School-Based Management

In recent years, a great deal has been written about the community participation program that emerged in El Salvador known as Education with Community Participation (EDUCO) (e.g., Edwards, 2015, 2018a, 2018b, 2018c, 2019a, 2019b; Edwards, Victoria, & Martin, 2015). As will be further discussed, the key feature of this program that generated significant attention was the ability of parent councils to manage the school budget and to hire/fire teachers. Following on the fame that this program achieved in the 1990s and 2000s, recent studies have problematized different aspects of its history and implementation. The present chapter continues with this line of research by bringing together and extending critiques that have been made across other publications. Specifically, this chapter seeks, first, to draw attention to the ways that EDUCO’s knowledge base has been mobilized, and not only by international organizations but also in the academic literature; second, to contrast this knowledge mobilization, which has presented EDUCO in a positive light, with a critical understanding of the quantitative studies of EDUCO that are used to present EDUCO as an exemplary program; and, third, to present the weaknesses of this program in practice by drawing on the (largely unknown and ignored) qualitative studies of EDUCO’s implementation. Ultimately, the goal is not only to highlight the fundamentally problematic way that knowledge is produced and used in the global education policy field, but also to argue for a different approach to community participation, one that goes beyond technocratic and instrumental forms of community involvement in school and teacher management to focus instead on community empowerment and community organizing. However, before presenting the critique, this chapter first clarifies the details of what the EDUCO was and how it worked.

Salvador in early 1991, near the end of the twelve-year civil war. It not only represented an extreme form of decentralization in that it transferred the responsibility for hiring, firing and supervising teachers to rural communities, but it was also the first reform of its kind in Latin America. During the ensuing 20 years, the program has received tremendous attention. Indeed, within the country it became the central program through which the education sector was rebuilt and expanded in the post-war era of the 1990s and 2000s. Internationally, the program has been widely recognized as a successful and desirable example of community-level education management decentralization. In fact, the program has become a "global education policy" in that it has been and continues to be recognized, promoted and adapted around the world.

Durante las décadas de 1990 y 2000, una política conocida como Educación con Participación de la comunidad (EDUCO) se convirtió no solo en la piedra angular de la reforma educativa en El Salvador, sino además se convirtió en una política educativa de carácter global, conocida por descentralizar, hacia las familias rurales, la responsabilidad de contratar y despedir maestros. Como se presenta en este artículo, su ascenso a la fama no fue producto únicamente del contexto político-económico en el que nació; su fama también es el resultado de las evaluaciones de impacto producidas por el Banco Mundial, que sirvieron como base de evidencia a través de la cual ésta y otras instituciones internacionales podían promover, de forma legítima, el modelo neoliberal de participación de la comunidad representado por EDUCO. Sin embargo, de una manera problemática, una re-apreciación de estas evaluaciones de impacto, revela, en primer lugar, que los hallazgos y conclusiones sobre los efectos significativos de EDUCO no fueron justificados, y, en segundo lugar, que la producción de las evaluaciones de impacto en su conjunto es fundamentalmente defectuosa debido al nexo  intelectual-político-financiero del cual emergieron estos estudios, y hacia el cual retornaron para promover—alrededor del mundo—soluciones de políticas orientadas al mercado. En este sentido, para explicar las dinámicas de la reforma que dieron lugar a EDUCO, este documento (a) revisa sistemáticamente los hallazgos y limitantes de cada uno de los seis estudios de impacto que constituyen la base internacional de conocimiento alrededor de esta política, (b) reconsidera lo que, de forma razonable, podemos exigir saber sobre EDUCO, (c) refleja las implicaciones nacionales e internacionales de la revisión crítica aquí presentada (d) resalta las falencias del método de investigación de las evaluaciones de impacto y (e) sugiere varios métodos alternativos que pueden ofrecer hallazgos relevantes para las políticas.

Using a sample of 300 Arab teachers in Israel, we developed a model to analyze how school-based management directly and indirectly (through motivation) affects school effectiveness. The results show that there is a positive relationship between all dimensions of self-management (decision-making, resource and personnel management, availability of resources, and organizational structure) and school effectiveness. In addition, the results show full mediation between resource management, personnel and organizational structure, and school effectiveness through motivation. Theoretical contributions and managerial implications as well as directions for future research are presented.

