Rural Credit

Specific and statistically based knowledge of the degree of monetarisation and credit market of the peasantry in the Late Middle Ages in Central Europe is rare. The Eger (Cheb) city state is an exception, because we have exceptionally good fiscal and court records. An analysis of 1435/1442–1456 showed that the degree of monetarisation of the Eger peasantry was low in comparison with the Early Modern Period. Of the external factors that forced the peasants to acquire cash, it was mainly the land tax, namely to a bearable degree. Of the internal factors for monetarisation, reproduction of the farmstead led, and the need to pay off the inherited shares, but not even that was in any way burdensome. The low degree of monetarisation was also related to the weak interaction of the peasants with the credit market. Only the richest peasants were connected in the market with loans, who were borrowing from the wealthy burghers. The peasants were significantly more active in the sale of agricultural commodities to the burghers on credit. This form of credit indirectly increased the inflow of economic resources from the countryside to the city, as market transactions could be executed even in the absence of cash.

India in terms of providing credit facilities in rural India. Farmers and rural poor borrowings from Money lenders and other informal sources of rural credit still significant this sources some extent i.e. 77 percent to 32 percent. In this situation micro finance has emerged as an alternative source of rural credit, microfinance programmes has providing all kinds of banking services, it includes loans, thrifts and insurance services. Sometimes it is working more than financial institutions. In addition to providing financial services MFIs typically provide information related to basic education, health, hygiene, child immunization, disease prevention and environment surely one cannot deny the role of microfinance in poverty reduction as it raises income and consumption of poor households. Around the world 128 million people were received microcredit. The growth of microfinance borrowers in the context of India consist of two dominated models SBLP and MFIs increases from 48.0 to 93.9 million in between 2006-2011years. Major findings of this study explore the relationship between rural credit and microfinance instead of non-institutional sources of rural credit. The impact of microfinance on burden of rural debt is declined sharply, especially moneylenders and other non-institutional contribution in terms of lending to farmers, poor and women borrowings is going to downwards. Well managed and regulated microfinance programmes (particularly rate of interest, forced recovery of microcredit loans) augmented rural sector employment, productivity of non-agriculture sector, establishment of MSMEs, empowerment of women in socioeconomic aspects, it enhances health and educational facilities. Another important impact of microfinance programmes is that reduction of income and consumption disparities, especially vulnerable sections of the society will get the benefits from collateral or guarantee free. Microfinance programmes implies that the consumption pattern, it encourages from non-productivity expenditure to productive expenditure because of timely repayments of loans.

There is a huge potential in the rural markets companies are trying to tap in rural areas because there is a tight competition in urban markets if we look the present situation of the rural consumer. They have a huge rising disposable income and they are also getting remittance from abroad because it is found that at least one family member in rural household is working Gulf countries. Here marketer needs to make such type of promotional strategies to allure rural consumer towards their products as well as loyalty for the company.

In this monography the theoretical and practical questions of a world
and Ukrainian cooperative movement are considered, the sight, new, not
traditional for Ukraine, on cooperative societies as the non-profitable form
of managing, form of the self-help, economic and social self-protection of
the population is displayed. On the basis of the analysis of world expcriPnce
the attempt is carried out to solve the important scientific problem -- to
develop the basic rules of the modern theory of cooperation and to crPat P
theoretical base for revival in Ukraine of the most various forms of lhe
cooperative self-help of the urban and rural population.
The fundamental theoretical questions of development of credil
cooperation as the forms of the financial self-help of the population are
investigated, the foreign models of credit cooperative societies, system of
cooperative crediting of the different countries, expansion of credit
cooperation in the countries of the world, theoretical and practical
questions of development of credit cooperation in the world and in Ukraine
are analysed. There are developed and is scientifically proven main
conceptual directions for solving of an important for Ukraine scientific and
applied problem - organization of system of the self-help of the population
in conditions of an economic crisis.
This monography will help political and public figures of Ukraine to
see essentially new direction in solving of social problems of the population,
and will show population a possible solution of a difficult economic
situation.
For scientists, deputies of different levels, farmers, small businessmen
and wide circle of the readers, which are interested in idea of the economic
self-help of the urban and rural population.

