% "ome 0ased care #rogramme as a strateg% to ens$re contin$it% o care and
s$##ort to *7:&A and ot"er c"ronicall% ill #atients and to ed$cate comm$nities on
&(8 and A(D'F Famil% and comm$nit% mo0ili5ation strateg% !as ada#ted as one t"e
maMor comm$nit% "ome 0ased care c1&-1d #rogram inter)entionsF /"is strateg%
!as s$ccess$l as t"ere "as 0een #ositi)e comm$nit% res#onseF 1omm$nities
res#onded 0% orming comm$nit% 0ased organisations (8&1s4 1&-1 committees4
'$##ort gro$#s or #eo#le li)ing !it" &(8 and A(D'4 comm$nit% 0ased
organisations (1-Os)4 Fait" 0ased organisations (F-Os) and 2ongo)ernmental
organisations(2GOs) !"ic" are collecti)el% 6no!n as 1i)il 'ociet% OrganisationsF
/o date t"ere are more t"an 3DD 7ocal 1'Os in)ol)ed in 1&-1 #rogrammeF
-ots!ana 1o$ncil or 2on-Go)ernmental Organi5ations (2et!or6 o -O1O2GO) is
t"e $m0rella 0od% or all 2GOs in t"e co$ntr%F (t "as ailiates net!or6s li6e
-ots!ana net!or6 o Aids 'er)ice Organi5ation (-O2A'O)F -O2A'O is t"e
$m0rella 0od% or all t"e organi5ations in)ol)ed in "ealt" and &(8 and A(D'
res#onseF Ot"er 6e% local 2GO 2et!or6s in)ol)ed in coordinating &(8 and A(D'
res#onse incl$de4 -ots!ana net!or6 o #eo#le li)ing !it" &(8 and A(D'F -ots!ana
net!or6 o #eo#le li)ing !it" &(8 and A(D' (-O2.*:A)4 -ots!ana 2et!or6 o
2D2
.t"ics 7a! and &(8 and A(D' (-O2.7A)4 -ots!ana 1"ristian Aids (nter)ention
*rogram (-O1A(*) and -ots!ana -$siness 1oalition on A(D' (--1A)
/"ese 1'Os #ro)ide strategic o##ort$nities to increase access to ser)ices and
geogra#"ical co)erage o ser)icesN t"e% reac" marginali5ed )$lnera0le and
$nderser)ed comm$nit% gro$#s !it" easeF /"ese 1'O "a)e an added ad)antage o
ado#ting comm$nit%-0ased inter)entions t"$s acilitating comm$nit% em#o!erment4
#artici#ation and o!ners"i# o t"e &(8 and A(D' e#idemicF 1'Os #ro)ide range o
ser)ices eit"er as stand alone or integrated ser)ices de#ending on organi5ation<s
ca#a0ilit% and com#arati)e ad)antageF /"ese ser)ices incl$de
1omm$nit% mo0ili5ation4
distri0$tion o "ealt" commodities s$c" as condoms4 0ed nets4
comm$nit% /- DO/'4
,onitoring and Ad)ocac% or >$alit% o "ealt" ser)ices
Dissemination o "ealt" #romotion messages4 incl$ding dissemination &(8
#re)ention messagesF
*ro)ision o s#irit$al 9#astoral careF
,o0ili5ing material and inancial s$##ortF
/raining "ome 0ased care caregi)ersF
/"e ,O& eJ#erience !or6ing in colla0oration !it" 1'Os is t"at t"e%
ace some c"allenges in deli)ering t"e a0o)e mentioned ser)icesF /"ese c"allenges
incl$deK inade>$ate n$m0er o s6illed "$man reso$rce4 inancial and material
reso$rces to im#lement t"eir ser)ices and !ea6 monitoring and e)al$ation s%stemsF
&ence t"e% re>$ire ca#acit% strengt"ening to ena0le t"em to #la% a more signiicant
role in t"e &(8 and A(D' #re)ention and care in -ots!anaF /"ere is need or t"e
Go)ernment4 colla0orati)e #artners and donors to assist in ca#acitating t"e societ% to
ena0le t"em to deli)er t"eir ser)ices ade>$atel%F (n )ie! o t"is t"e go)ernment o
-ots!ana in colla0oration !it" t"e 2GOs is in t"e #rocess o de)elo#ing 1i)il
'ociet% 2ational 1a#acit% -$ilding 'trateg% !"ic" !ill #ro)ide g$idance or donor
s$##ort to ci)il societ% organi5ationF 1olla0oration 0et!een t"e Go)ernment and
1'Os "as increased 0ot" geogra#"ical co)erage and accessi0ilit% to &(8 and A(D'
'er)icesF /"ereore strengt"ening ca#acit% o 0ot" t"e #$0lic sector and 1'Os "ealt"
deli)er% s%stems is critical to ac"ie)e t"e Uni)ersal accessF
2D3
Re'erences
1F Al6ire4 'F (2DD2)F ODimensions o &$man De)elo#ment<F :orld
De)elo#ment4 3D (2)K 181-2D5F
2F -erg4 &F (2DD2)F ODoes Ann$al +eal Gross Domestic *rod$ct #er 1a#ita
O)erstate or Understate t"e Gro!t" o (ndi)id$al :elare o)er t"e *ast
/!o 1ent$riesR< (nde#endent +e)ie!4 7 (2)K 181-=6F
2D4