ABSTRACT
In 2006 the Ministry of Education (MOESL) implemented the Programme of School Improvement (PSI) in the government schools in Sri Lanka. In order to gain success of the PSI, School Development Committee (SDC) and School Management Team (SMT) were introduced as the main decision making bodies in those schools. Participatory decision making is one of the key elements of the PSI system in Sri Lanka. Current decision making process is rather different than the earlier decision making in the government schools in Sri Lanka. Therefore the studying about the decision making process in the PSI schools is imperative. This study design to investigate the nature of the decision making process in the schools where the Programme of School Improvement (PSI) is being implemented? This study used a qualitative case study approach to study the research problem with special reference to the Matara district PSI implemented schools. Purposive sampling technique employed to select participants in this study, and data analysed using thematic analysing technique. The measurement of community involvement in SDCs provides some indicators of low community involvement in decision making and management. The mechanism of selection members for the SDCs is not transparent, and the community of schools lack knowledge of the selection process in the SDCs and PSI concept. According to the responses of the majority of the past pupils, the parents and the teachers of SDCs, principals influence to select members for the SDCs in the PSI schools. Thus, it seems that there is no democratic and genuine participatory decision making process in the PSI schools. Moreover, the situation in the SDC meetings is also not much participative. It is needed for drawing attention of higher authority on the PSI implementation since now this implementation is taking place without any proper supervision.
Key words-
Decision making, Programme of School Improvement, School Based Management, Participatory decision making

The objective of the study was to determine if teachers’ competence in the development and conduct of action research affect teaching skills, professional growth and improve school performance. Descriptive – comparative research design was used, with 142 randomly selected public school teachers in Davao City Division as respondents. Using One – Way Multivariate Analysis of Variance (one-way MANOVA), it found out that teachers’ competence in the development and conduct of action research significantly affect teaching skills, professional growth and improve school performance. Sustainability in enhancing competence in the development and conduct of Action Research may be strengthened to facilitate enhancement of teaching skills, professional growth and improve school performance.

The Programme of School Improvement (PSI) was introduced to the government schools in Sri Lanka as a pilot project in 2006. At present all the public schools are implementing the PSI as a tool of management. With the implementation of the PSI, school decision making process was significantly changed (Ministryofeducation, 2008). However, no adequate qualitative research was undertaken to study the changed decision making process in those PSI schools yet. Therefore this study designed to explore the nature of the school decision making in the PSI schools. Three schools were purposively selected in the Colombo district, and information gathered interviewing the members of the School Development Committees (SDC). Case study research approach used to study the research problem, and Data was analyzed using thematic analytical technique. Principal interference can be seen in the selection process of the members for the SDC in the majority of schools. Therefore, it seems that the decision making in those schools is not much democratic, and mostly internal staff members in the SDC influence the school decisions. Most of the external members are not much aware their authority and power in school decisions. However, the responsibility for school decisions still with the internal staff members of SDC. Mostly, SDC meetings are held to get official approval for the proposals tabled by the respective school principal. Majority of SDC members have not undergone any training in relation to the PSI, therefore, all the members required to be provided appropriate training and awareness on the PSI. In addition, democratic and participatory decision making process must be emphasized as a key element of the PSI schools.

This book brings a new focus and new insights to the phenomena of global education policies and, relatedly, international policy transfer. While both of these issues have gained popularity in the field of international and comparative education, there remains much that we do not know. In particular, while numerous studies have been produced which examine how global education policies—such as vouchers, charter schools, conditional-cash transfers, standardized testing, child-centered pedagogy, etc.—travel around the world and are implemented, we lack research which illuminates the origins and evolution of such policies. Put differently: scholars have yet to examine how such policies first emerge and then enter the global reform agenda for education. The present book addresses this critical gap in our knowledge by looking at multiple aspects of the trajectory of a particular policy which was born in El Salvador in the early 1990s and subsequently went global. This policy was known as “Education with Community Participation” and was an extreme form of community-based management that transferred (among other things) the responsibility for hiring, firing, and managing teachers from the central Ministry of Education to communities themselves. This book is also valuable in that it explicitly analyses the trajectory of global education policy with reference to the role of international organizations and within the larger international political and economic dynamics that affected the overall country context of El Salvador.

The study is on appraising School-Based Management Committee (SBMC) for Effective Administration of Primary Schools in Dukku Local Government Area, Gombe State, Nigeria. The study was guided by three research questions and objectives. The study used descriptive survey research design and total number of 380 SBMC members were selected from 76 schools using random, systematic, purposive sampling techniques at different stage. A validated questionnaire, entitled the Impact of School Based Management Committee Questionnaire, with 0.78 reliability index was used for data collection. Tables and percentages were used to analyse the collected data. The findings revealed that most of the SBMC members did not agree that SBMC has impact on school budget and decision-making. The study concluded that SBMC has no impact on primary school administration in Dukku Local Government Area, Gombe State. Finally, the study recommended that governments and other Non-Governmental Organisations should give SBMC members extensive training on budgeting, decision making and governments also should liaise with School-Based Management Committees to enhance instructional supervision in primary schools administration.

