Trade Routes

Two shipwrecks discovered by Odyssey Marine Exploration in the English Channel in 2008 are embedded in the history of the War of the Austrian Succession (1739-48) and specifically the year 1744. The First Rate Royal Navy warship HMS Victory was lost in the western English Channel on 5 October that year, while returning from escorting to sea one outgoing commercial convoy and liberating another blockaded down the River Tagus in Lisbon.

Egyptian texts of the Old Kingdom are unfortunately vague in describing foreign geography and trade networks. From the inclusion of toponyms in expeditionary texts, one can broadly reconstruct long distance trade routes from Egypt into the Levant, along the Red Sea to Punt, and south along the Nile Valley to Nubia. Within this schema, the area designated by the toponym Yam, well known from the biography of the Aswan noble Harkhuf, has generally been held to be an extension of Egypt's interest in Nubia, beyond the Third Cataract. However, in light of the growing amount of archaeological and textual material in the Western Desert, a reassessment and reconsideration of this view is required in the context of a 'western' trade partner.

European definition of micro, small and medium enterprises as an instrument of the development policy of the enterprise sector – experience, postulates and conclusions for the future

The subject of the article is the issue of separating micro, small and medium enterprises (SME) from the general economy which due to their small size encounter market barriers hindering their development. The basic legal instruments in this matter is the definition of the SME sector at the level of the EU regulations. The purpose of the analysis is to look for advantages and disadvantages of the existing definition, as well as to refer to the selected ideas of its modification, considering European Union case law. The main research hypothesis is: regarding the importance of SME’s definition for the EU economy, the changes that must be made in the analysed concept must take into account the existing economic conditions as well as the previously available use of the same definition by the institutions. However, it is equally important to identify the purpose for which the SMEs were separated under a specific definition. The purpose of this separation was to provide support for such SMEs, which they de facto need. The basic research method used in the article is the dogmatic and legal method. Its subject was the analysis of the content of normative acts, the EU case law, as well as reports and analyses in the field of the SME sector.

Przedmiotem artykułu jest problematyka wyodrębnienia z ogółu gospodarki mikro, małych i średnich przedsiębiorstw (MŚP), które z uwagi na swoje nieduże rozmiary napotykają na bariery rynkowe utrudniające im rozwój. Podstawowym narzędziem prawnym w tym zakresie jest definicja sektora MŚP określona na poziomie przepisów UE. Celem prowadzonej analizy jest poszukiwanie zalet i wad obecnej definicji oraz odniesienie się do poszczególnych pomysłów jej modyfikacji, z uwzględnieniem linii orzeczniczej organów Unii Europejskiej. Zasadnicza hipoteza badawcza brzmi: z uwagi na znaczenie definicji MŚP dla gospodarki UE, zmiany jakie powinny zostać dokonane w analizowanej definicji, muszą uwzględniać zarówno obecne uwarunkowania gospodarcze, jak i dotychczasowe doświadczenia organów stosujących tę definicję, jednak zasadniczym punktem odniesienia przy konstruowaniu zmian jest cel, dla którego przedsiębiorstwa te zostały wyodrębnione. Celem tym jest wsparcie podmiotów, takiej pomocy de facto potrzebujących. Podstawową metodą badawczą, zastosowaną w artykule jest metoda dogmatyczno-prawna. Jej przedmiotem była analiza treści aktów normatywnych, orzecznictwa organów UE, a także branżowych raportów i analiz z zakresu sektora MŚP.

This study demonstrates how routes over mountain plateaus and passes connected farms, hamlets and regions. The routes enabled wide social and economic networks and were a prerequisite for regional surplus production in the Norwegian inland areas from the Viking Age.
Iron, furs, skins and antlers were among the important commodities for farmers in the mountain and valley regions. These resources were exchanged for goods from the coastal areas, and it is likely that the purpose for much of the traffic over the mountains was trade. Medieval law texts and later historical sources indicate that the bulk of the traffic over mountains took place during the summer. The commodities were transported on packhorses or by foot.
Using archaeological sites and findings, as well as place-names and historical sources, I have mapped the main mountain trails in South Norway. The historical significance of these communication routes are indicated by large burial sites, some consisting of hundreds of burial mounds, at the foot of several mountain crossings. These sites are testament to the great importance and value of communication and transportation across mountains passes – and its control – well before the extensive regional surplus production from the last half the Viking Age.