3F 1a"ill4 ,F -F (2DD2)F ODiminis"ing +et$rns to GD* and t"e &$man
De)elo#ment (ndeJ<F A##lied .conomic 7etters4 = (13)K 885-7F
4F 1"arnes4 AF4 :F :F 1oo#er4 and .F +"odes (1=81)F OData .n)elo#ment
Anal%sis as an A##roac" to .)al$ating *rogram and ,anagerial
.icienc%K :it" an A##lication to t"e *rogram Follo!-/"ro$g"
.J#eriment in U' *$0lic .d$cation<F ,anagement 'cience4 27K 668-88F
5F 1oelli4 /F4 DF 'F *F +ao4 and GF .F -attese (1==8)F An (ntrod$ction to
.icienc% and *rod$cti)it% Anal%sisF -ostonK ;l$!erF
6F 1oo#er4 :F :F4 7F ,F 'eiord4 and ;F /one (2DDD)F Data .n)elo#ment
Anal%sisF -ostonK ;l$!erF
7F DeMian4 7F (2DD3)F O*rinci#al 1om#onents Anal%sis on &$man
De)elo#ment (ndicators in 1"ina<F 'ocial (ndicators +esearc"4 61 (3)K 31=-
3DF
8F Fere4 +F4 and 'F Gross6o# (1==8a)F +eerence G$ide to On FrontF 7$ndK
.conomic ,eas$rement and Y$alit% i 7$nd A-F
=F Fere4 +F4 and 'F Gross6o# (1==80)F User<s G$ide to On FrontF 7$ndK
.conomic ,eas$rement and Y$alit% i 7$nd A-F
1DF Fere4 +F4 'F Gross6o#4 and 1F AF ;F 7o)ell (1==4)F *rod$ction FrontiersF
1am0ridgeK 1am0ridge Uni)ersit% *ressF
11F F$6$da-*arr4 'F (2DD1)F O(ndicators o &$man De)elo#ment and &$man
+ig"ts O)erla#s4 DierencesFFF and :"at a0o$t t"e &$man De)elo#ment
(ndeJR< 'tatistical Eo$rnal o t"e U2 .conomic 1ommission or .$ro#e4
18K 23=-48F Glo0statF A)aila0le atK
"tt#K99glo0astatFcom9comm$nicationsF"tm
12F ()ano)a4 (F4 FF Arcel$s4 and GF 'rini)asan (1==7)F OAssessing 1o$ntr%
Dierences in (nternational 1om#etiti)eness<F Eo$rnal o (nternational
,anagement4 3K 8=-118F ()ano)a4 (F4 FF Arcel$s4 and GF 'rini)asan (1==8)F
OAssessment o t"e 1om#etiti)eness *osition o t"e 7atin American
1o$ntries<F (nternational Eo$rnal o 1ommerce and ,anagement4 8K 7-32F
13F ()ano)a4 (F4 FF Arcel$s4 and GF 'rini)asan (1===)F OAn Assessment o t"e
,eas$rement *ro#erties o t"e &$man De)elo#ment (ndeJ<F 'ocial
(ndicators +esearc"4 46 (2)K 157-7=F
2D5
14F Ea"an4 'F (2DD3)F O,eas$ring 7i)ing 'tandard and *o)ert%K &$man
De)elo#ment (ndeJF as an Alternate ,eas$re<F A)aila0le atK
!!!F$massFed$9#eri9#ds9gl!fMa"anF#dF
15F 7asso de la 8ega4 ,F 1F4 and AF ,F Urr$tia (2DD1)F O&D*(K A Frame!or6
or *oll$tionsensiti)e &$man De)elo#ment (ndicators<F .n)ironment4
De)elo#ment and '$staina0ilit%4 3K 1==-215F 15
16F 7ind4 DF4 :F ,arc"al4 +F ,ason4 'F G$#ta4 'F ;a0adi4 and EF 'ing" (2DD3)F
'tatistical /ec"ni>$es in -$siness and .conomics4 First 1anadian .ditionF
/orontoK ,cGra!&ill +%ersonF
17F ,a5$mdar4 ;F (2DD3)F OAn Alternate A##roac" or .stimating &$man
De)elo#ment (ndeJ<F :or6ing *a#erF 1alc$ttaK .conomic +esearc" Unit4
(ndian 'tatistical (nstit$teF
18F 2asiero!s6i4 :F4 and FF Arcel$s (2DD3)F OOn t"e .icienc% o 2ational
(nno)ation '%stems<F 'ocio-.conomic *lanning 'ciences4 37 (3)K 215-34F
1=F 2e$ma%er4 .F (2DD1) O/"e &$man De)elo#ment (ndeJ and '$staina0ilit%K
A 1onstr$cti)e *ro#osal<F .cological .conomics4 3= (1)K 1D1-14F
2DF 2oor0a6"s"4 FF (1==8)F OA ,odiied &$man De)elo#ment (ndeJ<F :orld
De)elo#ment4 26 (3)K 517-28F
21F 2oor0a6"s"4 FF (2DD2)F O&$man De)elo#ment and +egional Dis#arities in
(ranK A *olic% ,odel<F Eo$rnal o (nternational De)elo#ment4 14 (7)K =27-
4=F
22F +aa04 +F4 *F ;otamraM$4 and 'F &aag (2DDD)F O.icient *ro)ision o 1"ild
Y$alit% o 7ie in 7ess De)elo#ed 1o$ntriesK 1on)entional De)elo#ment
(ndeJes )ers$s a *rogramming A##roac" to De)elo#ment (ndeJes<F 'ocio-
.conomic *lanning 'ciences4 34 (1)K 51-67F
23F +anis4 GF4 FF 'te!art4 and AF +amire5 (2DDD)F O.conomic Gro!t" and
&$man De)elo#ment<F :orld De)elo#ment4 28 (2)K 1=7-21=F
24F 'agar4 AF DF4 and AF 2aMam (1==8)F O/"e &$man De)elo#ment (ndeJK A
1ritical +e)ie!<F .cological .conomics4 25K 24=-64F
25F 'c"$lt54 /F :F (1==3)F Origins o (ncreasing +et$rnsF OJord and 2e!