Abdau Qur’ani Habib. Efektivitas Penerapan Manajemen Berbasis Sekolah dalam Perspektif Balanced Scorecard terhadap Mutu Pembelajaran Siswa Kelas XI dan Kelas XII di MAN Maguwoharjo. Skripsi. Yogyakarta: Fakultas Ilmu Tarbiyah dan Keguruan Universitas Islam Negeri Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta. 2016.
Penelitian ini dilakukan untuk menganalisis hubungan antara penerapan manajemen berbasis sekolah (MBS) dalam perspektif balanced scorecard meliputi empat subfaktor yaitu perspektif pelanggan, perspektif keuangan, perspektif proses internal, serta perspektif pembelajaran dan pertumbuhan, dengan mutu pembelajaran. Selain itu, untuk menganalisis tingkat efektivitas dan kontribusi penerapan manajemen berbasis Sekolah dalam keempat subfaktor perspektif balanced scorecard terhadap mutu pembelajaran.
Penelitian ini termasuk jenis penelitian kuantitatif yang terdiri dari empat variabel independen yaitu MBS dalam perspektif pelanggan (X1), MBS dalam perspektif keuangan (X2), MBS dalam perspektif proses internal (X3), dan MBS dalam perspektif pembelajaran dan pertumbuhan (X4) sedangkan variabel dependen yaitu mutu pembelajaran (Y) serta variabel kontrol yaitu budaya madrasah (Z). Penelitian ini dilakukan di MAN Maguwoharjo dengan mengambil sampel sebanyak 171 siswa yang terdiri dari 88 siswa kelas XI dan 83 siswa kelas XII. Pengambilan sampel dilakukan dengan menggunakan teknik probability sampling yaitu simple random sampling dan proportionale sampling dengan mengacu pada random table. Adapun metode analisis data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini terdiri dari statistik deskriptif dan statistik inferensial dengan bantuan SPSS (Statistical Product and Service Solution) sebagai alat bantu statistik.
Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa hubungan antara penerapan manajemen berbasis sekolah dalam perspektif balanced scorecard yang meliputi perspektif pelanggan (X1), perspektif keuangan (X2), perspektif proses internal (X3), serta perspektif pembelajaran dan pertumbuhan (X4) dengan mutu pembelajaran (Y) tidak berpengaruh secara langsung, namun dimediasi/diintervensi oleh budaya madrasah (Z). Hal ini berdasarkan perbandingan hasil analisis korelasi bivariate (ryx) dengan korelasi parsial (ryx.z)  diperoleh nilai ryx > ryx.z untuk keempat variabel independen (X1, X2, X3, dan X4). Berdasarkan hasil analisis regresi sederhana diperoleh kontribusi variabel X1 terhadap variabel Y sebesar 20,7% (R2=0,207), kontribusi variabel X2 terhadap variabel Y sebesar 18,4% (R2=0,184), kontribusi variabel X3 terhadap variabel Y sebesar 25,7% (R2=0,257), kontribusi variabel X4 terhadap variabel Y sebesar 31,6% (R2=0,316). Adapun hasil yang diperoleh dari analisis regresi berganda dengan memasukkan variabel Z diperoleh kontribusi variabel X1, variabel X2, variabel X3, variabel X4, dan variabel Z terhadap variabel Y adalah sebesar 35% (R2=0,350) sedangkan sisanya sebesar 65% dipengaruhi oleh variabel yang lain.

Kata kunci: manajemen berbasis sekolah, balanced scorecard, mutu pembelajaran, budaya madrasah

School-based management (SBM) is a decentralization of decision-making power from central office to local school. Thus, this study is focused on the influence of principal leadership and engagement of school committee which contribute to the SBM effectiveness. It is conducted at public elementary schools in Coblong subdistrict in Bandung. The method used in this study is the descriptive-quantitative approach by giving closed-ended questionnaires to 72 respondents. The study population is 36 public elementary schools. The study results found that: (1) the influence of principal leadership has high impact on the SBM effectiveness; (2) the engagement of school committee has high impact on the SBM effectiveness; (3) both the influence of principal leadership and engagement of school committee have high impact on the SBM effectiveness. Although the results are good, both principal and school committee should more strengthen their key roles and responsibilities for enhancing better school improvement. Abstrak Manajemen berbasis sekolah(MBS) adalah desentralisasi kekuasaan pengambilan keputusan dari kantor pusat ke sekolah lokal. Penelitian ini difokuskan pada pengaruh kepemimpinan kepala sekolah dan keterlibatan komite sekolah yang berkontribusi terhadap efektivitas MBS. Penelitian ini dilakukan di sekolahsekolah dasar negeri di Kecamatan Coblong Bandung. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah pendekatan deskriptif-kuantitatif dengan memberikan kuesioner tertutup berakhir 72 responden. Populasi penelitian adalah 36 sekolah dasar negeri. Studi ini menemukan bahwa: (1) pengaruh kepemimpinan kepala sekolah memiliki dampak yang tinggi terhadap efektivitas MBS; (2) keterlibatan komite sekolah memiliki dampak yang tinggi terhadap efektivitas MBS; (3) kedua pengaruh kepemimpinan kepala sekolah dan keterlibatan komite sekolah memiliki dampak yang tinggi terhadap efektivitas MBS. Meskipun hasilnya baik, kepala sekolah dan komite sekolah harus lebih memperkuat peran dan tanggung jawab untuk meningkatkan perbaikan sekolah yang lebih baik.