This is an earlier and substantially lengthier version of the European Commission’s Green Paper on Ports and Maritime Infrastructure, which I had prepared as a member of Commissioner Neil Kinnock’s wise men group.

The Green Paper has often been described as the most influential port policy document ever produced by the EC. The current version does not in any way commit the European Commission and interested readers are advised to refer to the final version of the Green Paper as published by the EC.

The present work requires careful and persistent reading so that the reader bypasses the necessary bureaucratic 'superficiality' and identifies my core arguments which, I am happy to say, have not changed to the slightest in the 15 years since its publication. Many of these arguments had been described as ‘politically dangerous’ and, consequently, did not find their way into the Green Paper. I quote one of them in p.7 (emphasis added):

…The Commission’s White Paper on the future development of the common transport policy  laid down a new vision for transport policy, following the principle of sustainable mobility; i.e. a strategy that acknowledges the need for a more balanced transport system that would fulfil its economic and social role while, at the same time, containing its effects on the environment. The overall objective of such an approach, as clearly described by the European Parliament , is to …promote sustainable, efficient transport systems which meet the economic, social, environmental and safety needs of European citizens; help reduce regional disparities; and enable European business to compete effectively in world markets… Again, the ‘challenge’ is apparent: a more balanced  pan-European transport system with the above objectives is in stark contrast with hub-porting; concentration of traffic to selected ports; longer distances; and consequent transport externalities. It is thus increasingly felt that the European Commission needs to depart from its all-pleasing ‘statements’ and make hard-nosed decisions in order to effectuate its cohesion and regional development objectives which are the overarching ones…(unquote).

A closing note of caution on my use of the word 'superficiality': With remarkable consistency, European institutions involved in the maritime sector have been focusing all along on issues such as safety and environmental protection; issues which, among others, have allowed the proliferation of various monopolies in the port sector. I believe this has not happened accidentally. I believe instead that the focus on the ‘secondary’ has obscured and diverted attention from the ‘primary’, which comprises the ‘politically sensitive’ issues of port pricing; infrastructure financing; state aids; transparency of port accounts; and, finally, a European ‘port governance’ model.

Третя частина статті присвячена вивченню фрагментів літопису 947 року про похід княгині Ольги до Новгорода і встановлення погостів на річці Лузі. Аналізуючи ранні свідоцтва про Новгород, автор стверджує, що мова йде про Новий город на волинській Лузі, перейменований близько 992 року на Володимир.

This Aztec codex (opposite) depicts Yacatecutli, the god of merchants and travellers (top left). Also known as 'Long Nose' he carries a cross, as a symbol of crossroads. Aztec merchants, or pochtecas, would use a walking stick to make an effigy of Yacatecuhtli at each night's stop, to protect their camp.

The paper presents the problems of the topography of Zawichost in the early Middle Ages. The author discusses archaeological sources associated with the Zawichost-Podgórze settlement complex with the stronghold dated to the period between the 8th and 10th centuries. The paper also contains the analysis of the development of the settlement on Zawichost Hill on the site of the modern-day town in connection with the changes of the road network and the Vistula River crossings. Furthermore, the author discusses the problem of the location of the Zawichost stronghold, presenting in his paper results of archaeological excavations and architectural investigations of monumental buildings from the settlement area and their place in the topographic structure

Peer-review. Articoli e note inviati per la pubblicazione alla rivista sono sottoposti -nella forma del doppio anonimato -a peer-review di due esperti, di cui uno almeno esterno al Comitato Scientifico o alla Direzione. Ogni due anni sarà pubblicato l'elenco dei revisori.