3or6K -lac6!ellF
2D6
26F 'en4 AF ;F (1==D)F ODe)elo#ment as 1a#a0ilit% .J#ansion<4 in ;F Griin
and EF ;nig"t (eds)4 &$man De)elo#ment and t"e (nternational
De)elo#ment 'trateg% or t"e 1==DsF 7ondonK ,acmillanF
27F 'en4 AF ;F (1==2)F De)elo#ment as FreedomF 2e! 3or6K Anc"or -oo6sF
28F 'iegel4 'F4 and 2F EF 1astellan (1=88)F 2on#arametric 'tatistics or t"e
-e"a)ioral 'ciencesF 2e! 3or6K ,cGra!-&illF /"anasso$lis4 .F (2DD1)F
(ntrod$ction to t"e /"eor% and A##lication o Data .n)elo#ment Anal%sisF
-ostonK ;l$!erF
2=F U2D* (2DD3)F &$man De)elo#ment +e#ort 2DD2F A)aila0le atK
!!!99"drF$nd#ForgF United 2ations ()ario$s %ears)F 3ear0oo6 o 2ational
(ncome 'tatisticsF 2e! 3or6K United 2ationsF
3DF 8arian4 &F (1===)F (ntermediate ,icroeconomicsK A ,odern A##roac"F
2e! 3or6K 2ortonF
31F Caim4 OF4 +F Fere4 and 'F Gross6o# (2DD1)F OAn .conomic A##roac" to
Ac"ie)ement and (m#ro)ement (ndeJes<F 'ocial (ndicators +esearc"4 56
(1)K =1-118F
32F C"$4 EF (2DD3)F Y$antitati)e ,odels or *erormance .)al$ation and
-enc"mar6ingF -ostonK ;l$!erF
33F Arican Go)ernance For$m (AGF)F 2DD7F -ots!anaK -$ilding t"e 1a#a0le
'tate in AricaN -ots!ana 1o$ntr% +e#ort4 +e#$0lic o -ots!ana4 #a#er
date 3 Octo0er 2DD7N 7t" Arica Go)ernance For$m V O$agado$go$4
-$r6ina Faso4 #resented 24-26 Octo0er 2DD7F Aro0arometer '$r)e%4
+o$nd 34 2DD592DD6F
34F -ots!ana Federation o /rade UnionsF 2DD7F *olic% *osition *a#er on
'ocial 'ec$rit% and 'ocial *rotection in -ots!anaF
35F -ots!ana /elecomm$nications A$t"orit%-1o$ntr% re#ort to 1+A'A 1D/&
AG, V 2DD74 "tt#K99!!!FcrasaForg9docs9re#orts91DAG,-
-ots!ana1o$ntr%+e#ortF#d
36F -ertelsmann /ransormation (ndeJ4 (-/() -ots!ana 1o$ntr% +e#ort4 2DD8F
-ertelsmann Fo$ndation and t"e 1entre or A##lied *olic% 't$dies(1A*)4
,$nic" Uni)ersit%F
2D7
37F 1lo)er4 EF 2DD3F -ots!anaK F$t$re *ros#ects and t"e 2eed or -road-0ased
De)elo#mentN Arican 'ec$rit% Anal%sis *rogramme4 'it$ation +e#ort4 D1
'e#tem0er 2DD34 (nstit$te or 'ec$rit% 't$diesF /"e im#act o democrac%
in -ots!ana 1= 1ommon!ealt" 7ocal Go)ernment For$mF 2DD8F
"tt#K99!!!FclgForgF$69$seriles9clg9ile9co$ntries9-ots!anaF#d4 accessed
D2 A$g$st 2DD8F
38F Ferg$rson--ro!n4 &FAF 1==6F /"e origins o t"e :elare and 1omm$nit%
De)elo#ment *rogrammes in -ots!ana4 *$laK -ots!ana Eo$rnal o Arican
't$dies4 8ol 1D4 2oF2F F.'F 2DD3F /rade Unions in -ots!ana - 1o$ntr%
+e#ort 2DD34 Friedric" .0ert Fo$ndation4 Ga0orone4 -ots!anaF
3=F Good4 ;F 1==4F 1orr$#tion and mismangament in -ots!anaK a 0est-case
