First Edition - 2009 A. Bakshi MAB TCT Ns U. rs K. A. Bakshi@ ea Electrical Instrumentation ISBN 9788184317336 All rights reserved with Technical Publications. No part of this book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Me :hanical, Photocopy or any information storage ond retrieval system without prior permission in wing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : ‘Technical Publications Pune® ‘#1, Amit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, India. Printer = ‘Ales DTPintes ‘Seno. 10/3,Siahaged Rosd, Pune 411 041(1-1) to(1 -52) Chapter -1 Basics of Measurement and Error Analysis Chapter-3 __Analog Meters (3 - 1) to (3 - 102) Chapter-4 Instrument Transformers (4-1) to (4 -40) Ghapter-5 Measurement of Power (6-1) to (5 -64) Chapter-6 Measurement of Energy (6-1) to(6 -38) r-7 __0.C_and AC. Potentiometer (7-1) to (7-42) Chapter-8 Power Factor and Frequency Meters (8- 1) to (8 - 22) Ghapter-9 Resistance Measurement (9-1) to (9 - 60) Chapter-10 Magnetic Measurements (10- 1) to (10 - 36)Unit I (chapters - 1,2) Measurement and error, Accuracy and precision, Sensitivity resolution, Error and error analysis, Effect of temperature, Internal friction, Stray field, Hysteresis and frequency variation and method of minimizing them, Loading effects, Due to shunt connected and series connected instruments, Calibration curve, Testing and calibration of instruments. : ration of ballistic qalvanometer, D'arsonal aalvanometer, Galvanometer motion and damping, Sensitivity, Flux meter, Vibration galvanometer, Spot deflection galvanometer. Definition of analog and digital instruments, Classification of analog instruments, Their operating principle, Operating force, Types of supports, Damping, Controlling. Unit 1 (Chapter - 3) Different Types of Ammeter and Voltmeter : PMMC, MI, Electrodynamometer, Hotwire, Electrostatic, Induction, Rectifier, Ferro dynamic and electro-thermic, Expression for control and deflection torque, Their advantages, Disadvantages and error, Extension of range of instruments using shunt and multiplier. Unit 11 Chapters - 4, 5) Instrument Transformers: Potential and current transformers, Ratio and phase angle errors, Testing of instrument transformers, Difference between CT and PT, Errors and reduction of errors. Measurement of Power : Power in A.C. and D.C. circuit, Electrodynamometer type of wattmeter, Construction, Theory, Operation and error, Low power factor and UPF wattmeter, Double element and three element dynamometer wattmeter, Measurement of power in three phase circuit, One, Two and three wattmeter method, Measurement of reactive power by single wattmeter, Measurement of power using CTs and PTs, Unit IV (Chapters - 6,7) Measurement of Energy : Single phase induction type energy meter, Construction and operation - Driving and braking torques, Errors and compensations, Testing by phantom loading and using R.S.S. meter, Three phase energy meter, Tri-vector meter, Maximum demand meter, Ampere hour meter, Potentiometer, D.C. potentiometer standardization, Lab type Crompton's potentiometer, Application of D.C. potentiometer, A.C. polar type and co-ordinate type potentiometer, Their construction and applications. Unit V_ (chapters - 8, 9, 19) Miscellaneous Instruments and Measurements : Power factor meter, Single phase and three phase dlectro-dynamometer type and moving iron type. Frequency meter : Vibrating reed, Resonance type and Weston type, Synchronoscope, Ohmmeter- series and shunt type, Multi-meter, Megger and ratio meter. Resistance Measurement : Classification of low, Medium and high resistance : Voltmeter, Ammeter, Wheatstone bridge, Kelvin’s double bridge and loss of charge methods for resistance measurement, Earth resistance measurement. Magnetic Measurement : B-H Curve, Hysteresis Loop determination, Powerlossin sheet metal, Lioved- Fisher square for measurement of power loss.1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Advantages of Electronic Measurement . . 