“Long-range desert travel by donkey or camel was a daring venture in the ancient world, and losing your way could prove just as fatal as losing your waterskin ...” Recent exploration has revealed an amazing network of ancient roads and paths crossing the forbidding Saharan desert. This evidence broadens scientific horizons and launches a fascinating new field of archaeological research.

Illegal wildlife trade is one of the most potentially threatening crimes globally, listing at the third highest criminal activity, next to illegal drug and gun sales. Elephants and Rhinoceros are exploited for their charismatic features for human consumption, commodities, Chinese traditional medicine and profitable investment. This study aims to assess annual trade from 1975-2017 (42-year) to determine increase or decrease in trade activity. Statistical regression analysis showed annual trading activity was (p = 0.495 Elephant) and (p = 0.032 Rhinoceros). Elephants showed a stable increase over the years, whereas Rhinoceros showed an increase and decrease over the 42-year period. MIKE data was to determine if year impacted the percentage of illegal killings in elephants. There was a significant difference in trade levels. Transport routes and hotspots presented that Europe, Asia and Africa were the highest areas of the world to have popular trafficking routes. MIKE data with a (p = 0.036) suggested a significant increase in illegal killings in Elephant over the time period of 15 years.

Developments in freight transport and transport infrastructure have a strong influence on economic growth. The Baltic States have recently undergone a transformation from planned economies to market orientation. The interest in the Baltic States originates from their importance as new markets within the European Union, and their transit function for trade with Russia. Rising trade volumes and increasing freight transport are forecasted in the near term for the region. This study aims at developing an understanding of the regulatory, structural and developmental conditions and trends affecting the transport infrastructure in a region in economic transition, namely the Baltic States, in the light of its current economic development. Comparisons are made with Buchhofer’s [Buchhofer, E., 1995. Transport infrastructure in the Baltic States during the transformation to market economies. Journal of Transport Geography 3(1), 69–75] assessment of transport infrastructure in the Baltic States in the early years of transformation to market economies.

Zusammenfassung/Abstract:
Anhand archäologischer Zeugnisse aus Naukratis in Ägypten, von Aigina in der Ägäis und aus Gravisca in Etrurien wird die Spur des Sostratos von Aigina aufgenommen, jenem naúkleros, mit dessen Handelsgewinnen – nach Herodot – ‚niemand konkurrieren kann’. Auf dieser Basis werden drei
Schlüsselkonzepte der archäologisch-historischen Forschung diskutiert, mit denen soziale Räume des archaischen Mittelmeerhandels beschrieben werden können: empórion – port of trade – extraurbanes Heiligtum. Abschließend wird versucht, die historische Entwicklung archaischen Austauschs zu
erfassen: von der xenía zur emporía.


Archaeological evidence from Naukratis in Egypt, Aegina in the Aegean and Gravisca in Etruria is used to follow the track of Sostratos of Aigina, that naukleros, with whose profits – according to Herodotus – ‘none can compare’. On that basis are discussed three key-concepts of archaeological-historical research, which allow us to describe the social spaces of archaic Mediterranean trade: emporion – port of trade – extra-urban sanctuary. In concluding, an attempt is made to record the historical development of archaic exchange: from xenía to emporía.

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The River Main as route of communication and trade in the early Middle Ages -Fossa Carolina, castles, royal courts and the Karlburg trading place Peter Ettel Mit 10 Abbildungen Inhalt: Fossa Carolina, Burgen und Königshöfe weisen auf die Bedeutung des Mains für Kommunikation und Handel im Frühmittelalter hin. Der Main eröffnete Wege nach Süden, Norden und Westen zu den Zentren des fränkischkarolingischen Reiches. Der frühmittelalterliche Zentralort Karlburg zeigt die Bedeutung des Mains für Verkehr und Handel. Zunächst im Besitz des Königs, seit 741/42 der Bischöfe von Würzburg und geschützt von zwei Burgen, entwickelte sich die Talsiedlung mit 20 ha Ausdehnung, darin ein Königshof und das Marienkloster. Importierte Güter aus dem Rheinland und insbesondere Metallfunde wie Fibeln belegen die europaweiten Verbindungen in Verkehr und Handel. Abstract: The Fossa Carolina, castles and royal courts testify to the importance of the River Main for communication and trade in the early Middle Ages. The Main opened up communication routes to the south, north and west with the major centres of the Frankish-Carolingian Empire. The early medieval central place Karlburg illustrates the importance of the Main for traffic and trade. Owned first by the king and then, from AD 741/42, by the bishops of Würzburg, it was protected by two castles. The 20 ha settlement developed in the river valley to include a royal court and a monastery dedicated to St Mary. Imported goods from the Rhine area and, in particular, metal finds such as fibulae point to Europewide trade and transportation links.

