Tourism and Culture (Anthropology of Tourism)

Basé sur une recherche ethnographique détaillée, cet ouvrage explore les représentations qui se produisent autour de l'identité des Zafimaniry, une communauté des Hautes Terres malgaches, à partir de trois domaines différents : l'art ethnique, le classement au patrimoine immatériel de l'UNESCO et le tourisme. L'auteur analyse les discours et les pratiques des protagonistes locaux et des acteurs institutionnels (médiateurs touristiques, organismes ministériels promoteurs de la candidature UNESCO et marchands d'art ethnique), dévoilant comment les Zafimaniry sont « inventés » comme tribu, investis du rôle de culture « traditionnelle » et « originelle » de Madagascar. La notion de « régimes de valeur » sert à éclairer ces processus, qui concernent autant des questions de patrimoine, que de politique et de marchandisation.

Lo que se nos ofrece en esta colección de textos, informes etnográficos
y materiales expositivos es una mirada que se fracciona y
recrea diversos objetos de estudio que se dispersan desde el centro,
no ceñidos por tanto a un solo lenguaje, ni concebidos en el mismo
momento. Tampoco sujetos a una metodología específica. Desde
distintas posiciones teóricas, Estévez se fue acercando al turismo,
al paisaje, a las tradiciones; desde diversos proyectos y encuentros.
Siempre lúcido, y podríamos añadir que siempre fiel a sus presupuestos
teóricos, lo expuesto en este libro abre frentes reflexivos
aventurados y originales desde el arte, la expografía y la museología,
la teoría social y el activismo. Esta colección puede entenderse tanto
como una extensión de su identidad de antropólogo de la identidad
canaria, como de la de museólogo o la de activista. En lo que sigue
se intentará ofrecer una guía práctica, pero al tiempo rizomática,
con la que localizar todos estos materiales en su contexto, también
se apuntará sus posibilidades para el futuro y, por último, se aludirá
brevemente a los dos temas que más despertaron su interés en los
últimos años: las islas y el Antropoceno.

This chapter offers a critical analysis of the burgeoning cottage industry of cyber- and actual Toraja zombie tourism. Various studies have chronicled tourists’ fascination with cadavers, and with touring the purported haunts of the undead (c.f. Light 2009; Linke 2005; Stone 2011a), yet the ways in which new death-oriented leisure zones not only arise but become fetishized remain understudied. This chapter responds to the recent call for new research on the relationship between the media and dark tourism sites (Stone 2011b:327). Data derived from fieldwork in the Toraja highlands of Indonesia and web-based sources demonstrate the role of both the internet and the anthropological imagination in this process. A second theme in this chapter entails examining the often-contradictory emotional dynamics underlying the pursuit of fun and fright by vacationers. Ethnographic studies of the complex emotional terrain entailed in these first-hand encounters remain limited and this chapter contribute to our understanding of the emotional dynamics embodied in touristic pilgrimages to observe the mortuary rituals of another culture. FInally, although this chapter examines the Western voyeuristic fascination with dead (and potentially undead) corpses, my aim is not to fuel sensationalized imagery of another dark place where dark activities are seemingly a part of everyday life. Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Philippe Bourgois’ cautions regarding ‘pornographies of violence’ as captivating yet repelling chronicles of violence that circumvent critical analysis strike me as equally apt for discussions of this particular genre of dark tourism (Scheper-Hughes and Bourgois 2003:1). What I term ‘pornographies of the macabre,’ like pornographies of violence, can reify stigmatized perceptions of subordinated peoples while neglecting to spotlight the “chains of causality…link[ing] structural, political, and symbolic violence…buttress[ing] unequal power relations” (Bourgois 2003:433). Thus, this chapter also examines the cultural “logic” and structural, political and symbolic asymmetries that buttress outsiders’ sensationalized zombie-themed references to Toraja mortuary traditions, references that have lent the Toraja a new kind of global notoriety.

The terms “overtourism” and “tourismphobia” arise from the flourishing evolution of unsustainable mass tourism practices and the response that these have generated amongst a number of individuals and civil societies concerned with the detrimental use of public spaces for tourism purposes and associated international and local development and management policies. Social movements have emerged across Europe and globally to address what is referred to as overtourism, a term associated with exploitative practices by policymakers and destination managers, leading to unsustainable tourism practices and unbearable conditions for those residing in the affected destinations. The paper will observe how Barcelona is facing a resistance movement that criticize the contemporary urban touristic model.

What have we learned since anthropologists first realized that tourists alter the societies they study? Intended for non-anthropologists, this paper explores this question and critiques the hegemony of business perspectives in tourism studies. It discusses tourism as a complex and fluid set of phenomena that cannot be reduced to one dimension, highlighting five points: (1) Tourism is one of the names of power. (2) The complex nature of tourism cannot be understood without studying socio-cultural processes. (3) The socio-ecological processes that construct territory determine and are determined by social space. (4) The industries of seduction create a corpus of desires through which socio-cultural groups forge their own identity. (5) Anthropological studies allow researchers to propose alternative forms of tourism development.