1.2 Functional Elements of an Instrument...... mn 1.2.1 Primary Sensing Element ......... 2.2.0.0... sce eceeeeeeseeseeeeeeeeeeeeeees 1-3 4.2.2 Variable Conversion Element ............. 0s... esse sees eee eee eee eee ee 41-4 1.2.3 Variable Manipulation Element ......... 02... ...s esses ee esse seer eee eee 1-4 1.2.4 Data Transmission Element ........... eee wee ee eee eee Th 1.2.5 Data Presentation Element............... 0... sees eee eee eee eee ee sete eee 1-5 1.3 Performance Characteristics. 4.3.1 Calibration . . 1.4.2 Precision 1.4.2.1 Conformity... 1.4.2.2 Significant Figures we . ee 19 1.4.3 Error. . 41.4.4 Sensitivity 4.4.5 Resolution. 1.4.6 Threshold, AAT Linearity... 0. se cceeeeteetesteeteeteeseeeteees 1.4.8 Zero Drift 4.4.9 Reproducibility44.10 Stability... 1.4.11 Tolerance. 1.4.12 Range or Span .... 1AAS Bias... eee. 1.4.14 Hysteresis ..... 1.4.15 Dead Space. . 1.4.16 Span Drift or Sensitivity Drift 1.5 Dynamic Characteristics 1.5. Speed of Response. 1.5.2 Fidelity 453lag.... 1.54 Dynamic Error... 1.6 Input Impedance and Output Impedance. 1.7 Types of Errors 1.7.4 Gross Errors 1.7.2 Systematic Errors . . 41-21 17.2.1 Instrumental Errors... 4-22 17.2.2 Environmental Errors... 4-22 17.2.3 Observational Emons... rere EY | 1.7.3 Random Errors 1.8 Statistical Analysis ... 1.8.1 Arithmetic Mean and Median......... 0s. se see eese esse esses eee ee eeenes 1-24 1.8.2 Deviation from Mean 1.8.3 Average Deviation ... 1.8.4 Standard Deviation... 2... seen ee seen eee eee 4-25 1.8.5 Variance 1.9 Limiting Errors... 1.9.4 Relative Limiting Error1.9.2 Combination of Quantities with Limiting Errors 1.10 Uncertainty Analysis ... 1.10.1 Propagation of Uncertainties............ 1.11 Calibration... 1.12 Calibration Methodology 1.12.1 Direct Comparison Calibration Methodology 1.12.2 Indirect Comparison Calibration Methodology. 1.13 Traceability. Examples with Solutions..... Review Questions . University Questions. ge any es ae 2.1 Introduction . 2.2 D’Arsonval Galvanometer 2.2.1 Construction . 2.2.2 Torque Equation ...... 2.2.3 intrinsic Constants of Galvanometer 2.2.4 Dynamic Behaviour of Galvanometer . 2.2.4.1 Underdamped Motion . 2.2.4.2 Undamped Motion... - 2-10 2.2.4.3 Critically Damped Motion . 2-11 2.2.44 OverdampedMotin. 2. 2-12 2.2.5 Logarithmic Decrement... 2-14 2.216 Setting Time 2.2.7 Effect of External Resistance on Damping ...................... ee 2-18 2.2.7.1 Critical Resistance for Damping . . 2.3 Sensitivity of Galvanometer .... 2.3.1 Current Sensitivity . SLSR ESE ARAL ANE EES2.3.2 Voltage Sensitivity. 2.3.3 Megohm Sensitivity 2.4 Vibration Galvanometer..... 2-24 2.4.1 Moving Magnet type vibration Galvanometer................++0....2sseseee 2-25 2.4.2 Schering and Schmidt Galvanometer ........+.sesesseeceeesseseseeeerserees 2-26 2.4.3 Moving Coil Type Vibration Galvanomaters .......:.ccssecsseesessessessees 2-27 2.4.4 Duddell Moving Coil Vibration Galvanometer .........0e esses esses eevee eens 2-27 2.5 Ballistic Galvanometer ... 2.5.1 Theory of Ballistic Galvanometer........0.00....seeeeee ee 2-33 2.6 Fluxmeter...... Examples with Solutions .. Review Questions..... University Questions . 3.1 Introduction ....... 3.2 Classification of Measuring Instruments ... 3.3 Essential Requirements of an Instrument... 3.4 Deflecting System... 3.5 Controlling System.. 3.5.1 Gravity Control. . 3.5.2 Spring Control . . 3.5.3 Comparison of Controlling Systems. 3.6 Damping System... 3.6.1 Air Friction Damping ...........ssssssesseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeees 3.6.2 Fluid Friction Damping. ..........sssesesseeeeseeeeeeserssereeseeeeeenees : 3.6.3 Eddy Current Damping ....... +... csc seeesee eee ee nee eeeeeieeeeeeentee es : 3.7 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments (PMMC)....