The study sought to determine the significant determinants of the BESRA Policy implementation performance in Davao City Division. Primary and secondary data were used through key informant interview and focus group discussion. Using Exploratory Factor Analysis and Linear Regression, it generated results that BESRA policy performance implementation is very sufficient,  and continuous school improvement facilitated by active involvement of stakeholders (KRT 1) and better learning outcomes are achieved through standards-driven reform in teacher education and development (KRT 2) are significant determinants amongst public schools across congressional districts; while KRT1 and desired learning outcomes enhanced by National Learning Strategies and quality assurance (KRT 3) are significant determinants of BESRA Policy implementation performance in Elementary and Secondary levels. Furthermore, human resources, appreciation, efficiency and effectiveness and good public perception are checkpoints, whilst, less participation, low motivation and insufficient equipment are chokepoints in the implementation of BESRA Policy in Davao City Division.

Pengawasan (controlling) merupakan, satu bagian penting dari sistem manajemen secara keseluruhan. Kegiatan pengawasan ini penting artinya untul, mengetahul keunggulan dan kelemahan dalam pelaksanaan manajemen sejak dari awal, selama dalam proses dan pada akhir pelaksanaan manajemen. Dengan pelaksanaan fungsi ini (pengawasan), maka seorang manajer dapat memperoleh informasi balikan (feed back) yang besar manfaatnya dalam rangka upaya perbaikan dan penyesuaian. Manajemen merupakan sebuah sistem. Dalam sistem, manajemen dapat mengambil keputusan-keputusan, rencana-rencana, dan melakukan pengawasan dengan memberikan masukan-masukan. Sesungguhnya jarang sekali sesuatu itu berjalan sesuai dengan rencana. Penyimpangan-penyimpangan dari rencana disebabkan oleh kejadian-kejadian diluar penguasaan manajemen, seperti kesalahan dalam perkiraan dan kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh Bawahan. 1 Oleh karena itu pengawasan (controlling) merupakan sebuah fungsi dari sistem manajemen yang tidak bisa di tawar-tawar lagi.

In Ethiopia, as elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), there are efforts to broaden local stakeholder participation in structures and processes of school leadership. Despite advocacy from the World Bank, amongst others, research in SSA questions the extent to which such reforms reflect genuine democratisation. This study applies theories of power to the participation of local stakeholders (management, teachers, students and parents) based on ethnographic fieldwork conducted at a government primary school in Tigray. The study finds that management agendas dominate consultative and decision-making forums; however, these spaces also enable students and others to share their views on conduct within the school community, which serves an important accountability function.

In Nigeria, School-Based Management Committees (SBMCs) aim to provide an opportunity for all stakeholders, particularly the vulnerable groups in the school's host communities such as young people and women to partake in school governance. Research on the experiences of youth voice in the committees is scant, however, as much of the existing literature on SBMCs focuses on program outcomes. Using qualitative research interviews, observations, and document analysis, this study addressed this gap by exploring how youth participate and express themselves in two SBMCs in Niger State, Nigeria. The findings, which were derived from 19 youth and adult participants, were drawn from SBMC members out of which 12 were youth between the ages 13 and 25, while 7 were adults aged 40 and above. The participants revealed that youth committee members expressed their voice in the committees through participating in a number of committee activities. Specifically, the youth participated in decision-making during meetings, aided in the construction of committee projects, undertook administrative/managerial functions and monitored the committee's projects. They also participated in revenue generation, planning, school visits and supervision, advocacy, and sensitization campaigns.