Inventory of marine archaeological sites discovered in the province of Nampula, including the Island of Mozambique, during the archaeological surveys from 2001 to 2013. The list comprises 45 wreck sites of archaeological importance. Also includes cultural material located out of archaeological contexts.

1528 y›l›nda bin kiflinin biraz üstündeki nüfusuyla köy irisi bir kasaba görünümündeydi ‹zmir. Ancak sadece 50 y›l sonra bafllayan h›zl› bir geliflim ve dönüflüm süreci, bu küçük yerleflim birimini bütün Akdeniz'in ticaret a¤›n›n merkezi "liman kenti" haline getirecekti.

The present paper explores the shifting roles and understandings of the Singapore Straits from the latter Middle Ages until the opening decades of the eighteenth century. In pursuing this task, I will develop a set of basic questions that historicize and problematize the roles, functions and understandings of the Straits across the centuries, and also tease out historical and historiographical paradigms shaping and underpinning the understanding of the region’s past. In pursuing this programme I will make use of a broad range of sources including chronicles and histories, letters and treaties, navigational instructions and travel literature, as well as (European) cartography of the 16th to 18th centuries. In order to gain deeper appreciation of the multi-faceted roles and understandings of the Singapore Straits across the longue durée, I  not only adduce and evaluate materials of European colonial origin, but importantly also heed special attention to sources of Asian origin in general, and specifically to materials that have originally been written in Arabic, Malay, Chinese and have been made accessible to the wider reading public in various contemporary translations. The modes of enquiry and the insights brought to paper here differ both in terms of scope and objectives from my earlier findings expounded in The Singapore and Melaka Straits published in 2010.

Features Itinerario, first published in 1596 by Dutchman Jan Huygen van Linschoten. The publication is valued for revealing directions into the trade routes of the East, besides its beautiful engravings and  early modern maps which provide insights into the cultures and commodities of the region.

In the thesis study examining the strategic importance of Trans-Caucasia in terms of the future of historical trade routes, the history of trade routes and the role of regions in the development of these routes are mentioned, and the strategic geographical location and political importance of Trans-Caucasia in international relations are emphasized. In addition, the importance of Trans-Caucasia in terms of world trade routes and economy is emphasized, as well as the trade corridor development policy in the region, issues related to the transport and logistics infrastructure of Trans-Caucasian states are examined. In the study, the geostrategic and geopolitical importance of Trans-Caucasia is analyzed and the effects of the fundamental conflicts of Trans-Caucasian states on the region are investigated. In the last parts of the thesis study, new international projects born in the region after the 1990s and the effects of these projects on the regional economy are also examined, and information is provided about the historical development of projects such as TANAP and TAP, which have become more important in recent years.