Zakynthos, niewielka wyspa na zachodzie Grecji, jest obecnie jednym z najpopularniejszych celów wakacyjnych podróży u wybrzeży Morza Śródziemnego. Wraz z liczbą wypoczywających zwiększa się również zasób narracji mówiących o tym miejscu. Kształtują one oczekiwania turystów i sposób ich percepcji. Obraz Zakynthos w wakacyjnych folderach różni się od rzeczywistości i nie znajduje odzwierciedlenia w realiach życia zamieszkującej wyspę ludności. Narracje, służąc interesom touroperatorów chcącym stworzyć alternatywny obraz świata, roztaczają przed wczasowiczami wizję raju. Sposób prowadzenia narracji przekłada się na doświadczenia turystów i formy organizacji ich wypoczynku, a także wpływa na zachowania mieszkańców wyspy, którzy, stając się przedmiotem opisu, dążą do przebudowy własnej tożsamości. Niniejsze studium przypadku oparte jest na kilkunastu miesiącach badań prowadzonych na Zakynthos.

The paper in hand deals with an in-depth research study for the GCC market niche of touristic products that should and can be provided within Lichtenstein. The initial point of the research lays in the inquiry how and whether it would be possible to attract more GCC tourists and to foster regional new business development in the tourism sector. Furthermore, it was crucial for the research to find relevant knowledge as a basis for a new marketing strategy that works fine in the GCC in order to attract new tourists to the country. Although, literature that has developed suitable models to understand the cultural background of GCC residents, but there has been hardly effort made to analyse the situation in Lichtenstein, from a qualitative perspective.
Therefore, the author has been developing a theoretical base for the relevance and the potential, GCC tourists would provide as consumers for any existing or to be touristic products. With the help of the literature, expert interviews have been conducted to draw a bow from existing marketing strategies and common practices to the case of the Lichtenstein Tourism Organisation. With the help of the professional marketers a wide range of insights could be derived, which will help the board of Lichtenstein Tourism to understand the stereotype of the common GCC tourist better.
The main results can be taken together as follows …
• It is crucial that the staff of and within the hosting destination be trained how to handle GCC tourists with their often demanding and sometimes unusual needs.
• It is important having a cultural related advertisement and marketing strategy that responds to the actual needs of the GCC tourists.
• Marketing in the GCC, is all about building up relationships with potential key partners.
• Provide your guests with the basic requirements, grounded on their cultural needs. While keeping your core cultural identity and values.
• GCC tourists are not important because of their quantity but in terms of their quality beneficial they bring to the destination they visit.
The new knowledge, for example, is thought to be crucial in two to three ways. First of all it enables any tourism organisation to understand that GCC tourists come from a very different cultural background, and often they do not share many of the traditional concepts that are common and widely accepted in Western Europe. Therefore, it might be hard to interact with GCC tourists and getting acquaint with those right from the beginning. But figures presented, and best practice examples tell, if the necessary effort can be made for some core adaptations, which are crucial to attract GCC tourists, a high possibility that the investment made pays off in the long run exists. Additionally, the study bares how important the inside out aspect respectively; the bottom-up approach is when such kind of change is required, in order to be successful in attracting GCC tourists to come for travelling reasons to Lichtenstein.

The current paper aims to analyze the novel of Italo Calvino ‘’Invisible Cities’’ from a destination marketing perspective. Remarkable efforts have been made within the last 2 decades to throw light on the particular novel from different aspects and different scientific fields. Sociology, History of Art, Political Science, Architecture, Literature and Engineering contributed with in-depth studies and reached interesting findings. However, Marketing and Destination Marketing in particular, may offer an innovative approach to Calvino’s visionary destination and, in general, enhance the knowledge on this novel, by showcasing its affiliation with the discipline of marketing and the effect of storytelling on the readers. Additionally, from the destination marketing perspective, ‘’Invisible Cities’’ demonstrates its topical character and constitutes a brilliant paradigm of how modern marketing addresses to the the receiver’s unconsious, dealing with the formation of expectations. The author indirectly, but always on purpose, transforms his readers to imaginary visitors of his destination, by using a storytelling to an extent that it creates images, desires and expectations.
Marco Polo, one of the 2 main characters in the novel, does not merely describe what he encountered in his trips, but, also gives weight in his descriptions on what he felt and what his thoughts were every time he walked in a new city. Kublai Khan, the other main character, enjoyed this narration and chose to learn everything about his Empire from Marco Polo, even though there was a language barrier in the beginning. The resemblance is remarkable between the pair of Kublai Khan – Marco Polo and marketer – visitor or the pair storytelling – expectations.
Four assumptions have been made and proved in this desk research, based on a literature review of destination marketing. Comparative content analysis and conceptual analysis have been applied in order to confirm the viability of our assumptions.
Kublai Khan reflects every modern tourist, Assumption I, whilst Marco Polo represents every destination marketer, Assumption II. The two aforementioned assumptions are independent factors to each other, but they both constitute a necessary condition for Assumption III to be proven, according to which Italo Calvino attempts to bring his readers to the Emperor’s position and lures them with his narration to imaginary journeys.
With this action, Italo not only invites his readers to visit his destination but, in parallel, triggers them to develop expectations and motivates them to create their own visionary image of the destination. And this, is one of the main goals of the modern destination marketing. Consequently, is Italo Calvino a genius destination marketer of his age and is ‘’Invisible Cities’’ a great paradigm of modern destination storytelling? This question constitutes Assumption IV of this study and follows the confirmation of all the prior assumptions. Based on conceptual analysis, we conclude that Italo Calvino offers a remarkable destination marketing case study with this novel, a fact that leads to the confirmation of the fourth assumption.