eJam#leR Eo$rnal o ,odern Arican 't$dies4 324 34 1==4F
4DF Good4 ;F 2DD7F Diamonds4 democrac% and #residentialism in -ots!ana4 in
G1"allenges o conlict4 democrac% and de)elo#ment in AricaH4 ;F
,atlosa4 EF .l6lit and -F 1"iroro (eds)4
41F .('A4 2DD74 Eo"annes0$rg4Go)ernment o -ots!anaF 2DD7F /"ree )illages
0eneit rom r$ral electriication #roMect 26 2o)em0er4 2DD7F
"tt#K99!!!Fgo)F0!9cgi0in9ne!sFcgiR
dg2DD71126`ig/"reef)illagesf0eneitfromfr$ralfelectriicationf#roMect
42F &$man De)elo#ment +e#ortF 2DD792DD8F United 2ations De)elo#ment
*rogramme4 2DD7
"tt#K99"drstatsF$nd#Forg9co$ntries9co$ntr%factfs"eets9ct%fsf-:AF"tml
(,F 2DD7 statistical a##endiJ4 :orld .conomic and Financial s$r)e%sN
+egional .conomic O$tloo6 '$0 'a"aran Arica4 A#ril 2DD84 (nternational
,onetar% F$nd4 :as"ingtonF
43F 7odge /4 DF ;adima and DF *ottie (eds)F 2DD2F 1om#endi$m o .lections
in 'o$t" Arica4 .lectoral (nstit$te o 'o$t"ern Arica4 Eo"annes0$rgF
44F ,a$ndeni et alF 2DD7F 1onsolidating Democratic Go)ernance in 'o$t"ern
AricaK -ots!ana4.lectoral (nstit$te o 'o$t"ern Arica4 2DD5N
Eo"annes0$rg4 +esearc" +e#ort 31F
45F ,o6!ena4 7 and .F Fa6irF 2DD=F Democratic decision-ma6ing and
de)elo#ment at t"e local le)elK lessons rom r$ral -ots!anaF +esearc"
+e#ort 111F1entre or *olic% 't$diesF
2D8
46F ,ogae4 FF 2DD5F -ots!anaK "o! !e created an Arican s$ccess stor%F 2e!
Arican 1 A#ril 2DD54 irst gi)en as a s#eec" titled -ots!anaIs de)elo#ment
eJ#erience lect$re 0% *resident Fest$s ,ogae at t"e (nstit$te o
De)elo#ment 't$dies4 21 Fe0r$ar% 2DD5F
47F O.1D and Arican De)elo#ment -an6F 2DD8F Arican .conomic O$tloo6
2DD792DD8 O.1D *$0lis"ing 9 Arican De)elo#ment -an64 21 ,a% 2DD8F
O.1D De)elo#ment 1entreF /"e im#act o democrac% in -ots!ana
48F +ic"ards4 +F 2DD8F Assessing "$man de)elo#ment in 'AD1K 1==D-2DD8F
*olic% -rie 52F 1entre or *olic% 't$diesF
4=F :orld &ealt" OrganisationF 2DD6F 1o$ntr% &ealt" '%stem Fact '"eetN
-ots!ana4"tt#K99!!!FaroF!"oFint9"ome9co$ntries9actfs"eets90ots!anaF#d

5DF :orld &ealt" Organisation 2DD8F United 2ations *rogramme on
&(89A(D' (U2A(D') and U2(1.F 2DD84 .#idemiological Fact '"eet on
&(8 and A(D'
51F Arican 2ational 1ongress4 (1==4)F +econstr$ction and De)elo#ment
*rogramme4 Eo"annes0$rg4 -ots!ana
"tt#K99!!!F!"oFint9glo0alatlas9#redeined+e#orts9.F'2DD89$ll9.F'2DD8f
-:F#d
52F -a)a4 24 *rod$cti)it% in *$0lic AdministrationK 1once#t and A##lication in
(ndia4 8olF 414 2oF14 A#ril V E$ne 2DDDF D*'AF -at"o *eleK /oget"er
-eating t"e dr$m o 'er)ice Deli)er%F !!!Fgo)F5aF
2D=
21D
Chapter3 Si?