This study sought to establish how various credit risk management practices affect performance of commercial banks in Nyeri County in Kenya. Even though commercial banks face several types of risks, credit risk stands out as the most severe. Credit risk is the possibility of loss to the lender on non-performing loans. Financial practice as well as theory provides a scientific process of credit risk management in financial institutions. However, lenders still face loan default and consequently this study sought to find out how those practices affect the performance of commercial banks in Nyeri County, Kenya. A census study was conducted where a population of 86 respondents was targeted comprising of branch managers, credit managers and credit officers. The findings of the study were that all commercial banks had a well written credit policy which is strictly and consistently followed. Only few commercial banks conduct a quantitative credit scoring model. In all banks, initial screening is done by credit officer and approval done at different levels depending on the amount. Majority of the banks check post borrowing activities of the borrower. In conclusion, credit risk management has an effect on loan performance amongst commercial banks. Thus, managers should evaluate more accurately the ability to pay back of a customer since the better the screening the better the performance of commercial banks.

IPPOLITA CHECCOLI (a cura di)
I Monti frumentari e le forme di credito non monetario tra Medioevo ed Età moderna

Ancora in tempi recenti il credito non monetario era considerato un elemento marginale ai fini della riflessione storico-economica. Nuovi studi hanno però dimostrato che le forme di anticipazione e di credito «in natura» sono invece state uno strumento di vitale importanza nelle comunità rurali e, più in generale, nei contesti in cui gli istituti di credito e la circolazione di moneta scarseggiavano. In quest’ambito la vicenda dei Monti frumentari appare esemplare: essi sono stati per secoli una presenza diffusa nelle comunità minori della penisola italiana e, come i più noti Monti di pietà, hanno abbinato l’erogazione di credito a una peculiare dimensione etica. Partendo dalla letteratura esistente, i saggi raccolti in questo volume propongono una riflessione più completa sulle forme di credito non monetario in generale e sui Monti frumentari in particolare, con speciale attenzione alle pratiche di erogazione-restituzione – peculiarmente legate ai tempi del mondo agricolo – e alla loro diffusione e persistenza in Italia, a partire dal XV secolo.

MSMEs are particularly important for emerging countries, primarily because of their potential in job creation. The MSEs are more than just GDP earners; they are instruments of inclusive growth which touch upon the lives of the most vulnerable, marginalised, women and the most skilled. Being the largest source of employment after agriculture, the MSE sector in India enables 650 lakh people. MSEs also act as ancillary industries for large scale industries. Yet, lack of access to finance is a major obstacle to their growth. In addition to limited development of industries in NER, there is limited availability of data on whatever industries exist there. Around 54% of industrial units are concentrated in Assam among NE states. There were 37,356 registered MSME units in Assam providing employment to 2.05 lakh persons till the end of March 2013. The SLBC data showing the credit disbursals towards MSME sector by commercial banks inAssam do not show a favourable picture. Formal lending sector is always preferred over informal sector by the MSMEs. The study aims to find out the characteristics of MSMEs operating under rural villages in Assam and also the various problems encountered by them in obtaining finance from banks.

Abstract: Regional rural Banks plays a vital role in the agriculture and rural development of India. The RRBS have more reached to the rural area of India, through their huge network. The success of rural credit in India is largely depends on their financial strength. RRBs are key financing institution at the rural level which shoulders responsibility of meeting credit needs of different types of agriculture credit in rural areas. At present, most of the regional rural banks are facing the problems of overdue, recovery, nonperforming assets and other problems. The first recommendation for the establishment of regional rural banks was made by Banking Commission in 1972. As the result of this recommendation a working group headed by Mr.M.Narsimham Rao, RRB’s came into existence in 26th September, 1975 and RRB Act, 1976 with an objective to ensure sufficient institutional credit for agriculture and other rural sectors. RRBs were established to mobilize rural areas small saving and prov...