This article examines the growth of Community-Based Tourism within the broader discipline of tourism. New topics in the field have emerged such as responsible tourism, pro-poor tourism, sports tourism and moral impacts of tourism. This phenomenon also reflects the multi-disciplinarity of tourism. In this article, using the Title, Abstract and Keywords (TAK) for instances in which the words (Community-based Tourism, Community Tourism and Community-Based Eco-Tourism) to subsume Community-Based Tourism (CBT), a search was made in various databases and found that CBT as a sub-specialty of tourism started to emerge in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The number of articles published specifically on CBT has been growing phenomenally. The major contribution of this article is that we now know the evolution of CBT and we also now know its trajectory of growth which has been upward. While the number of articles on CBT is growing, there is no journal dedicated solely to CBT.

Este trabajo ofrece una aproximación desde el campo de la antropología, encauzada al análisis de los procesos que definen el desarrollo del turismo en la Riviera Maya, tanto como la estructuración de la economía y la vida social de sus múltiples localidades. Con base en tres ejemplos de distintas escalas y naturaleza (la Riviera Maya, Tulum y Campamento Hidalgo), realizo una serie de descripciones dirigidas a reconstruir y explicar a grandes rasgos distintos modelos de integración de espacios turísticos, la forma en que opera la mercantilización de los lugares, las personas y la cultura, así como el tipo de repercusiones que es posible percibir en las localidades.

This article highlights the understudied role of local knowledge in contributing to the resilience of small-scale entrepreneurial tourism businesses in touristically-unpredictable times. Drawing on a micro-case study of a South Sulawesi (Indonesia) tourist-oriented restaurant-hotel that has thrived despite tourism's ebbs and flows of tourism, we suggest that greater attention to the ways in which successful small-scale tourism entrepreneurs draw on local wisdom can help identify additional foundations for building resilience strategies. In spotlighting local knowledge as an under-recognized resource, this article also speaks to recent calls for the decolonization of tourism studies.

It is hard to imagine tourism without the creative use of seductive as well as restrictive imaginaries about peoples and places. This article presents a conceptual framework for the study of tourism imaginaries and their diffusion. Where do such imaginaries originate, how and why are they circulated across the globe, and what kind of impact do they have on people’s lives? I discuss the multiple links between tourism and imagination, illustrating the overlapping but conflicting ways in which imaginings and fantasies drive tourists and tourism service providers alike. By applying this conceptual approach to international tourism in developing countries, I illustrate how the critical analysis of imaginaries offers a powerful deconstruction device of ideological, political, and sociocultural stereotypes and cliche´s.

O presente trabalho apresenta uma iniciativa para valorizar os bens culturais como instrumentos para impulsionar o turismo cultural e desta forma contribuir a preservação do património existente e fomentar um turismo mais sustentável. Focaliza no diagnóstico realizado a través do inventário de bens culturais realizado pela UNESCO dentro do Programa Conjunto para o fortalecimento das indústrias criativas e culturais e Politicas inclusivas em Moçambique, 2008-2011.

El presente artículo presenta un análisis
de las contribuciones de la Antropología del
Turismo en el Estado español a la problematización
del controvertido debate sobre
el turismo comunitario en América Latina.
Entre la multiplicidad de prácticas turísticas,
el turismo comunitario, por sus especiales
características, ha sido empleado como
una estrategia para el desarrollo local y ha
entrado con fuerza en la agenda política de
la cooperación internacional a partir de la
puesta en marcha de las metodologías Pro
Poor Tourism (PPT) y Sustainable Tourism
for Eliminating Poverty (ST-EP). A partir del
análisis de determinados casos de estudios
en América Latina, el artículo plantea los
debates existentes en torno a los beneficios
y limitaciones de este tipo de turismo.