Der Name "Seidenstraße(n)" geht auf den deutschen Geographen und Kolonialisten Ferdinand von Richthofen (1833Richthofen ( -1905 zurück und ist die Bezeichnung für ein System von Handelswegen, welche den Raum des heutigen China in der Antike und in Teilen des Mittelalters über Zentralasien mit Südostasien, dem Nahen Osten, dem Mittelmeerraum und Europa verbanden. 5 Der von Richthofen geprägte Name dieser alten eurasischen Handelsrouten erlangte erst zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts durch die spektakulären archäologischen Entdeckungen Popularität, die Forschungsreisende wie der Schwede Sven Hedin (1865-1952), der Brite Aurel Stein (1862-1943), der Franzose Paul Pelliot (1878-1945) und wissenschaftliche Unternehmungen wie die russischen Zentralasien-sowie die deutschen Turfan-Expeditionen an ihren alten Verläufen machten. 6

Nel corso degli ultimi decenni il processo di globalizzazione dell’economia mondiale ha portato ad una crescita del commercio internazionale. Le ragioni di questo sviluppo sono molteplici: il decentramento delle attività produttive, le mutate caratteristiche nella divisione internazionale del lavoro, la specializzazione produttiva, le rivoluzioni tecnologiche intercorse, il conseguimento dell’obiettivo di catching-up da parte di alcuni Paesi in via di sviluppo ed il conseguente aumento dei redditi e della domanda. Tutti questi fenomeni hanno aumentato considerevolmente le relazioni commerciali a livello globale e, in questo contesto, il servizio di trasporto ha avuto un ruolo fondamentale nel trasferire beni e persone in maniera sempre più rapida. Considerate le caratteristiche fisiche della Terra, caratterizzata da una prevalenza delle acque sulle terre emerse, la modalità più indicata per trasferire la merce dai luoghi di produzione a quelli di consumo a livello globale risulta essere prevalentemente quella marittima. Il trasporto marittimo ha attraversato dalla seconda metà del XX secolo un periodo di radicali cambiamenti strutturali, in cui la containerizzazione, l’intermodalità e l’introduzione di nuove tecnologie informative hanno congiuntamente giocato un ruolo fondamentale. Dalla sua introduzione nel 1956 fino ad oggi, il traffico containerizzato ha assunto un andamento continuamente crescente, favorito anche da un sistema produttivo decentrato, che ha richiesto il trasferimento di semilavorati e prodotti finiti tra le diverse aree geoeconomiche. In questo contesto, la crescita del traffico containerizzato ha avuto, rispetto agli altri comparti del traffico marittimo commerciale, un impatto certamente maggiore nell’organizzazione degli spazi geografici e della gestione d’impresa, con una serie di effetti che verranno diffusamente trattati all’interno della ricerca. Alla luce di quanto detto, lo scopo della tesi è quello di accertare se e come le dinamiche dei trasporti marittimi riscontrate a livello globale hanno avuto effetti sulla città portuale di Trieste, sulla natura dei suoi traffici e sui suoi rapporti con il territorio servito. Ulteriore scopo della tesi è quello di cercare di fornire, attraverso un’indagine condotta presso operatori del settore, un ordine di grandezza del contributo della funzione portuale nella formazione dell’occupazione e del valore riferito al territorio provinciale.

R ealizar una puesta a punto en los estudios sobre el tema que nos ocupa supone un doble riesgo ineludible: por un lado, la posibilidad de caer en la superficialidad de una mera mención de cuestiones y fichas bibliográficas; por el otro, el evidente problema de resultar incompleto, y con marcados sesgos en la selección. Frente a estos problemas opinamos que no solo es conveniente sino incluso necesario el establecer un estado actual bibliográfico sobre las distintas cuestiones que se refieren a las vías de comunicación de la época romana; puesta a punto tanto más oportuna a partir de una proliferación de estudios recientes que en este terreno, como en otros, se ha producido últimamente.

Persistence and change are necessary for the stability and development of both the human individual and the human society, since the beginnings of human history. Man needs a static framework, which, related to his self-awareness, defines a topocentric system of perception, evaluation, order, and meaning. He also requires a dynamic impetus, which allows exceeding the limits of special world views, shifting of perspectives and transformations of individual as well as social approaches to life. Travelling especially helped to broaden man’s horizon and mind. Accross cultures voyages guided by the skies are linked with practical concepts of exploring and domesticating time and space, but also figuratively with the life’s journey and with other worlds, being expressed by mythic, ritual and later scientific language.

