2102311 Electrical Measurement a Instruments (Part II)

Bridge Circuits (DC and AC) Electronic Instruments (Analog & Digital) Signal Generators Frequency and Time Interval Measuremen Introduction to Transducers
Textbook:

-A.D. Helfrick, and W.D. Cooper, Modern Electronic Instrumentation Techniques Prentice Hall, 1994. - D.A. Bell, Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements, 2nd ed., Pr

Resistor Types

Importance parameters Value Tolerance Power rating Temperature c

Type

Values ()

Power rating (W)

Tolerance (%)

Temperature coefficient (ppm/C) 30~300 3~30 100~200 10~200 0.4~10 200~500

Wire wound (power) Wire wound (precision) Carbon film Metal film Metal film (precision) Metal oxide film

10m~3k 10m~1M 1~1M 100m~1M 10m~100k 100m~100k

3~1k 0.1~1 0.1~3 0.1~3 0.1~1 1~10

1~10 0.005~1 2~10 0.5~5 0.05~5 2~10

Data: Transistor technology (10/2000)

Resistor Values
Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance (%) 10 5 1 2 0.5 0.25 0.1 20 K J F G D C B M

Color codes Alphanumeric

Temperature coefficient (ppm/C) 250 100 50 15 25 20 10 5 1 K H G D F E C B A -

4 ban

Silver Gold Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10-2
10
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Data: Transistor technology

10 (10/2000)

Most sig. fig. of value Least si of value

Ex.

Green Bl

R=

Alph
R, K, M, G, and
x10 , x10 , x
0 3

Ex. 6M8 = 5904

Resistor Values
R = x %x
Tolerance Nominal value
Ex. 1 k 10% 900-1100

Commonly available resistance

For 10% resistor 10, 12, 15, 18, 10 12 15 R

n = 0, 1, 2, 3,

R 10

where E = 6, 12, 24, 96 for 20, 10, 5, 1% tolerance

For 10% resistor E = 12 n = 0; R = 1.00000 n = 1; R = 1.21152 n = 2; R = 1.46779 n = 3; R = 1.77827

Resistance Measurement Techniques Bridge circuit Voltmeter-ammeter Substitution Ohmmeter

Voltmeter-ammeter
V A R A R V

Substitution
A
Unknow Supply resistance

A Rx
Supply
Decade resis box substitu place of the unknown

Voltmeter-ammeter method
Pro and con: Simple and theoretical oriented Requires two meter and calculations Subject to error: Voltage drop in ammeter Current in voltmeter (Fig.
+ + VS V V VA A I Rx Vx VS
-

I + A
+

+ V V -

Fig. (a) Measured R : R

x
meas

Fig. (b)

V V +V V = = x A =R + A R
x

R
Measured Rx: if Ix>>IV
meas

=V= R
I
x

R
if Vx>>VA
meas

R
meas

Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure

Therefore this circuit is su

large resistance

small resistance

Ohmmeter
Voltmeter-ammeter method is rarely used in practical ap (mostly used in Laboratory) Ohmmeter uses only one meter by keeping one paramet Example: series ohmmeter
Resistance to be measured Standard resistance
45 k

1 5
2 5
0

Rx
Battery

R1 VS
Rx = Is R1 Rm

Rm
V

Meter Infinity resistance Meter

Basic series ohmmeter

Ohmme

Basic series ohmmeter consisting of a PMMC and a series-connected standard

the ohmmeter terminals are shorted (Rx = 0) meter full scale defection occurs. A Rx = R1 + Rm, and at zero defection the terminals are open-circuited.

Bridge Circuit
Bridge Circuit is a null method, operates on the principle comparison. That is a known (standard) value is adjusted equal to the unknown value.

Bridge Circuit
DC Bridge (Resistance)
Inductance
Wheatstone Bridge Kelvin Bridge Megaohm Bridge Maxwell Bridge Hay Bridge Owen Bridge Etc.