Nearly forty years have passed since anthropologists began linking tourism and pilgrimage, yet there still exist inter-and intra-disciplinary boundaries impeding a robust exchange of data and theory between them. Likewise, the literature by practitioners
in these fields reveals an astonishing ambivalence towards the oft-critical and theoretical contributions of anthropologists. Building on the work of Bourdieu, the author asserts that such divides are contingent on historical and cultural forces within and between various groups of stakeholders that are brought together in a “field of touristic production.” Informed by divergent ideologies and research interests, tourism and pilgrimage scholars have taken different pathways towards developing their respective fields, leading to a pervasive dualism that often privileges pilgrimage and neglects tourism. Drawing on a wide breadth of scholarship from numerous disciplines to illuminate definitional, conceptual, and  methodological issues related to the anthropological study of tourism and pilgrimage, the author interrogates the logic of such dualities and focuses on their shared phenomenological attribute of perspectivalism, a particular way of perceiving the value and use of a destination. Offering a new apologia for the study of tourism as a “global cultural form” produced through a “field of production,” the author advocates greater consideration of this phenomenological definition to bridge disciplinary divides, and for extending anthropological tourism research into academic and practitioner-related fields.

Keywords: anthropology; tourism; pilgrimage; perspectivalism; field of touristic production

Niniejszy utwór ani żaden jego fragment nie może być reprodukowany, przetwarzany i rozpowszechniany w jakikolwiek sposób za pomocą urządzeń elektronicznych, mechanicznych, kopiujących, nagrywających i innych oraz nie może być przechowywany w żadnym systemie informatycznym bez uprzedniej pisemnej zgody Wydawcy.

Grounded in scholarly analysis and personal reflection, and drawing on a multi-sited and multi-method research design, Momentous Mobilities disentangles the meanings attached to temporary travels and stays abroad and offers empirical evidence as well as novel theoretical arguments to develop an anthropology of mobility. Both focusing specifically on how various societies and cultures imagine and value boundary-crossing mobilities “elsewhere” and drawing heavily on his own European lifeworld, the author examines momentous travels abroad in the context of education, work, and spiritual quests and the search for a better quality of life.

Imagine that you wake up one morning and realize that your house and your neighborhood are now part of a tourist site located inside a National Park. Worse yet, you are now residing inside a highly ideological heritage site, the narrative of which has you playing the role of a rival, of an enemy. Reminiscent of a Kafkaesque tale, things -even if not yourself -have transformed irrevocably. In this chapter I examine how tourism discourses and practices are effectively put into use for political objectives. I hold that commonly both tourism scholarship and tourists overlook the pervasive political aspects associated with tourist sites, attractions, and discourses, which are the way that the industry serves in promoting and perpetuating hegemony. Empirically, the study explores a Jewish heritage site located in Occupied East Jerusalem. It exposes the mechanisms by which the site serves political aims, and how these aims are effectively depoliticized for the benefit of the sovereign authority and ideology. The chapter also documents the initial phases of my own move into political activism in the context of the Israeli Occupation of East Jerusalem, and my appreciation of how the tourism industry, with its awesome powers of worldmaking, plays a role in this affair of which significance cannot be undermined.

Las distintas contribuciones expuestas en el libro reflejan adecuadamente la heterogeneidad y multiplicidad del patrimonio, las formas de definirlo, estudiarlo y gestionarlo. Las tensiones e interacciones entre estas tres variables derivan en distintos posicionamientos y formas de actuación cuyo comentario detallado sobrepasa el propósito de estas reflexiones finales, que buscan más bien incisión transversal que se conecte de uno u otro modo a las distintas intervenciones. Todas ellas asumen de uno u otro modo que el patrimonio no es algo ‘dado’ y que ‘realmente existió’; que no es parte de una historia objetiva ni un objeto valioso per se, sino que refiere más bien a los usos que del pasado se hacen en el presente. Por tanto, dentro de esta concepción se incluyen las formas de adquisición de conocimiento como tales, lo que hace del patrimonio un ámbito metacultural extremadamente complejo. Así, la arqueología no descubre un pasado ‘realmente existente’ ahí afuera y lo desentierra, sino que igualmente lo interpreta, incorporándose como disciplina como un actor social más en la producción del patrimonio. Equiparar directamente el patrimonio con el pasado es el error que las concepciones más tradicionales y estáticas del mismo repiten constantemente, un paradigma desgraciadamente asumido por la mayor parte de instituciones y tecnoburócratas. En él se produce lo que Latour (2007) denominaría un ‘salto mortal’ o, más recientemente, un ‘doble click’ (2013), según el cual el modo de existencia del patrimonio vendría determinado por una declaración, una catalogación, un descubrimiento, etc.