This paper discussed how improving School-Based Management Committee (SBMC) strategies can promote integrity, accountability and development in Northern Nigeria’s basic schools. The paper went ahead to explain the concept of universal basic education, school-based management, and school-based management committee. Strategy and school-based management strategies were also discussed in the paper. Resource mobilization, resource control, advocacy, communication and monitoring are the categories of SBMC strategies discussed in this paper. The challenges affecting the way SBMCs use their strategies as examined in this paper include lack of teachers’ co-operation in the SBMC, lack of expertise among SBMC member, lack of devotion among SBMC member, and poor SBMC activities planning. The paper recommended that SBMC even though voluntary, should not be made open to people who completely illiterate and ignorant of the aims and goals of SBM programme. it is also recommended that SBMC membership should be available to people with means of sustenance. This could reduce the effect of poverty among SBMC members.

Yogyakarta 55281 ; Identitas Responden (Mohon Diisi) Nama Lengkap Kelas/Jurusan No. Absen Jenis kelamin Umur Alamat rumah Pekerjaan Orang tua Ayah : Ibu : Petunjuk Umum: -Isilah pernyataan kuesioner/angket di bawah ini dengan cara memberi tanda centang/checklist () atau silang () pada salah satu kolom isian dari empat pilihan jawaban yang telah disediakan! -Jumlah butir pernyataan pada bagian ini sebanyak 50 butir (No. 1 -No. 50) Petunjuk Khusus: -Bacalah setiap pernyataan dengan baik dan teliti serta jangan sampai ada yang terlewat! -Jawablah sesuai dengan pendapat Anda sendiri dan keadaan yang Anda rasakan! -Jawaban berupa persepsi/pendapat, jadi tidak ada yang bernilai benar atau salah -Jawaban Anda tidak akan mempengaruhi nilai dan hasil raport Anda! -Jawaban Anda dijamin kerahasiaannya! Halaman | 3 KEMENTERIAN AGAMA UNIVERSITAS ISLAM NEGERI SUNAN KALIJAGA FAKULTAS ILMU TARBIYAH DAN KEGURUAN Alamat: Jl. Marsada Adisucipto No. ; Manajemen Berbasis Sekolah/Madrasah dalam Perspektif Balanced Scored-Card (X) I; Perspektif Pelanggan (X 1 )

This article discusses the community participation and decision making in the schools where the Programme for School Improvement (PSI), the Sri Lankan version of School Based Management (SBM) programme is being implemented in Sri Lanka. The Ministry of Education in Sri Lanka (MoESL) has projected to enhance the community participation in school affairs by implementing the PSI (MoESL, 2005,2008,2013,2014). A few number of Colombo district government schools were selected as the research location/site in this study. Particularly this study aimed to explore the nature of participation of community members in school affairs, and also to identify challenges with regard to community participation and decision making at theschool level. Since this study aimed at exploring the insights and the experiences of the participants, case study research approach was used. Questionnaires, document surveys, and interviews were employed to gather information from principals, deputy principals, teaching staff, parents and past pupils on the School Development Committees (SDC), and the participants of this empirical research study represented ten public schools in the Colombo district. Descriptive statistics and thematic analysis were employed to analyze the data in this study. This study revealed that the internal community members of schools are not much enthusiastic to welcome ideas, suggestions, and criticisms of external community members when they make decisions at theschool level. Most governing board decisions of schools are influenced by the principals. Therefore, the decision-making process does not seem as democratic and transparent as expected by the MoESL. Lack of time, shortage of financial resources, and less commitment of higher education officers destructively influence the community participation and decision making at theschool level. Lack of awareness and training on SBM and school management of stakeholders directly affect the effectiveness of the implementation of the SBM in these schools. Therefore, it is required to pay immediate attention on thetraining of stakeholders, and also supervision of schools and the governing board members who are involved in the decision making of schools.

This study provides an account of the agendas, participation and influence of management, teachers, students and parents at a primary school in Tigray, Ethiopia. A literature review revealed gaps in the knowledge of these stakeholders’ involvement in school leadership structures in the current national policy context. A broader review of the major traditions of school research informed the design of this ethnographic case study. Fieldwork at ‘Ketema School’ took place over an eight-month period in 2014, and involved participant observation, informant-led interviews, and the collection of institutional documents. Data collection focused on the meetings of various bodies, and the activities of a single class in Grade 6 and 7. Inductive analysis of the case data was supported by Atlas.ti.

The study reveals a convergence of understandings about the purposes and processes of the school consistent with the state-authorised model of schooling for national development. Structures and processes of surveillance and control incentivise and normalise compliance with government directives. These include positions of distributed leadership and mechanisms of mutual surveillance and internal accountability through which teachers and students share responsibility for supervising peers and colleagues. For example, the student leaders of the ‘one-to-five’ networks perform an academic support and behavioural control function in relation to their peers; and gim gima is a practice of public critique used for exposing misconduct. Meetings and other participative spaces enable members of the school community to share their views on conditions in school according to their interests and priorities; however, these forums are dominated by management agendas, and school-level decisions are restricted by a strong external policy context.