Conclusion
211
Conclusion
/"e notion o ci)il societ% "as a long #edigree in !estern #olitical #"iloso#"%
in t"e !ritings o Eo"n 7oc6e4 /"omas *aine4 AleJis de /oc>$e)ille and Antonio
GramsciF (t res$raced as an im#ortant conce#t in democratic t"eor% to!ards t"e end
o t"e cold !ar4 !"en ordinar% citi5ens em0ar6ed $#on mass mo)ements or c"angeF
7i6e t"e 'olidarit% ,o)ement in *oland4 t"e 8el)et +e)ol$tion in 15ec"oslo)a6ia4
t"e United Democratic Front against a#art"eid in 'o$t" Arica4 #rotests in /iananmen
'>$are in 1"ina and t"e Green0elt ,o)ement in ;en%aF
(n t"e !estern deinition o ci)il societ%4 a$tonomo$s and acti)e )ol$ntar%
associations are regarded as a co$nter 0alance to state #o!er4 a training gro$nd or
democratic #ractices4 and as a necessar% conse>$ence o increasingl% dierentiated
str$ct$res o go)ernance t"at "a)e increased t"e distance 0et!een citi5ens and t"e
stateF (n t"ese co$ntries !it" t"eir e)er more com#leJ s%stems o social4 #olitical and
economic interactions4 go)ernments can satis% onl% a small and diminis"ing
#ro#ortion o t"e needs o t"eir citi5ens and t"e latter loo6 more and more to ci)ic
associations to c"annel a gro!ing range and )ariet% o social interactionsF
/"ese need a rame!or6 o go)ernance o$tside t"e M$risdiction o t"e stateF (n Arica4
it is rat"er t"e a0sence o go)ernance t"at necessitates and $els t"e gro!t" o ci)il
societ%F For instances4 ci)il societ% reers4 0roadl% s#ea6ing4 to t"e social and #olitical
s#ace !"ere )ol$ntar% associations attem#ts to s"a#e norms and #olicies to reg$late
#$0lic lie in social4 #olitical4 economic and en)ironmental dimensionsF /"ese are
seen to incl$deK religio$s organisationsN social cl$0sN social mo)ementsN ree #ress
and inde#endent mediaN trade $nionsN #roessional associationsN and non-
go)ernmental organisationsF
/"ere "as 0een an eJ#onential gro!t" in t"e n$m0er o ci)il societ% actors4 and in t"e
)ol$me o transnational net!or6s in !"ic" t"e% are em0eddedF At t"e international
le)el4 t"eir increased im#act is relected in t"e role t"at ci)il societ% #la%ed in t"e
esta0lis"ment o t"e (nternational 1riminal 1o$rtN t"e ado#tion o t"e Otta!a /reat%
on t"e #ro"i0ition on anti-#ersonnel minesN t"e oc$s on t"e lin6ages 0et!een
diamonds and conlict t"ro$g" t"e ;im0erle% *rocessN and to ease t"e de0t o t"e
"ig"l% inde0ted #oor co$ntries t"ro$g" E$0ilee 2DDD4 to name 0$t a e!F Undenia0l%4
t"e% #la% an im#ortant and gro!ing role as an inormation c"annel4 a o$nt o
legitimac% and a catal%st or acco$nta0ilit% and trans#arenc%F /"e net res$lt o
eJ#anding glo0al citi5en action "as 0een to eJtend t"e t"eor% and dee#en t"e #ractice
o grass roots democrac% !it"in 0ordersF :"ile states are t"e #rimar% actors in t"e
international s%stem4 ci)il societ% "as 0ecome an im#ortant secondar% actor
inl$encing t"e agenda o t"e #rimar% actorsF 1learl%4 t"e m$lti#licit% o t"ese
$noicial actors also #resents ne! #ro0lems4 s$c" as lac6 o coordination o eorts
212
and o clear acco$nta0ilit%F /"is is generall% not a #ro0lem in esta0lis"ed and mat$re
democracies4 !"ere go)ernments acce#t t"at e)en t"e most o#en and trans#arent
s%stem s"o$ld allo! or )ol$ntar% and non#roit associations to #$rs$e s#eciic aimsF
(n de)elo#ing societies4 incl$ding Arica4 t"e sit$ation is dierentF On t"e one "and4
mem0ers"i# organi5ations4 s$c" as trade $nions and #roessional associations4 are
readil% #ercei)ed as #osing a #otential #olitical t"reat to inc$m0ent elites 0orne o$t
0% t"e #olitical mo)ements t"at "ad t"eir origins !it"in organised la0o$r and
e)ent$all% de#osed ;ennet" ;a$nda in Cam0ia4 and t"e close association 0et!een
t"e Cim0a0!e 1ongress o /rade Unions and t"e ,o)ement or Democratic 1"ange
in neig"0oring Cim0a0!eF On t"e ot"er4 iss$e 0ased and ad)ocac% organi5ations4
necessaril% $nded 0% oreign go)ernments4 de)elo#ment agencies and #"ilant"ro#ic
o$ndations4 are readil% >$estioned on iss$es o acco$nta0ilit% and res#onsi0ilit%F
1i)il 'ociet% !or6ing or democrac%4 "$man rig"ts and trans#arenc% are t"ereore
oten lam0asted 0% go)ernments on t"e 0asis o !"om do t"e% re#resent or as