Entendimientos más complejos del patrimonio como los aquí presentados coinciden, aunque de modo dispar, en la necesidad de socializar – ‘difundir’, ‘divulgar’, ‘educar’, ‘popularizar’ – el patrimonio, y de establecer una serie de etapas para tal propósito. Si bien es cierto “que en tiempos de crisis, nadie paga lo que no se valoriza” (Carlos Valera, este volumen), surge la cuestión de qué se da por hecho al asumir la tarea de ‘socializar’. Primero, que la gente ha de ‘ser educada’ en el patrimonio, y que esto es positivo per se. O como dice Vienni Baptista “¿Por qué se debe comunicar la ciencia?” (este volúmen). Segundo, que existe un algo – ya producido, estático, cosificado – que puede ser socializado, es decir, transmitido a otras personas. Las diferentes intervenciones de un modo u otro se involucran en la problematización de la idea de socialización y sus implicaciones, actuando a distintos niveles según las divergentes definiciones, formas de estudiar y de gestionar el patrimonio. Así, algunos parten de políticas económicas del patrimonio para dar cuenta del devenir holístico de una comunidad-territorio, como en los casos de Perú o Portugal, de enfoques basados en el patrimonio como discurso representacional relacionado con la memoria y la identidad, como en el caso de Brasil, o como realidad multidimensional desde la que el conocimiento experto puede actuar como mediador, como en los laboratorios patrimoniales de España o Uruguay. Contextualizar esta problematización requiere volver atrás para trazar un breve – por tanto, necesariamente incompleto – bosquejo de las interacciones entre definiciones de qué (ontología), cómo se estudia (epistemología) y cómo se gestiona el patrimonio. Tres ámbitos separados por motivos analíticos ya que se encuentran íntimamente conectados: toda forma de conocimiento del patrimonio es directamente productora de realidad, por lo tanto ontológica; y cualquier forma de definir qué es lleva a distintas formas de conocerlo y usarlo.

Community-based tourism (CBT) offers both opportunities and challenges in the quest
for holistic community development. The evolution and development of CBT projects
can follow different trajectories. This conceptual paper’s main contribution is the
formulation of a comprehensive model of the development of CBT. The model
suggests that CBT projects can be initiated from within and outside the community by
the private, public and non-governmental sectors or a combination of these using a topdown
or bottom-up approach. It also posits that CBT projects can take a formal or
informal character depending on the conditions leading to their initiation. The paper
highlights the benefits and constraints to the scaling up or down of operations linked to
informality. It supports further research in analyzing the various aspects associated
with the shift from formality to the informality of CBT projects and vice versa

Desde la década pasada ha empezado a extenderse en varios destinos turísticos, sobre todo urbanos, una crítica contra la saturación turística liderada –en muchos casos– por colectivos sociales. A partir de la segunda mitad del siglo pasado, la diseminación del turismo en barrios y centros urbanos ha ido generado lo que los angloparlantes definen como overtourism.
A pesar de que en el ámbito español los medios de comunicación hayan hecho eco del fenómeno nombrándolo como turismofobia, el asunto en cuestión es mucho más complejo de lo que parece. Por ello, el informe abordará algunas cuestiones sobre el fenómeno a partir del análisis de casos concretos.

In the ethnographically and critically conceived study the core topics derive from the author’s examination of discourse on local tourism around the year 2000 in Tolmin, a town in W Slovenia of approximately 3.500 inhabitants, with as many living in its immediate surroundings, which has only recently began to appear as a possible tourist destination. The core topics concern the following questions: what represents tourism in situ?; which historic events co-shape(d) the present discourse on local tourism in Tomin?; how do the local landscape and “tourism landscapes” influence the present discourse on local tourism?; how are geographies of “place branding” connecting the global and the local levels of contemporary “tourism processes”?; how does contemporary local identification function within the global-local nexus?; and, what kind of discourse guided/s the newly established local tourism organisation, which began its work in the Tolminska region in the year 2000?

In the book, tourism is in the first place examined as a discourse in the Foucauldian sense, pertaining to power relations and strategic practices for organising social relations, while its uses are contextualised within historical, institutional and folk contexts. Thus, the author provides insight into the history of local tourism and the institutionalisation of tourism in the area around the year 2000, and also discusses the existing local grass-roots practices designed on the basis of more or less explicit tourism agendas.

The study is based on the “anthropology of tourism” paradigm, as well as on the emerging “anthropology of space and place” paradigm. The author brings new research topics into the field of anthropology of tourism, especially those derived from the phenomenon of proliferating tourist destinations in the modern world, their marketing strategies, and the identification processes of local inhabitants in relation to place branding within the global arena.

Case Study Background.

World Wide Fund (WWF-SPP) had overall logistic responsibilities for project implementation, organizing meetings and workshops, housing the project and reporting to Asian Development Bank.

A Project Team (PT) consisting of a team leader with field specialization in Strategic Environment Analysis- SEA (Roger Levett), a tourism specialist (Manoa Malani), and a socio-economist (Richard McNally) were recruited to conduct the case study.

This team performed specific tasks like: compiling of relevant data and information; conducting public meetings and relevant consultations; and writing the SEA reports.

Based on their findings, they put forward a number of recommendations to the Government and to the tourism industry (particularly in reorienting the Fiji Tourism Development Plan (1998–2005) in 2003 to make it more viable and responsive to the environment) as well as to ADB, on measures needed to ensure sustainable tourism in Fiji Islands.