This study extends knowledge of school leadership practices in Ethiopia and informs wider debates around community participation, accountability and school autonomy in developing countries. Recommendations are made for sharing and strengthening democratic practices and for future research.

This paper provides an overview of what matters most for school autonomy and accountability. The focus is on public schools at the primary and the secondary level. This paper begins by grounding School Autonomy and Accountability in its theoretical evidence base (impact evaluations, lessons learned from experience, and literature reviews) and then discusses guiding principles and tools for analyzing country policy choices. The goal of this paper is to provide a framework for classifying and analyzing education systems around the world according to the following five policy goals that are critical for enabling effective school autonomy and accountability: (1) level of autonomy in the planning and management of the school budget; (2) level of autonomy in personnel management; (3) role of school councils in school governance; (4) school and student assessment, and (5) accountability to stakeholders. This paper also discusses how country context matters to school autonomy and accountability and how balancing policy goals matters
to policy making for improved education quality and learning for all.

This study investigated the management of teachers' soft skills development and flexible learning environment as a correlate of teachers' effectiveness in Unity schools in South-Eastern states of Nigeria. The correlational research design was adopted for the study. Two research questions were answered while two hypotheses were tested. The population of the study comprised all the 901 teachers of the 14 Unity schools in the 5 SouthEastern states of Nigeria. Stratified and disproportionate sampling techniques were used to select 399 sample size that was determined from the population using Taro Yamane Formula. Two sets of instruments titled; "Management of Seamless Technology Integration Questionnaire" and "Teachers' Effectiveness Questionnaire" were used for data collection. Face and content validity was ensured by five experts including the researcher's supervisors. The reliability coefficients of the two instruments were calculated to be 0.79 and 0.81 using Cronbach Alpha method. Multiple and simple regressions were used to answer the research questions. Analysis of variance associated with multiple regression and t-test associated with simple regression were used to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 alpha level. It was found that management of: teachers' soft skills development and flexible learning environment positively correlate (0.92 and 0.86 respectively) to teachers' effectiveness in Unity schools in South-Eastern states of Nigeria. Based on the findings, it was concluded that management of seamless technology integration is positively and highly significant to teachers' effectiveness in Unity schools in South-Eastern states of Nigeria. It was therefore recommended among others that school administrators in the 14 Unity schools in the South-Eastern states should immediately embark on self-development in the management of seamless technology integration.

Manajemen atau pengelolaan dapat berarti bermacam-macam bergantung pada siapa yang membicarakannya. Istilah manajemen sendiri berasal dari kata kerja (bahasa Inggris) “manage” yang padanannya dalam bahasa Indonesia “kelola” yang dapat berarti : menangani, mengendalikan, membuat patuh, mengurus, mengatur, mengubah, atau melaksanakan dengan suatu tujuan.

Education systems and school management play a key role in equipping teachers with the skills and knowledge to improve performance. The paper has found the i). The implementation of school-based management and teacher performance, and ii). The relationship between school-based management and teacher performance. In Cambodia, school based-management (SBM) in public lower education have been implemented based on the educational decentralization policy. It involves decision-making authorities and responsibilities for resource utilization and educational planning and management from central offices to the school level. SBM is to improve the standard of teaching and students' learning outcomes through the concerted efforts of school principals. It was considered as a mechanism for quality improvements in education and education management reform. The paper provides concepts of SBM and valuable insights for practitioners, researchers, and policymakers looking to enhance teacher performance to deliver twenty-first-century education globally.

The present paper is both a critical analysis of an example of community-based management of education (CBM) and a call for a shift in perspective related to how we think about CBM, particularly in marginalized and low-income contexts. The example of focus that serves as the basis for critical analysis is the "Education with Community Participation" (EDUCO) program in El Salvador, which achieved fame in the late 1990s and 2000s because it formally transferred, among other things, the ability to hire and fire teachers to a committee of parents at the community level. Given its fame and the fact of its imitation elsewhere, it is important to have an in-depth understanding of how this program operated at the local level, with what limitations, and with what implications for CBM programs more generally. For the second purpose-related to shifting perspectives on CBM-this paper draws on concepts related to systems theory, social capital, and community empowerment.