AC Bridge
Capacitance
Schering Bridge

Wheatstone Bridge and Balance Co

Suitable for moderate resistance values: 1 to 10 M

A
R1 I1 V I2 R2

Balance condition: No potential difference a galvanometer (there is n the galvanometer)

D
I3 R3 I4 R4

Under this condition

I1 R1 = And also VDC = VB I 3 R3 =

where I1, I2, I3, and I4 are cur arms respectively, since I1 = I

R1 R2 or = R3 R4

Rx = R4

Example
1 1 1

12 V 1 1

12 V 2

(a) Equal resistance

(b) Proportion

10

12 V 2
20

12 V 2

(c) Proportional resistance

(d) 2-Volt unb

Measurement Errors
1. Limiting error of the known resistors Using 1st order approximation:

R = ( R R ) R
x 3 3

R=R
x 3

R
2 1 1

A
R1 V R2

R
1

2. Insufficient sensitivi 3. Changes in resistan arms due to the heat

temperatures 4. Thermal emf or cont bridge circuit

R3

Rx

5. Error due to the lead 3, 4 and 5 play the impor

measurement of low val

Example In the Wheatstone bridge circuit, R3 is a decade resistance wi accuracy 0.2% and R1 and R2 = 500 0.1%. If the value of R3 at the 520.4 , determine the possible minimum and maximum value of R X

SOLUTION Apply the error equation

R = R R2 1 R1 R2 R1 R2 R x 3 R1

Rx =

520.4 500 500

0.1 0.2 = 520.4( 1 0.004) = 520.4 1 100 100 100

0.1

Therefore the possible values of R3 are 518.32 to 522.48 Example A Wheatstone bridge has a ratio arm of 1/100 (R2/R1). At first b adjusted to 1000.3 . The value of Rx is then changed by the temperature value of R3 to achieve the balance condition again is 1002.1 . Find the c the temperature change. SOLUTION At first balance:

R old = R R2 = 1000.3 1 =10.003

x 3R

100

After the temperature change: R new = R

x 3

= 1002.1 1 =10.021 R 100

2

Therefore, the change of Rx due to the temperature change is 0.018

Sensitivity of Galvanometer
A galvanometer is use to detect an unbalance cond Wheatstone bridge. Its sensitivity is governed by: Current (currents per unit defection) and internal resistance.
consider a bridge circuit under a small unbalance condition, and apply analysis to solve the current through galvanometer

Thvenin Equivalent Circuit Thvenin Voltage (VTH)

A I1
I2

VCD = V AC V AD = I1 R1
R G R4 B
where I =
2
1

V
S

R C R3

V R1 + R3

and I =
2

D
Therefore

R
R1

VTH = VCD = V

R1 +

Sensitivity of Galvanometer (contin

Thvenin Resistance (RTH)
R
C R3 B R4
1A

R2 D

RTH = R1 // R3 + R2 // R4

Completed Circuit
R
TH

C Ig=

V
TH

V
TH

G D

RTH+Rg

Ig =

V
TH

RTH + Rg

where Ig = the galvanometer curren Rg = the galvanometer resista

Example 1 Figure below show the schematic diagram of a Wheatstone the bridge elements. The battery voltage is 5 V and its internal resistanc galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 10 mm/A and an internal resis Calculate the deflection of the galvanometer caused by the 5- unbalan SOLUTION The bridge circuit is in the small unbalance condition since th resistance in arm BC is 2,005 .
A 100 R1 5V D R3 200 B (a) 100 A 1000 G R4 2005 R2 C 1000 (c)

200 B (b) RTH= 734 C

2005

V
TH

Ig=3.34 A G D Rg= 100

2.77 mV

Thvenin Voltage (VTH) V =V

TH AD

VAC = 5 V

100 100 + 200

2.77 mV

Thvenin Resistance (RTH)

RTH =100 // 200 + 1000 // 2005 =

The galvanometer current

Ig =

TH

2.77 mV 734 +100

= 3.

RTH + Rg

Galvanometer deflection
d = 3.32 A

10 mm A = 33.2
mm

Example 2 The galvanometer in the previous example is replaced by on resistance of 500 and a current sensitivity of 1mm/A. Assuming that can be observed on the galvanometer scale, determine if this new galva of detecting the 5- unbalance in arm BC

SOLUTION Since the bridge constants have not been changed, the equ is again represented by a Thvenin voltage of 2.77 mV and a Thvenin 734 . The new galvanometer is now connected to the output terminals galvanometer current.