A Project Coordination Team (PCT) acted as an advisory group and backstopped all relevant tasks undertaken by the PT. The PCT composed of representatives from the WWF–SPP itself, the Tourism industry, the Ministry of Tourism and Transport, the Ministry of Local Government, Housing and Environment, NGOs, the University of the South Pacific, and the Fiji Visitors’ Bureau.

As part of the close collaboration between WWF-SPP and the Ministry of Tourism, Mr. Manoa Malani of the Project Team was responsible for all aspects of the assessment related to Tourism. Mr. Malani also worked closely with the other project team members. Together with the other team members, Mr. Malani also liaised closely with WWF, ADB, and the Project Coordinating Team.

Specific tasks were as follows:

1) As a member of the project team, help carry out the Strategic Environmental Assessment of Fiji Tourism Development Plan (1998–2005) (TDP);

2) Examine the Government’s regulatory framework and institutional set-up, particularly the strengths and weaknesses of the planning process relative to tourism, and ascertain its impacts on sustainable tourism development. Initially assess the likely development of the tourism industry in the country
without the TDP (1998-2005);

3) Identify [if necessary] possible changes needed in existing tourism policies and strategies, as well as their application to ensure maximization of tourism industry potentials, now and into the future; and outline reasons why these changes are needed; and

4) Formulate recommendations on policy and planning measures that need to be incorporated into the TDP (1998–2005) and associated development and sectoral plans, policies and programs.

Time Frame:

The specific tasks outlined above were carried out intermittently over 15 calendar days of consultant time, particularly on tourism aspects. The study took place between March 17th and April 22nd 2003.

Napolioni Masirewa
Permanent Secretary for Tourism,
Ministry of Tourism, Fiji Islands.

Kesaia Tabunakawai.
Acting Representative World Wide Fund-South Pacific Programme.

Aporosa Draunibaka.
Witness.

Purpose. The aim of this article is to present how different attractions, after having been certified as 'The Best Tourism Product' by the Polish Tourist Organization, become , to some extent, accepted as heritage. In other words, the paper examines how the system of certification supports the process of heritage commodification. Method. Qualitative research. Multimodal analysis was applied to investigate verbal and visual sources: descriptions, photographs and other graphic elements of the catalogues published by the Polish Tourist Organization, as well as websites presenting in detail tourism products which have received awards. Findings. Analysis of the gathered research material reveals the methods of (re) interpreting heritage in tourism promotion. Research and conclusions limitations. The research is a typical case study, which sheds light on cultural phenomenon, but cannot provide any general theory on heritage interpretation. We have limited the focus of the study to the Polish context. Furthermore, the heritage commodification is a very dynamic process, therefore it needs further exploration which would take new tourism products appearing in the region into consideration. Practical implications. The analysis provides potential avenues of enquiry adopting the perspective that heritage must be investigated in a performative context. It opens a discussion on how the Polish heritage is shaped and which stakeholders participate in this process. The awareness of the fact that discourse authorized by institutions shapes a preferred interpretation in which the values considered important for a given section of society are displayed, may be helpful for the different stakeholders who participate in the process of heritage commodification. Originality. The article adopts the concept of dissonance in heritage interpretation to the Polish context. The case study highlights the thesis that practice definitely overtakes theory when we weigh up the issues concerning the creation of heritage. Type of paper. The paper is based on the empirical research

To cite this article: Oliver Mtapuri & Andrea Giampiccoli (2013) Interrogating the role of the state and nonstate actors in community-based tourism ventures: toward a model for spreading the benefits to the wider community, South African Geographical Journal, 95:1, 1-15,

ABSTRACT

An under theorized area of Dark and War Tourism studies concerns the appropriation of tours for the perpetuation of political propaganda. Taking the case of the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) that separates North and South Korea this study demonstrates the extent to which heritage tours are used to present the political and military arguments of the South in order to persuade visitors of the justification of their actions in the ongoing conflict between North and South Korea.

KEYWORDS
DARK TOURISM, WAR TOURISM, HERITAGE, POLITICS, SOCIOLOGY, KOREAN WAR, NORTH KOREA, SOUTH KOREA, DMZ, PANMUNJEOM, MILITARY HISTORY, PROPAGANDA, PERSUASION, MANIPULATION, MILITARY HISTORY, CONFLICT STUDIES