organisations acting at t"e 0e"est o some oreign cons#irac% or #olitical or
commercial gainF :"ile go)ernments #oint to t"e reliance on oreign donor $nding
o ci)il societ% to delegitimi5e t"em4 t"e ci)il societ%4 in t$rn4 #oint o$t t"at most
Arican go)ernments and intergo)ernmental organisations s$c" as 'AD14 .1O:A'4
(GAD4 t"e AU and 2.*AD are t"emsel)es "ea)il% de#endent on oreign aid4 and t"at
t"eir agenda<s are determined not in ;igali4 Accra or 7ilong!e4 0$t in t"e 0oardrooms
o 0ilateral donors t"e (,F and t"e :orld -an6F
/"e relations"i# 0et!een Arican leaders and ci)il societ% in #artic$lar4 inde#endent
2GOs "as t"$s 0een c"aracteri5ed 0% m$t$al s$s#icion and4 in some cases4 o$trig"t
"ostilit% eJce#t !"ere 1i)il 'ociet% Organisations are #re#ared to !or6 as an
eJtension o go)ernment4 #ro#agate its #olicies and sometimes ser)e as an alternati)e
cond$it to gain additional income or inno)ati)e leadersF (n 'o$t" Arica4 a co$ntr%
t"at #ro)ides eJtensi)e s#ace or ci)il societ%4 t"e #artners"i# and colla0oration t"at
c"aracterised t"e #ost a#art"eid era "as since gi)en !a% to an instr$mentalist )ie! o
t"e relations"i# 0et!een ci)il societ% and go)ernmentF
2e)ert"eless4 r"etorical recognition o t"e need or #o#$lar #artici#ation in
go)ernance is gro!ing at t"e le)el o t"e AU and t"e im#et$s is on ci)il societ%
organisations to $se and eJ#and t"e s#ace created or t"eir in)ol)ementF :"en t"e
t"ird !a)e o democratisation "it Arican s"ores in t"e earl% 1==Ds4 t"is !as as m$c"
a "ome-gro!n mo)ement4 as it !as #art o t"e glo0al c"ain o e)entsF As @yimah
,oadi notesK
I6:ternal developments, such as the fall of communism and pressure from
forein donors were important for layin the roundwor7 for formal democracy% But
it was often the resourcefulness, dedication, and tenacity of the continentFs nascent
civil societies that initiated and sustained the process of democratic openin and
213
political li-eralisation% In late $'4', civil servants, teachers and traders in Benin
were the first to -rin an end to autocracy and economic mismanaement% In
Jam-ia, the !onress of Trade Cnions followed suit -y successfully challenin the
three8decade incum-ency of Henneth Haunda% In Sierra 2eone, the irrepressi-le
resolve of the ;omenFs 3orum thwarted the desins of the incum-ent military reime
to forestall that countryFs return to democratic rule in $''0% And the damnin
pastoral letters of such !hristian leaders as Bishop Isodore de Sou<a of Benin, and
Arch-ishop 3ano7o Hpod<ro of Too proved hihly successful in underminin the
authority of the old reimes%K
(ss$es o de)elo#ment4 sec$rit% and deence no! go 0e%ond t"e state
s%stemF Glo0alisation in)ol)es t"e s"aring o #o!er 0et!een state and non state
actors4 !it" t"e res$lt t"at t"e state is no longer a0le to mono#olise t"e conce#t and
#ractice o sec$rit%4 or indeed o go)ernanceF /"e inormation re)ol$tion "as "el#ed
to end state im#osed isolation and allo! or net!or6s to gro! 0e%ond national
0ordersF For eJam#le4 it "as 0een arg$ed t"at t"e aJ4 #"otoco#ier4 #ersonal com#$ter
and des6to# #$0lis"ing sot!are !as central to t"e #ro democrac% mo)ement<s
cam#aign to discredit t"e -anda dictators"i# in ,ala!i in 1==2V=3F /"e gro!ing $se
o email and t"e internet in t"e #ast ten %ears "a)e strengt"ened t"is #"enomenon
0est relected in t"e eJtent to !"ic" inormation on t"e s$##ression o democrac% and
a0$se o #o!er 0% CA2U(*F) in Cim0a0!e in recent %ears is still a0le to reac" t"e
o$tside !orld4 des#ite t"e assa$lt on t"e inde#endent media in t"at co$ntr%F
/!o arg$ments "a)e t"$s ar 0een made t"at #ro)ide or an im#ortant role 0% ci)il
societ% in Arican sec$rit%F /"e irst is t"at t"e maMorit% o #oor Arican co$ntries
s$er rom a concentration o #olitical4 economic and social #o!er in t"e eJec$ti)e
0ranc" o t"e stateF (n a sit$ation !"ere t"e state is 0ot" t"e dominant economic actor
and largest so$rce o em#lo%ment4 and !"ere economic c"oices are "ig"l%
#oliticised4 ci)il societ% oten #ro)ides t"e onl% c"ec6 on t"e $ntrammeled #o!er o
t"e eJec$ti)eF