V
Ig =
TH

2.77 mV 734 +500

= 2.24 A

RTH + Rg

The galvanometer deflection therefore equals 2.24 A x 1 mm/A = 2.2 indicating that this galvanometer produces a deflection that can be eas

Example 3 If all resistances in the Example 1 increase by 10 times, and galvanometer in the Example 2. Assuming that a deflection of 1 mm can galvanometer scale, determine if this new setting can be detected (the 5 arm BC) SOLUTION

Application of Wheatstone Bridge

Murray/Varrley Loop Short Circuit Fault (Loop Te
Loop test can be carried out for the location of either a groun circuit fault.
R3
X
1

short circuit fault

R4

X
2

ground

Murray Loop T fault Let R = R1+R2 At balance condition:

R3

Ass ume: earth is a

R1

=R

good conductor

R3 R3 +R4

R2 =

The value of R1 and R2 are used to calculat

Murray/Varrley Loop Short Circuit Fault (Loop Te

Examples of commonly used cables (Approx. R at 20 C)
Wire dia. In mm 0.32 0.40 0.50 0.63 0.90 Ohms per km. 218.0 136.0 84.0 54.5 27.2 Meter per ohm 4.59 7.35 11.90 18.35 36.76
o o

Remark The resistance of copper increases 0.4% for 1 C rise i Let R = R1+R2 and define Ratio = R4/R5 At balance condition: Ratio = R4 = R
4

R1 R +R
2 3

R5 R3

Ratio R1 = R +R3 Ratio +1

R - RatioR3 R2 = Ratio +1

Varley Loop

Example Murray loop test is used to locate ground fault in a telephone s resistance, R = R1+ R2 is measured by Wheatstone bridge, and its value i conditions for Murray loop test are as follows: R3 = 1000 and R4 = 500 Find the location of the fault in meter, if the length per Ohm is 36.67 m.
Power or communication cable
R3
X
1

SOLUTION

R1

R1 = R
Short circuitR2 fault

R4

X
2

R2

3 R +R
3 4

= 300 1 = 300
4

=R

R +4 R
3

Murray Loop Test Therefore, the location from the measurement point is 100 36.67 m/

Application of Wheatstone Bridge

Unbalance bridge
A
R R

Consider a bridge circuit whic resistors, R in three arms, and the l resistance of R +R. if R/R << 1

Thvenin Voltage (V
V C G D

VTH = VC
R R+R

Thvenin Resistance
B

Small unbalance occur by the external environment

C

RTH

RTH = R V =V
TH

R
4R

G D

This kind of bridge circuit can b applications, where the resistan sensitive to a physical quantity

tempera ture, strain etc.

Example Circuit in Figure (a) below consists of a resistor Rv which is sen temperature change. The plot of R VS Temp. is also shown in Figure (b). temperature at which the bridge is balance and (b) The output o signal at 60 C.
5 k 6V 5 k
R v(k ) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 20

4.5 k

5 k

Rv Output signal

40 60 80 100 Temp ( C)
o

(b) (a)

SOLUTION (a) at bridge balance, we have

The value of R = 5 k corresponding to the temperature of 80 C in the v o (b) at temperature of 60 C, Rv is read as 4.5 k, thus R = 5 - 4.5 = 0.5

R = R 3 R 2 = 5 k 5 k v 5 k R o1

use Thvenin equivalent circuit to solve the above problem.

4R 45 k It should be noted that R = 0.5 k in the problem does not satisfy the
TH

V = V R = 6 V 0.5 k = 0.15 V

<< 1, the exact calculation gives VTH = 0.158 V. However, the above calc an acceptable solution.