This chapter concludes not only by providing an update on the Education with Community Participation (EDUCO) program but also by returning to and drawing out a number of issues raised throughout the book. The first section begins by discussing what came after the EDUCO program in the way of community management of education and then shifts to focus on how EDUCO lives on in the field of global education policy, often in ways unknown to development practitioners and others in the global education policy field. The second section then turns to the question of the implications of EDUCO for community-based management as it is implemented and conceived at the local level. This discussion is particularly important because the experience of EDUCO at the local level has not been a focal point of previous chapters. AUTHOR QUERIES Q1 Please confirm if inserted abstract is fine. Q1

The collapse of the New Order regime in 1998 made many significant changes to Indonesia. In the education sector ideas about school based management have become increasingly popular and public regarded as best solution to the school system. Four years later, Indonesian‟s ministry of national education released a decree which regulate school based management with the introduction of school committee that to be established at school level. Using qualitative inquiry, the researchers approached the study in two ways: document analysis of the decree regard to school committee issue; and collected data from schools and district level stakeholders in Mataram through questionnaire, interview, observation and
document analysis to reveal their perception about school committee. It is found that the regulation apply „one size fits all‟ model regard to different type of education institutions in the school system; the schools follow the policy and establishing school committee, but still continuing earlier practices like previous body.

In the present work, we fill a gap in the writing on the decentralization of educational governance by periodizing and comparing trends that have fallen under this label in both the United States and developing countries in the post-WWII period (1945-present). The findings are informed by a review of 127 decentralization-related studies from seven leading, peer-reviewed journals in comparative and international education, in addition to the Journal of Education Policy, Journal of Educational Administration, and Harvard Education Review. We combine this review with works that address larger political and economic shifts. One key finding is that the application of community level
decentralization in developing countries has not been as widespread as global rhetoric during the 1990s and 2000s would imply. A second key finding is that there has been a relatively recent shift away from decentralization towards other forms of accountability-based reforms in both the United States and developing countries.

Education systems and school management play a key role in equipping teachers with the skills and knowledge to improve performance. The paper has found the i). The implementation of school-based management and teacher performance, and ii). The relationship between school-based management and teacher performance. In Cambodia, school based-management (SBM) in public lower education have been implemented based on the educational decentralization policy. It involves decision-making authorities and responsibilities for resource utilization and educational planning and management from central offices to the school level. SBM is to improve the standard of teaching and students' learning outcomes through the concerted efforts of school principals. It was considered as a mechanism for quality improvements in education and education management reform. The paper provides concepts of SBM and valuable insights for practitioners, researchers, and policymakers looking to enhance teacher performance to deliver twenty-first-century education globally.

The value of the case of the Education with Community Participation (EDUCO) program is not only in what it tells about how international organizations and ideas interact with national actors and how they influence education policy at the national level, but also in what the case of EDUCO means historically. That is, in addition to understanding the dynamics among national and international actors, we must place those dynamics into historical context in order to reveal the significance of the EDUCO program in relation to the larger trends of decentralization that we observe in the post-WWII context. In order to accomplish this task, I periodize three overarching trends in the thinking around decentralization and development since the 1950s.

In this chapter, I detail the dynamics of the process by which the Education
with Community Participation (EDUCO) program entered government policy. I also explain the ways in which transnational influence impacted this process. In so doing, I provide insights that correspond to the purpose of this study. As will be shown, the overall process can be subdivided into multiple stages which span 1988–1995. Various forms of World Bank influence are addressed in detail. The process of policy formation can be said to culminate with the inclusion of EDUCO in the Ten Year Plan, which was finalized in November 1995. Per the definition provided in Chap. 1 for international processes of education policy formation, I present findings in this chapter up to the point at which the Ten Year Plan was produced, since this is the point at which EDUCO entered the government’s official reform strategy.

In the post New Order Indonesia (from 1998) ideas about school based management in the education sector have become increasingly popular. One of the characteristics of this is devolving authority to the school level at least in three areas: staff, curriculum and budget. Using qualitative inquiry, the researchers collected data from schools and district level stakeholders in Mataram through questionnaire, interview, observation and document analysis to reveal their perception about devolving authority issues. It is found that the school started exercising some authorities that were previously in their superior officers’ control, however some previous practices still conducted in conjunction with the school committees.