'econdl%4 t"e earlier arg$ed t"at t"e notion o "$man sec$rit% "as im#acted $#on
traditional notions o national sec$rit%F /oda%4 non-state actors 0eneit rom closer
in)ol)ement !it" t"e local comm$nit% d$ring internal conlicts and "a)e greater
#otential or local conlict resol$tion t"an ot"er mec"anismsF Organisations s$c" as
t"e (nternational 1ommittee or t"e +ed 1ross4 OJam and ,edecins sans Frontieres
act as relie agencies !"en go)ernments are $na0le or $n!illing to do soF .lse!"ere
ci)il societ%4 s$c" as t"e inter-religio$s co$ncils in 'ierra 7eone and 7i0eria and t"e
1omm$nit% o 'an .gidio4 acilitate negotiations 0et!een !arring #artiesF (n man%
instances t"ese entities $nction !it"o$t t"e constraints o state instit$tionsF
214
/"ere are some 0asic distinction 0et!een t"e #$0lic sector4 #ri)ate sector and ci)il
societ%F 1i)il societ% are non-go)ernmental organisationsN religio$s mo)ementsN
academic comm$nitiesN t"e mediaN c$lt$ral comm$nitiesN trade $nions4 etcF /"ere is
also "inted at a t"ird arg$ment or a role 0% ci)il societ% in de)elo#ing co$ntriesF /"e
ca#acit% constraints4 eJ#erienced 0% 0ot" national go)ernments and
intergo)ernmental organisations4 "a)e o#ened $# a )ie! t"at ci)il societ%
organisations can com#lement oicial str$ct$res adding ca#acit% !"ere t"ose o
mandated str$ct$res are lac6ingF /"eir #resence in t"e ield can 0e a )ital lin6 in
#ro)iding earl% !arnings or dealing !it" "$manitarian crisesF /"eir s#ecialised
6no!ledge and contacts can 0e im#ortant com#onents o t"e #ost-conlict #eace
0$ilding #rocessF /"e% can mediate 0et!een t"e #eace and sec$rit% $nctions o
intergo)ernmental organisations4 and t"e needs and !ants o local ci)ilian
#o#$lationsF /"e% can eJert a #ositi)e inl$ence on t"e restoration o a climate o
conidence or reconstr$ctionN and t"e% can 0ring additional eJ#ertise and
com#arati)e #ractices to 0ear in t"e #rocess o #olic% de)elo#ment4 monitoring and
re#ortageF 1i)il societ% is not a s$0stit$te or t"e state4 nor can it claims to 0e t"$s4
0$t is !ell #ositioned to #la% t!o cr$cial roles in relation to !ea6 states in AricaF
/"e irst is to a$gment t"e ca#acit% or de)elo#ment and sec$rit%F /"e second is 0%
"olding t"e go)ernment and leaders acco$nta0le to t"e citi5enr% in Arica4 !"ile
sim$ltaneo$sl% eJerting #ress$re in ca0inet oices and t"e 0oardrooms o t"e ric"
co$ntries to res#ond to t"e s#ecial needs o de)elo#ing co$ntriesF /"e de0ates
regarding t"e 2.*AD A*+, "as o#ened $# a #artic$larl% im#ortant o##ort$nit% or
Arican ci)il societ% organisations to engage in !"at some )ie! as a s"ado! s%stem
o #eer re)ie!F
Des#ite t"e dramatic c"anges in t"e notion o eJcl$si)e so)ereignt% in recent %ears4
t"e !orld s%stem retains a nat$ral tendenc% to!ards state ormation e)en in t"e 21st
cent$r%F /oda%4 states still #ro)ide t"e 0asis or t"e international s%stem and4
collecti)el%4 or t"e reg$lation o t"ose relations and iss$es t"at all o$tside4 or
0et!een4 t"e control o an% single stateF /"ere is no clear alternati)e to geogra#"ical
states as t"e 0asic 0$ilding 0loc6 and #rere>$isite or domestic saet% and a sta0le
international s%stemF /"ere is an emerging glo0al consens$s on t"e norms t"at a##l%
to acce#ta0le state 0e"a)iorF
/"e legac% o colonialism and t"e 1old :ar is an Arica di)ided along 0o$ndaries
!it"in !"ic" Aricans toda% deine t"emsel)es as 2igerian4 1ongolese4 Cam0ian or
;en%anF For t"e most #art4 t"e 0orders car)ed o$t 0% t"e colonial #o!ers are "ere to
sta% alt"o$g" some !ill e)ent$all% ade a!a% in t"e eorts to create )ia0le national
$nits !"ere t"e% do not #resentl% eJist4 #ossi0l% most e)ident in #arts o 1entral and
:est AricaF Des#ite t"e !ea6ness and #ro0lems in man% regions o t"e !orld4 t"e
state remains t"e most eecti)e instr$ment or t"e redistri0$tion o !ealt" in societ%4
215
and !ill remain so or t"e oreseea0le $t$reF As is t"e case in .ast Asia4 state
inter)ention can 0e 0eneicial to economic gro!t"4 and its role in t"is res#ect ma% 0e
critical alt"o$g" t"e !ea6ness o Arican go)ernments mean t"at e! can im#lement
a state-led a##roac" to de)elo#mentF