This Afterword reviews the special issue of the Journal of Sustainable Tourism on Critical Geographies, which focuses on the intricate relationships between tourism and various forms of tourism related violence. It notes the slippery and complex concept of violence in tourism, and that it is typically seen from the viewpoint of the tourist, with researchers working from the anthropological host and guests relationship model as a way of negotiating kinship and friendship between societies, with broader aspects of tourism's power play with socio-cultural change perhaps conveniently forgotten. Tourism and tourists are seen as hiding their corporate and personal violence behind destination branding, tourism imaginaries and saleable commodification. While the innovative approaches adopted by papers in the special issue are commended, two key and still outstanding issues are highlighted. Tourism researchers must find ways to share their work more effectively across all stakeholders, as well as publishing in academic journals. And researchers should become more self reflexive and critical of themselves, seeking to address the complex practical challenges for sustainable tourism thinkers and doers of creating better links between the visitors and businesses of developed societies, and the culture and communities of developing societies. In the acclaimed novel The Unbearable Lightness of Being, writer Milan Kundera (1984) reflects on the insignificance of a single lifetime, thus the title, the " lightness " of being. Tourists, too, are usually imagined and portrayed as light-hearted figures, visiting peoples and places across the globe without caring much about the systemic inequalities that make their travels possible, and having, for the unaware casual observer, a light impact on their destinations. Consequently, tourism was, for a long time, not considered as a topic worthy of serious scientific inquiry. Nobody within academia wanted researchers to be confused with tourists (although I met dozens of scholar-tourists while conducting ethnographic fieldwork on tourism). Times have changed. The special issue of which this Afterword forms a part is far from being " light ". On the contrary, some may even feel that the mass of frivolous tourists is not given enough voice. The focus of this special issue is on the intricate relationship between tourism and various forms of violence. Violence is a slippery concept (Scheper-Hughes & Bourgois, 2003; Whitehead, 2004). When queried about the links between tourism and violence, most people spontaneously mention overt physical manifestations that involve (international) tourists: different types of personal crimes (including assault, battery, false imprisonment, kidnapping, homicide, and rape), or terrorist attacks (in countries such as Afghanistan, Egypt, Indonesia, Tunisia or Turkey). These are also the typical things that are

Tourism affects the lives of an increasing number of people across the world and has been growing and diversifying immensely since the turn of the 21st century. Anthropological approaches to tourism have also expanded from the early contributions of the 1970s, which tended to focus on the nature of tourism and its “impact” on peripheral host communities. These first interventions see anthropologists theorizing tourism as a “secular ritual,” studying its workings as a process of “acculturation,” and countering macroeconomic views of tourism’s potential for the economic development of peripheral societies by underscoring instead its neocolonial and imperialist features. Tourism is linked to the exacerbation of center-periphery dependencies, seen as an agent of cultural commoditization and responsible for the promotion and dissemination of stereotypical images of people and places. Moving beyond the impact paradigm, which has the disadvantage of portraying tourism as an external, disembedded, and imposed force on a passive population, constructivist approaches highlight its creative appropriations and integral role in the reinvention of culture and traditions. Anthropologists pay attention to the varied range of actors and agencies involved in tourism, accounting for the multi-scalar dimensions of this phenomenon and the uneven circulation of images, discourses, and resources it engenders.

Tourism exerts a powerful global influence on how alterity and difference are framed and understood in the contemporary world and contributes to the valorization and dissemination of particular views of culture, identity, and heritage. Tourism is increasingly intertwined with processes of heritage-making, whose study helps advance anthropological reflections on cultural property, material culture, and the memorialization of the past. A key source of livelihood for a growing number of people worldwide, tourism is also becoming more and more associated with development projects in which applied anthropologists are also enrolled as experts and consultants. The study of the tourism-development nexus continues to be a key area of theoretical innovation and has helped advance anthropological debates on North–South relations, dominant responses to poverty and inequality, and their entanglements with neoliberal forms of governance.

Given its diffuse and distributed character, tourism and touristification have been approached as forms of ordering that affect and restructure an ever-growing range of entities, and whose effects are increasingly difficult to tease out from concomitant societal processes. The ubiquitous implementations of tourism policies and projects, the influx of tourists, and the debates, reactions, and resistances these generate underscore, however, the importance of uncovering the ways tourism and its effects are being concretely identified, invoked, acted upon, and confronted by its various protagonists. Research on tourism has the potential to contribute to disciplinary debates on many key areas and notions of concern for anthropology. Culture, ethnicity, identity, alterity, heritage, mobility, labor, commerce, hospitality, intimacy, development, and the environment are among the notions and domains increasingly affected and transformed by tourism. The study of tourism helps understand how such transformations occur, uncovering their features and orientations, while also shedding light on the societal struggles that are at stake in them. The analysis of past and current research shows the scope of the theoretical and methodological debates and of the realms of intervention to which anthropological scholarship on tourism can contribute.

Este capítulo propone un modelo teórico-metodológico para abordar desde la antropología el estudio comprensivo del turismo. A tal fin, se establece una distinción entre el análisis del turismo como industria y como proceso sociocultural, y se muestra la visión ocio-turismo como una construcción occidental. Sobre una base etnográfica se propone una terminología más precisa para ordenar y presentar el material etnográfico, y un modelo de análisis más apropiado para explicar las prácticas sociales y culturales relacionadas con el turismo. Finalmente, se plantea la noción de “desarrollo ecológico-cultural” tal como, desde la etnografía, se viene aplicando a través de varios proyectos y convenios de investigación en el grupo de investigación interuniversitario Etnomedia-CD.