Low resistance Bridge: Rx < 1

Effect of connecting lead
The effects of the connecting lead a terminals are prominent when the v to a few Ohms Ry = the resistance of the conne

R2 V G

R3
mp n

R
y

Rx

R
1

At point p: Rx + Rnp =
rearrange

Rx = R3

R1
R2

At point m: Ry is added to the unknown Rx high and indication of Rx At point n: Ry is added to R3, therefore th will be lower than it should Where Rmp and Rnp are R1 the lead resistance from m R3 + Rmp to p and n to p, respectively. R

+ Rmp

R1

Rnp

R2

The effect of the connecti canceled out, if the sum o

zero.

Rmp R Rnp = 0 o

Rx = R3

Kelvin Double Bridge: 1 to 0.00001

Four-Terminal Resistor
Current terminals Current terminals

Voltage terminals

Voltage terminals

Four-terminal resistor and potential terminal defined as that betwe terminals, so that con current terminals do

Four-Terminal Resistor and Kelvin Double Bridge

R2 Rb
G

R
3

r1

R
a

R1

r2

r3 Rx

r4

 r1 causes no effect on the balance condit

The effects of r2 and r3 could be minimi r2 and Ra >> r3. The main error comes from r4, even tho is very small.

Kelvin Double Bridge: 1 to 0.00001

l
2 ratio arms: R1-R2 and Rathe connecting lead betwe

R IR
b

R3
m

The balance conditions: Vlk = V

V
R
y
lk

R2
R1 + R2

Ra

R
1

R
o

n
x

here V = IR = I [ R + R +
lo 3 x
R

Vlmp = I

Ry R +R +R
a b

Eq. (1) = (2) and rearrange:

R =R
3
x

R
1

R R

R
Ra + R b + R y

R
b

R2

If we set R1/R2 = Ra/Rb, the second term of the right hand side will be zer reduce to the well known relation. In summary, The resistance of the yok

on the measurement, if the two sets of ratio arms have equal resistance

High Resistance Measurement

Guard ring technique:

Volume resistance, RV Surface leakage resistanc

I
High voltage supply

Iv

Is
High voltage supply

V Is

R
meas

= R //
s

(a) Circuit that measures insulation volume resistance in parallel with surface leakage resistance

R= V v Is + Iv

(b) Use of guard ring to m resistance

R
meas

=R =
v

High Resistance Measurement

Example The Insulation of a metal-sheath electrical cable is tested usin and a microammeter. A current of 5 A is measured when the compone without guard wire. When the circuit is connect with guard wire, the curr Calculate (a) the volume resistance of the cable insulation and (b) the s resistance SOLUTION (a ) Volume resistance:

IV =1.5 A
R = V = 10000 V = 6.7 10
V

1.5 A (b ) Surface leakage resistance:

V

IV+ IS = 5 A

IS = 5 A IV = 3.5 A

9 R = V = 10000 V = 2.910 S 3.5 A IS

MegaOhm Bridge
Just as low-resistance measurements are affected by series lead im resistance measurements are affected by shunt-leakage resistance.

RA

RB

RA
G

E RC Rx

R2 R1

the guard terminal is connect to a bridge corner such that the leakage resistances are placed across bridge arm with low resistances

R2 // Rg Rg since R2 >

R1 // RC RC since R1 >> RC

Rx RA

RC

RB

Capacitor
Capacitance the ability of a dielectric to store electrical c unit voltage
conductor Area, A Dielectric, r thickness, d Dielectric Air Ceramic Electrolytic Mic a Paper Construction Meshed plates Tubular Disk Aluminum Tantalum Stacked sheets Rolled foil

C = A 0 r d
Capacitance 10-400 pF 0.5-1600 pF 1pF to 1 F 1-6800 F

Typical valu

Brea 100 (0.0 500 1

0.047 to 330 F 10-5000 pF 0.001-1 F 500 20

Plastic film

Foil or Metallized

100 pF to 100 F

Inductor
Inductance the ability of a conductor to produce induced when the current varies.
N turns A l
N L = o r l
-7
2

o = 410 H/m Air

r relative permeability of core material Ni ferrite: r > 200 Mn ferrite: L Re r > 2,000