A0o)e all4 t"e state is t"e 6e% #ro)ider o sec$rit%F :"ile t"ere "as 0een considera0le
o$tso$rcing o some o t"e sec$rit% $nctions o t"e state in dierent orms across t"e
!orld4 t"ere are clear limits to t"e eJtent to !"ic" a state can #arcel o$t its most 0asic
$nction to commercial com#aniesF (n an increasingl% glo0al and interconnected
!orld4 in)estment ca#ital see6s t"e "ig"est ret$rns and since #redicta0ilit% is a 6e%
consideration in s$c" a calc$l$s4 sec$rit% is a #rere>$isite or de)elo#ment t"at needs
to attract more t"an ris6 ca#italF
(n :est and 1entral Arica4 t"ere is discerni0le trend to!ards regional a##roac"es to
crises o go)ernance relecting t"e ac$te crises aecting t"e co$ntries o t"ese
regionsF /"ese a##roac"es are most e)ident in meas$res to co$nter t"e #rolieration
o small armsN eorts to deal !it" t"e ragilit% o sec$rit% sectorsN com0ating cross-
0order mo)ement o !ea#ons4 dr$gs and armed gro$#sN ameliorating t"e mass
mo)ements o re$gees4 de)elo#ment4 !ides#read #o)ert%N and !ea6 state
instit$tionsF /"ese cross-c$tting c"allenges transcend national 0o$ndaries and re>$ire
an integrated and "olistic s$0-regional a##roac" to a$gment national sol$tionsF
/oda%4 most Arica go)ernments "a)e Mettisoned direct state management o actories
and arms or greater reliance on t"e #ri)ate sector and see6 oreign in)estment4 as
o##osed to de)elo#ment assistanceF Arican leaders4 at least t"ose t"at ascri0e to
2.*AD4 "a)e committed t"emsel)es #$0licl% to social democrac% rat"er t"an
democratic centralismF Go)ernments attem#t to #ractice good go)ernance and
ca#acit% 0$ilding4 and to oster #artners"i#s !it" t"e #ri)ate sector to #$rs$e
m$t$all% 0eneicial goalsF 2.*AD "as done m$c" to c"ange t"e conteJt o Arican
engagement on t"e continent4 0et!een Arica and its de)elo#ment #artners4 and t"e
international de0ate a0o$t AricaF Arican o!ners"i# is demonstrated in t"e de0ates
a0o$t de)elo#ment and sec$rit% 0% Aricans or AricaF
/"e 1onstit$tion o -ots!ana stresses t"e se#aration o t"e state rom ci)il societ%
and g$arantees citi5ens ree #olitical acti)it%4 reedom o s#eec"4 association4 and
religionF /"is is at least !"at t"e 1onstit$tion sa%sF -$t "as t"e go)ernment created
t"e necessar% climate to allo! ci)il societ% organisations to artic$late t"eir
#rogrammes and #la% a constr$cti)e role in ostering a c$lt$re o o#enness4 tolerance
and acco$nta0ilit%R
-ots!ana "as a m$lti#art% s%stem and a strong decentralisation #rogrammeN
nonet"eless4 it is one o t"e e! co$ntries t"at "a)e 0$ilt a li0eral democrac% !"ilst
its ci)il societ% is !ea6F Alt"o$g" in t"e #ast e! %ears legislati)e and #ractical
de)elo#ments "a)e #ro)ided or increased #artici#ation4 ci)il societ%4 a#art rom a
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e! eJce#tions4 "as not 0een a0le to inl$ence #$0lic #olic% and eJert democratic
#ress$re on t"e stateF /"ree reasons "a)e 0een gi)enK c$lt$ral4 "istorical4 and
#oliticalF
1i)il societ% is generall% )er% acti)e and #ro)ides an alternati)e to t"e state as an
agent or #ro)iding "$man sec$rit% $nder t!o circ$mstancesK !"en states ail to
deli)er !"at t"e% are eJ#ected to and d$ring ci)il and #olitical $nrestF -ots!ana is an
eJce#tional caseK rom an economic and social #oint o )ie!4 its "$man de)elo#ment
record is im#ressi)eN rom a #olitical #oint o )ie!4 it "as maintained a democratic
en)ironmentF Unli6e ot"er Arican co$ntries4 -ots!ana !as ne)er in)ol)ed in a
li0eration str$ggleF /ransition rom colonialism to inde#endence !as >$ite smoot"F (
%o$ loo6 at ci)il societ% in 'o$t" Arica4 2ami0ia4 and Cim0a0!e4 it is )er% )i0rant4
0$t onl% 0eca$se t"ose co$ntries "a)e eJ#erienced ci)il $nrest o some 6indF One o
t"e $nintended conse>$ences o t"e eicienc% o -ots!ana<s !elare s%stem is t"at
citi5ens "a)e "ig" eJ#ectations o go)ernmentF /"e eecti)eness o go)ernment in
deli)ering social ser)ices is #ositi)e on t"e one "and4 0$t on t"e ot"er "and "as
created a c$lt$re o de#endenc%N t"e go)ernment #ro)ides almost e)er%t"ing is reeF
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