Zamki średniowiecznego pogranicza polskowęgierskiego, w ujęciu archeologii historycznej Praca Licencjacka napisana w Zakładzie Archeologii Powszechnej pod kierunkiem dr Przemysława Nocunia Kraków 2010 Od ponad stu lat, temat budowli obronnych, powstających na średniowiecznym pograniczu węgiersko-polskim, zajmował liczne rzesze naukowców. Pierwszymi badaczamiamatorami byli dziewiętnastowieczni podróżnicy i miłośnicy starożytności, tacy jak Szczęsny Morawski czy Maciej Stęczyński. Utrwalali oni na swych grafikach pozostałości okazałych nieraz budowli. Dostarczając tym samym cennych informacji współczesnym badaczom. Pozostawili oni po sobie, słuszną w ich rozumowaniu, teorię zakładającą czysto militarny charakter wspomnianych założeń. Jednakże już od kilkudziesięciu lat zwraca się uwagę na zdecydowanie szerszy zakres zadań średniowiecznych zamków. Wspomnieć tu należy o funkcjach rezydencjonalnych, administracyjnych, gospodarczych, handlowych oraz co oczywiste militarnych. W uzupełnianiu tego obrazu, służą nam często źródła historyczne wspomagane szczególnie badaniami archeologicznymi i architektonicznymi. Archeologia w tym ujęciu rzuca często nowe światło, na nierozwiązywalne dotąd problemy oraz dostarcza nam szeregu nowych zabytków, pozwalających lepiej i pełniej zrozumieć ten integralny element krajobrazu średniowiecznego, jakim bez wątpienia były zamki. Praca moja dotyczyć będzie głownie okresu od pierwszej połowy wieku XIII, do drugiej połowy XV wieku. Szczególną wagę przykładał będę, do omówienia przemian jakie nastąpiły po połowie XIII wieku. Będzie to zagadnienie dotyczące średniowiecznej kolonizacji Karpat, lokacji miast na terenie Sądecczyzny i częściowo Podhala. Starał się będę skupić na funkcjach oraz roli jaką odgrywały nowopowstające, kamienne zamki. Pracę zamykać będzie okres oscylujący wokół drugiej połowy XV wieku. Będą to czasy coraz większego przystosowywania zamków do używania broni palnej. Moje zainteresowania będą obejmować w przybliżeniu teren Karpat Zachodnich. Będzie to mniej więcej szeroki pas, obecnego pogranicza polsko-słowackiego, rozpoczynający się od stoków Babiej Góry na zachodzie, a sięgający do przełęczy Dukielskiej na wschodzie. Południową granicę, wyznaczać będzie linia przebiegająca przez pasmo Tatr, Podoliniec i Bardejov. Północny zasięg omawianego terenu, ograniczany będzie przez pasmo Gorców, Nowy Sącz i dolny bieg rzeki Ropa po miasto Biecz. Dodatkowo skupiał się będę na odcinku doliny Dunajca, od Tarnowa po Nowy Sącz. Celem pracy, jest odpowiedzenie na postawiony przeze mnie szereg pytań. Zwrócę uwagę na to jak wyglądała średniowieczna strefa pogranicza polsko-węgierskiego. Postaram się omówić czynniki które ją kształtowały, będzie to między innymi wpływ postępującej od połowy XIII wieku kolonizacji Karpat, rozwój miast przygranicznych i pojawianie się nowych ludów. Na koniec tej części, starał się będę zaprezentować rzeczywisty przebieg granicy, uwzględniając wszystkie wymienione wcześniej przeze mnie czynniki. 3 Kolejnym temat, który postaram się rozwinąć, dotyczyć będzie średniowiecznej wymiany handlowej. Omówię przedmiot handlu, wskażę najczęściej importowanie i eksportowane towary które transportowano przez interesującą mnie strefę. Wspomnę również o sposobie podróżowania po średniowiecznych drogach oraz o ludziach wykorzystujących trakty w celach zarobkowych. Ponadto zwrócę uwagę, na niedogodnościach jakich mógł się spodziewać podróżny. Dodatkowo poruszę problem występowania komór celnych, oraz ich niebagatelnej roli w kształtowaniu się średniowiecznych dróg. Na koniec tej części zaprezentuję historię kształtowania się szlaków w Karpatach Zachodnich. Po odpowiedzi na te pytania, przejdę do części w której omawiał będę przebieg poszczególnych traktów handlowych. Będzie to stanowiło jednocześnie oś głównego tematu, którym będę się chciał zająć. Podejmę mianowicie próbę odpowiedzi na pytanie o rolę jaką odgrywały zamki średniowiecznego pogranicza polsko-węgierskiego. Wskażę najważniejsze funkcje budowli obronnych, które, jak wykaże moja praca, zależały od szeregu czynników. Wspomnę również niebagatelnej o roli zamków i ich wpływie na kontakty handlowe. Większość źródeł historycznych jak i materiału, który będę opracowywał, pochodzić będzie z dostępnych mi polskich badań. Materiały i opracowania słowackie służyć mi będą jedynie jako tło porównawcze i uzupełnienie różnorakich czynników, oddziaływujących w różnym stopniu na oba państwa. HISTORIA BADAŃ Pierwsze amatorskie badania zamków karpackich, przeprowadzane były przez badaczy dziewiętnastowiecznych. Był to między innymi Sz. Morawski, któremu zawdzięczamy dwa dzieła, "Sądecczyznę" oraz "Sądecczyznę za Jagiellonów". Umieścił on w swojej pracy kilka opisów i rysunków rekonstruujących wygląd średniowiecznych zamków, co przy zdecydowanie lepszym stanie zachowania stanowisk w XIX wieku, daje współczesnym badaczom szereg cennych informacji. Równie pomocnym źródłem do rekonstrukcji wyglądu zamków, są ryciny M. B. Stęczyńskiego zawarte w jego "Okolicach Galicyi". W okresie przedwojennym, szereg nowych informacji dostarczyły badania W. Demetrykiewicza, J. Żurowskiego oraz H. Langerówny, która zajmowała się systemami obronnymi w dolinie Dunajca. Po zakończeniu działań wojennych, do życia powołano Karpacką Ekspedycję Archeologiczną, która pod przewodnictwem A. Żakiego, wniosła do