C
d

Iro Distributed capacitance Cd

Equivalent circuit of an RF coil

between turns

Quality Factor of Inductor and Capa

Equivalent circuit of capacitance
Cp Rp
Parallel equivalent circuit

Equivalent circuit of Inductance

L
s

Rs

Series equivalent circuit

R +X Rp =
s s

R +X Xp=
s s

Rs

Xs

C
s

Rs

Series equivalent circuit

L
p

R
p

Parallel equivalent circuit

R=
s

R X
p

2
p

2 p

+ X2
p

Quality Factor of Inductor and Capa

Quality factor of a coil: the ratio of reactance to resistance dependent and circuit configuration)

Inductance series circuit:

Q=

R
Inductance parallel circuit: Q =

= Ls Rs Rs
s

Typical Q ~

=
p

Lp Dissipation factor of a capacitor: the ratio of reactance to re (frequency dependent and circuit configuration)
Capacitance parallel circuit: Capacitance series circuit:

1 D= Xp= R p C p Rp D = Rs =C s Rs Xs

Typical D ~

Inductor and Capacitor

V
2
P

R
P

V
P

V
L

LS = R 2 +2 L2 LP R =
S

L P R I 2 2 2 R + L P
P P

RS

LS

R V ILS IRS V / R
P P

Q = LS RS

V / L

C =
S

1 +

C R
P

2
P

V
C
P

2 C 2 R2
P P

1 2 2 2 RS = 1 + C R RP
P P

RS

LS IRS

D =C S RS

I/C
S

V
CP

R
P

L
I

VCP

V/RP

AC Bridge: Balance Condition

B Z
1

Z2 I
1

I
2

all four arms are considered (frequency dependent compo The detector is an ac respon headphone, ac meter Source: an ac voltage at des

Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedanc

Z3 D Z4
At balance point:

General Form of the ac Bridge Complex Form: Polar Form:

Z1 Z 4 ( 1 + 4 ) =Z 2 Z3 ( 2 +3 )

EBA = EBC or I1 Z V I1 = and I2 = Z1 + Z3

ZZ
1

= Z2 Z3 Z1 Z 4

Magnitude balance: Phase balance:

 1 +

Example The impedance of the basic ac bridge are given as follows: Z1 =100 80 (inductive impedance)
o

Z3 = 400 30 (inductive

Z2 = 250 (pure resistance) Determine the constants of the unknown arm.

= unknown

SOLUTION The first condition for bridge balance requires that

Z4 =

Z Z
2

250 400

=1,000

Z1 100
The second condition for bridge balance requires that the sum of the ph opposite arms be equal, therefore

4 = 2 + 3 1 = 0 + 30 80 = 50
Hence the unknown impedance Z4 can be written in polar form as

Z4 =1,000 50o
Indicating that we are dealing with a capacitive element, possibly cons series combination of at resistor and a capacitor.

Example an ac bridge is in balance with the following constants: arm in series with L = 15.9 mH R; arm BC, R = 300 in series with C = 0.2 unknown; arm DA, = 450 . The oscillator frequency is 1 kHz. Find th arm CD. B Z
1

Z2
I
1

SOLUTION Z1 = R + jL = 200 + j100 Z2 = R + 1/ jC = 300 j Z3 = R = 450 Z4 = unknown

I
2

V
A

Z3 D

Z4

The general equation for bridge balance states that

ZZ
2

Z 1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z3

Z4=

Z1

=450 (200 + j100) = j150 (300 j600)

This result indicates that Z4 is a pure inductance with an inductive reac at at frequency of 1kHz. Since the inductive reactance XL =

2fL, we s obtain L = 23.9 mH

Comparison Bridge: Capacitance

R1 Measure an unknown induct capacitance by comparing wi inductance or capacitance. At balance point: Rx R3 Cx
Unknown
capacitance

R2 D

Vs C3

Z1Zx = R ; and Z
2 2

where

Z =R ; Z
1 1

Diagram of Capacitance Comparison Bridge

Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields:

RR+
1 x

j C x

=R
2

R
x

RR
2 3

R
1

and

Frequency independent To satisfy both balance conditions, the bridge must contain two elements in its configuration.