The “Education with Community Participation” (EDUCO) program in El Salvador achieved fame in the late 1990s and 2000s because it formally transferred, among other things, the ability to hire and fire teachers to a committee of parents at the community level. While recent literature has traced the evolution of this program within El Salvador, as well as its trajectory as it entered the international educational agenda and became a “global education policy,” an understudied aspect of this program is the community-level experience. After characterizing the history, design, and system-wide results of EDUCO, this chapter turns its attention to the local level by reviewing the literature that exists on EDUCO’s implementation, with a focus on community experiences. This literature is difficult to locate, even within El Salvador, and is almost entirely unknown outside the country. It is argued that the studies which make up this literature provide insight
into the experience of average communities in the EDUCO program. In the end, beyond presenting new and little-known insights into the community-level reality of the EDUCO program, this chapter reflects on the implications of these insights for (a) the theory and assumptions behind such models of community-level management, (b) the national and global-level politics of the decentralization trends in education that have been predominant since the early 1990s, and (c) the possibility of democratization from below. In addition to the above-mentioned foci, the chapter begins with a brief characterization of community-based management (CBM) and the research that has been conducted on this phenomenon.

Notions of school-and community-based management have been popular around the world, but particularly in the education-for-development industry. This chapter examines these policy ideas and their practical implementation from multiple perspectives. First, it discusses school-and community-based management from a long-term perspective by situating them in relation to trends in decentralization generally in the post-WWII context. Second, it presents and critically discusses the trajectory of a specific reform that emerged from El Salvador in the early 1990s and that went on to become a global education policy. This reform was known as EDUCO, or Education with Community Participation. The case of EDUCO addresses the origins, implementation and evolution of the EDUCO model, wherein parent councils had the legal responsibility for hiring and firing teachers. Finally, this chapter reflects on the extent to which school-and community-based reforms have been implemented in practice and continue to be promoted and funded by international organizations.

El programa Educación con Participación de la Comunidad (EDUCO) no fue eficiente. Sus resultados en exámenes fueron peores que con el sistema tradicional. Pero las agencias internacionales neoliberales lo siguen promoviendo como ejemplo, escondiendo sus intenciones ideológicas y sus debilidades de ejecución.

Purpose-The purpose of this paper is to measure the efficiency performance of public sector-funded schools in Spain. Design/methodology/approach-Using school-level data from Program for International Student Assessment 2012, cross-sectional models were estimated using stochastic frontier analysis (SFA). Technical efficiencies of public sector-funded schools (public schools and centros concertados), and their determinants were estimated using a one-step maximum likelihood procedure. SFA models include both a stochastic error term and a term that can be characterized as inefficiency; the non-negative technical inefficiency effects are assumed to be a function of school characteristics. Findings-The results show that greater school autonomy and school responsibility for resource allocation are associated with efficiency improvement. Subsidized private schools (called centros concertados) were more efficient than public schools. The former are free of bureaucratic constraints that encumber public schools, and they are able to control many more decisions at the school level (e.g. they select their own teachers). Originality/value-This paper shows the value of school autonomy for educational performance. The author defines school autonomy as the operational empowerment of the principals and teachers. Therefore, the government could grant greater autonomy to public schools (school-based management), since school autonomy is a driver of efficiency. Further, teachers' morale is also an environmental driver of efficiency. Schools tend to be more efficient when teachers work with enthusiasm or value academic achievement. And this is more likely to occur in private schools, even though teachers are hired (they are not civil servants) and have a lower salary than public school teachers. The lack of motivation of many teachers in public schools may be in the absence of incentivesthere is no possibility of promotion and everyone is guaranteed a wage increase every three years-and in the bureaucratization of the public school system.

This article reflects on the question, " How do policy and practice contribute to or detract from the existence of community in schools in the Netherlands? " Two levels are considered for analysis: the national level and the school level. Reflections are based on primary and secondary policy documents, interviews, and observations. Sergiovanni's (1994) framework – espoused in Building Community in Schools – serves as the theoretical lens through which the study interprets the data. As such, the present manuscript presents the findings as they relate to and affect community of mind, community of kinship, and community of place. Lastly, the study considers current contextual factors at the societal and systemic levels, suggests areas for concern, and points to areas for future research.

This study is about transformation that has been happening in the field of management and in relation to it in
inspection that has been recently taking place both in Turkey and all around the World. The transformation
as “School Based Administration” (SBA) in educational administration and “School Based Evaluation” (SBE)
or “Self-evaluation” in inspection refers to the transformation of the concepts, expressions, goals, indicators
and processes about education, administration and inspection. The research was designed as qualitative and a
semi-structured interview was made with 35 teachers. Statements of teachers were classified and interpreted
in three themes. The most significant point from the interviews is that teachers criticize classical inspection
methods and think that SBE has also similar limitations. Teachers do not rely on the inspectors though they find
inspection necessary. They have doubts that they will have similar experiences of inspection done in the past
with SBE. They consider inspection as functional and state that they are hopeful with SBE though their expectations
have not been met so far. However, their expectations are followed by expressions of condition and worry.

Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice - 13(4) • 2119-2124
©2013 Educational Consultancy and Research Center