This paper examines several interrelated aspects of maritime connectivity within the Roman Mediterranean. First, it considers Fulford’s suggestion of a divide between eastern and western trading zones along the North African coast in the light of new discoveries since the publication of his article in Libyan Studies in 1989. Some evidence supports his analysis; the distribution of Italian bricks imported as return cargoes to North Africa does not extend east of the Gulf of Sirt; by contrast the identifiable exports from Cyrenaica go north up the Adriatic but not west to Tripolitania. However, the imported finewares at Berenice (Benghazi) in the third century AD are almost exclusively African Red Slip ware from Tunisia, though it is unclear if they have been imported directly (as clearly occurred much earlier with the import of Punic cooking wares to Cyrenaica), or as return cargoes from an intermediate entrepôt such as Portus. The idea of a certain amount of traffic along the North African littoral is supported by the epigraphic evidence suggesting Alexandrian worshippers at sanctuaries of Isis and Sarapis at major North African ports west of the Gulf of Sirt, who may be part of trading diaspora communities, of the kind attested at Puteoli and elsewhere. Such trading communities at major ports suggest regular mercantile connections on established routes, with knowledge about general market demand (if not actual price levels) at distant ports, and sometimes contacts between known trading partners. The glass industry is considered as a case study illustrating the geographical integration of the Roman economy through maritime networks between ports. Roman glass production relied heavily on large-scale primary production of raw glass in the Levant, using natron imported from Egypt. The raw glass was then shipped around the Roman world to secondary production centres where it was transformed into a final product; the different stages of production were linked by long-distance maritime trade routes. Finally, the paper examines how port structures, capacities and facilities might relate to and reflect the patterns of maritime trade in antiquity. The type and size of port infrastructure and harbour capacity can help to construct hierarchies of ports, ranging from villa harbours to major entrepôts like Portus, and to suggest connections between them within regional hierarchies. It is noteworthy that some of the villa harbours of the Roman period could accommodate sizeable sea-going ships capable of undertaking open-water voyages to distant emporia.