This article analyses the manner in which certain artists and activists in Mallorca have recently generated a counter-image of the traditional postcard, which essentially symbolises the tourist gaze. Taking examples from diverse sources, such as artistic pieces, memes, protest posters and underground comics, I analyse the mechanisms used to subvert the conventional tourist perspective of the island space. More specifically, I identify two strategies associated with the limitation of the space and time portrayed in the postcard. The confines of the space are manifest in the display of the off-camera and the critical anchorage of the image, while the limits of temporality are presented in a dystopic revision of the island map. To support the findings of this study, I have drawn on the ideas, theories and methods of island studies, tourism studies, postcolonial criticism and the rhetoric of images. The conclusions of this article aim to provide an interpretation of the complex emergence of a resistant social agency capable of creating its own portrayals of the island.

While tourism scholars have sought to problematize the unevenly
distributed impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, we know much
less about how resilience is cultivated among tourism practitioners
and communities whose lives and livelihoods are have been placed
in limbo. Drawing on literature at the intersection of critical tourism
studies and resilience theory as well as interviews with local tourism
practitioners and academics, four historically situated and
place-based trends in Southeast Asia that are reshaping tourism
in the region are outlined: livelihood diversification, ecosystem
regeneration, cultural revitalization, and domestic tourism development.
These trends highlight how the political economy of
tourism in the region has both challenged and facilitated opportunities
for reshaping the industry in (post-) pandemic times. These
interconnected trends should not be understood in silo but rather
as historically rooted and place-based experiences. The examples
of resilience among Southeast Asian residents presented in the
article demonstrate that local individuals and communities are
active agents in resilience. While the concept of resilience has
been applied widely by scholars from multiple disciplines during
the COVID-19 pandemic, a critical tourism studies approach to
resilience theory accounts for the historically situated nuances of
local scale dynamics and their relationship to macro-level processes.
Rather than simply focusing on the pandemic’s sudden
transformative effects, practices of resilience in Southeast Asia
reflect ongoing political-economic and cultural shifts that have
often been underway in the region for several decades. The conclusion
identifies several policy implications and future directions
for tourism research in (post-) pandemic times.
摘要
虽然旅游学者试图对新冠肺炎产生影响的不均匀提出了问题, 但
对如何培养旅游业从业人员的恢复力以及如何培养那些生活与生
计都处于不确定状态的社区旅游的恢复力, 我们尚知之甚少。本
文借鉴批判性旅游研究与恢复力理论的交叉学科文献, 在访谈当
地旅游从业者和学者的基础上概括出四个重塑东南亚旅游业的、
适应该地区历史情势与地方特色的发展趋势, 即生计多样化、生

To better conceptualize the tourism encounter, scholars have highlighted the importance of mediators, notably tourist guides, in framing visitors’ experiences of a destination, encouraging to move beyond “hosts and guests”, “tourists and locals” binaries. The study of informal touristic encounters in Cuba helps problematize the identification of the tourist guide, highlighting the stakes of such categorization in a context of tightly regulated, state-led tourism development. Favouring a framing of tourist-Cuban interactions as genuine expressions of intimacy that escape the worker–customer binary, these encounters enact valued forms of informality, immediacy and authenticity. Their promise is to provide a “unique” glimpse into the “real” Cuba and the lives of “ordinary” Cubans, and to generate alternative possibilities for knowing and relating with the destination and its people.

Local traditions are not always weakened traditional form of culture in the global area. Bandulan patrol art tradition in Malang is one of them, this art is growed by invented tradition process with festival mode. Invented tradition is Hobwbawn (2000) concept which describe of the appearance of a tradition that is not viewed as old. This patrol art traditions research is intended to answer a research problem about how Bandulan local society make create in a new identity on the global area? To answer these problems, researchers used anthropological methode where observation, participatory observation and in-depth interview are used by the research. The method form use to describing phenomena in the Bandulan society. These results indicate the existence of a process invented tradidition going on basis and is fully supported by the process of globalization that exist in the festival media. patrol Art tradition which processed by invented is development of a local patrol sahur tradition , that the development is processed by contact culture who concepted by Liep (2001) helped to describe for process of establishing the identity of of Hall concept (1990). The pattern is related identity as being Bandulan confronted with foreign cultures and global cultures. This mixed process form is fused into the end result of a culture intact where local taste of culture still feels strong up there. The tradition of the art patrol appear to be a identity product of the becoming on the art festival patrol in Bandulan. Bandulan art patrol have different characteristics with ul–daul music though near same , but the Bandulan art patrol has a different style of music that have identic character. Bandulan art patrol has a identic style of typical of art music patrol. Characteristics campursari music what growing up in Bandulan and the slowler rhythm beats than ul-daul be identic style from the creation of identity what have style of local culture which can survive in global area that is true.