Comparison Bridge: Inductance

R
2

R1 Vs L3 R3

Measure an unknown induct capacitance by comparing wi inductance or capacitance. At balance point:

Z1Zx

where

R
x

Lx
Unknown inductance

Z1 =R1 ; Z 2 = R2 ; and
R1 ( Rx + j Lx )= R2

Diagram of Inductance Comparison Bridge

Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields: R =

R2 R3
x

and

R1

Frequency independent To satisfy both balance conditions, the bridge must contain two elements in its configuration.

Maxwell Bridge
Measure an unknown induct R1 C1 V D At balance point: R2 a known capacitance

Zx=

L
x

where

R3

Z 2 = R2 ; Z 3 = R3 ; an
Z x = Rx + j L x = R R
x

Rx

Unknown inductance

Diagram of Maxwell Bridge

Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields:

RR
2 3

an

R1

Frequency independent Suitable for Medium Q coil (1-10), impractical for high Q coil: si large.

Hay Bridge
R1 C1 V D Lx R3 Rx
Unknown inductance

Similar to Maxwell bridge: but R2 At balance point:

where

Z1 Z x j ;Z =R C 2
1

Z =R
1 1

R+
1

Diagram of Hay Bridge

which expands to

1 (R jC1

R R+
1 x

R R+ 1 x
3

L
x

jRx + jL R = R R x 12 C 1 C 1
x

C1 Rx
C
1

Solve the above equations simultaneously

Hay Bridge: continues

2 C 2 R R R Rx = 1 + 2 C 2 R2
1 1 2
1 1

and

L=
x

R2 R3C1
1+2 C12 R12

Lx

R1

XL tanL = R = tan
C

L
R
x
x

= XC = 1 R C1

L Rx

1 C 1

tan L = tanC or Q = L= R2 R 3C 1+(1/ Q Lx R

Phasor diagram of arm 4 and 1 Thus, Lx can be rewritten as For high Q coil (> 10), the term (1/Q) can be neglected
2
x

Schering Bridge
C
1

R R
1 2

Used extensively for the measure and the quality of capacitor in ter At balance point:

Zx

where

Z =R;Z
2 2 3

= 1

C
3

j C
3

Cx Rx
Unknown capacitance

R
x

j Cx

=R
2

Diagram of Schering Bridge

which expands to

j C x

R
x

Cx

RC
2 1
3

jR2

C R

3 1

Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields:

Rx

=R
2C

C1
3

Schering Bridge: continues

R
Dissipation factor of a series RC circuit:D =
x

X
x

=R C x
x

Dissipation factor tells us about the quality of a capacitor, how clos phase angle of the capacitor is to the ideal value of 90 For Schering Bridge:
o

D = Rx C x = R1 C 1

For Schering Bridge, R1 is a fixed value, the dial of C1 can be calibra at one particular frequency

Wien Bridge
Unknown Freq.

R1 R2 D R3 R4
1

Measure frequency of the voltage RC in one arm and parallel RC in At balance point:

Z2 =

Vs

Z=R+
1 1

1 ;Z =R;Y= 1 jC1 2 2 3 R3 R = R
2 1

C3

R
4

1+ R3

Diagram of Wien Bridge

which expands to R = R1 R4 + jC R R jR4
2

RC
R
3 1 4

CR
1 3

R2 = R R R
4

C
1

C 3 R1 =

Rearrange Eq. (2) gives

f=

1 2 C C R R
1 3 1 3

In most, Wien Bridge, R (1)

R2 = 2R4

(2

Wagner Ground Connection

C
C6 One way to control stray ca Shielding the arms, reduce capacitances but cannot eli completely.

R
w

C5

R1
1

R
2

A Cw C3

D
C1

C
2

B Rx

Stray across arm Cannot eliminate Wagner ground connection effects of stray capacitance Simultaneous balance of bo point 1 and 2 at the ground and C2 to ground, C4 and C5 detector circuit) The capacitance across the cannot be eliminated by Wa

R3 D
Wagner ground

C
x

C4

Diagram of Wagner ground

Capacitor Values
Ceramic Capacitor

Capacitor Values
Film Capacitor

Capacitor Values
Chip Capacitor

Capacitor Values
Tantalum Capacitor

Capacitor Values
Chip Capacitor