This paper examines several interrelated aspects of maritime connectivity within the Roman Mediterranean. First, it considers Fulford’s suggestion of a divide between eastern and western trading zones along the North African coast in the light of new discoveries since the publication of his article in Libyan Studies in 1989. Some evidence supports his analysis; the distribution of Italian bricks imported as return cargoes to North Africa does not extend east of the Gulf of Sirt; by contrast the identifiable exports from Cyrenaica go north up the Adriatic but not west to Tripolitania. However, the imported finewares at Berenice (Benghazi) in the third century AD are almost exclusively African Red Slip ware from Tunisia, though it is unclear if they have been imported directly (as clearly occurred much earlier with the import of Punic cooking wares to Cyrenaica), or as return cargoes from an intermediate entrepôt such as Portus. The idea of a certain amount of traffic along the North African littoral is supported by the epigraphic evidence suggesting Alexandrian worshippers at sanctuaries of Isis and Sarapis at major North African ports west of the Gulf of Sirt, who may be part of trading diaspora communities, of the kind attested at Puteoli and elsewhere.

Such trading communities at major ports suggest regular mercantile connections on established routes, with knowledge about general market demand (if not actual price levels) at distant ports, and sometimes contacts between known trading partners. The glass industry is considered as a case study illustrating the geographical integration of the Roman economy through maritime networks between ports. Roman glass production relied heavily on large-scale primary production of raw glass in the Levant, using natron imported from Egypt. The raw glass was then shipped around the Roman world to secondary production centres where it was transformed into a final product; the different stages of production were linked by long-distance maritime trade routes.

Finally, the paper examines how port structures, capacities and facilities might relate to and reflect the patterns of maritime trade in antiquity. The type and size of port infrastructure and harbour capacity can help to construct hierarchies of ports, ranging from villa harbours to major entrepôts like Portus, and to suggest connections between them within regional hierarchies. It is noteworthy that some of the villa harbours of the Roman period could accommodate sizeable sea-going ships capable of undertaking open-water voyages to distant emporia.

Devotion to the goddess Tanit/Tinnit, a permutation of Astarte, took place in Mediterranean cave sanctuaries and on Phoenician ships. Employing both material and textual evidence, it is argued that her worship at sea and at port required a degree of religious competency of seamen that served as crew and combatants on trading vessels and military vessels, respectively. With the Phoenician priesthood centered in cities, coastal inhabitants would have depended on part-time officiants to supervise and perform certain rites. Reasons for the lack of mention in the literature of this non-elite class are proposed.

Zum Geleit (Preface to Wd0 43/2)
Die Herausgeber der „Welt des Orients“ freuen sich, dass mit dem vorliegenden Faszikel über „Permutations of Astarte“ nach WdO 40/2 (2010) bereits das zweite Themenheft der WdO erscheinen kann. Anders als das Themenheft von 2010 (Excavations at Qubur al-Walaydah, 2007–2009) ist das vorliegende Heft religionsgeschichtlich ausgerichtet. Unser Dank gilt
den Herausgebern des Themenheftes Prof. Dr. Mark Christian (Nashville) und Prof. Dr. Rüdiger Schmitt (Münster) für die Zusammenarbeit sowie dem Verlag, vertreten durch seinen LektorHerrn Jörg Persch und Frau Friederike Lonz, für die Unterstützung bei der Realisierung des Heftes.

Mainz, Heidelberg, Berlin undWürzburg am 1. Oktober 2013
Sebastian Grätz, Joachim Friedrich Quack, Bernd U. Schipper
und Daniel Schwemer
DieWelt des Orients, 43. Jahrgang, S. 149, ISSN 0043-2547
© 2013 Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen
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