This brief overview of rural credit in 20th century India finds a remarkable continuity in the problems faced by the poor throughout this period. These include dependence on usurious moneylenders and the operation of a deeply exploitative grid of interlocked, imperfect markets. We articulate the theoretical and historical case for nationalisation of banks and provide evidence of its positive impact on rural credit and development. Certain excesses led to reforms unleashed in the 1990s. This did increase bank profitability but at the cost of the poor and of backward regions. While the MFI model of microfinance is unsustainable, theSHG-Bank Linkage approach can make a positive impact on security and empowerment of the disadvantaged. Much more than microfinance is needed to overcome the problems that have persisted over the last 100 years.

One hundred years after the creation of the Cooperative Credit Structure, thirty five years after the first round of bank nationalistion and thirty years after the establishment of Regional Rural Banks, the formal credit delivery system still reaches just about 41.60 million of the 138.20 million rural households 1 , a mere 30 percent of the rural population. This situation has been engaging the attention of policy makers. It prompted the Hon'ble Finance Minister in the Union Budget 2005-06, to ask the Reserve Bank of India to "examine various options for delivery of credit to the farm and rural sectors, such as the "agency model" and utilizing microfinance institutions." The All India Debt & Investment Survey 1991 revealed that even now, close to 35% of the credit needs in the rural sector are met from informal sources, a large part consisting of professional moneylenders and traders. In fact, this is just one manifestation of the situation. The other and less studied side is the latent unmet demand for credit that exists in the economy. People, enterprises and entrepreneurs who are capable and willing to grow are hampered by various factors, inadequacy and nonavailability of credit being just one of them. This paper attempts to analyse the dimension of the credit market, examine the growth constraints and explore the possibilities that exist for enhancing delivery capabilities. Present Status Even today, less than 20% of the rural population has a bank account. Contrast this with metro and urban areas, where the bank accounts exceed the population 2. @ Unpublished paper written in December 2009 * Faculty Member, Reserve Bank of India, College of Agricultural Banking, Reserve Bank of India, Pune. The guidance provided by Shri. HR Khan, Principal, College of Agricultural Banking in the preparation of the paper is gratefully acknowledged. The views expressed are personal.

This paper contributes to a growing scholarship examining the ways in which dispossession in neoliberal India is reinforcing and reconfiguring agrarian social hierarchies. Existing studies have focussed on the differential successes of villagers in Special Economic Zone (SEZ)‐generated real estate markets, incorporation of land losers into stratified labour markets and the caste‐based politics of dispossession. Few studies, however, have systematically explored the long‐term implications of state‐orchestrated dispossession on agrarian credit and debt relations. Based on long‐term fieldwork on a village partially expropriated for a SEZ in the South Indian state of Telangana, this study shows how dispossession has led to a sharp rise of over‐indebtedness within the land losing population. Dispossession deprived villagers of land and livestock; low compensation was inadequate to obtain replacement assets; and labour inside the SEZ was insufficient to ensure the reproduction of most households. The result was a cascading process of indebtedness for consumption smoothing that was generalized but the greatest among former untouchables (Scheduled Castes, SCs) and Lambadas (Scheduled Tribes, STs). Since dispossession precluded these historically marginalized groups from access to institutional credit, their reliance on largely upper caste moneylenders—whose land was spared expropriation—was deepened. Thus, I show how dispossession for neoliberal projects has reinforced this traditional caste‐based form of exploitation.

Email do Autor Principal: [email protected] RESUMO A dimensão das mudanças de uso e ocupação do solo no Bioma Cerrado foi intensa nas últimas décadas e reflete a forte agropecuária desenvolvida no Centro-Oeste, atualmente muito atrelada ao preço das commodities internacionais, às variações na produção agropecuária mundial e a oferta de crédito rural. Nesse sentido, o presente trabalho correlacionou os efeitos do crédito rural sobre as mudanças de paisagem e fitofisionomias do Bioma Cerrado no Estado de Goiás, afim de reunir elementos que propiciem a transformação do crédito rural em instrumento econômico de gestão ambiental, indutor de dinâmicas de uso e ocupação do solo pela agropecuária entre 1999 e 2009. Entre 2000 e 2006, há 85% de perda das fitofisionomias campestres naturais e 22% de matas naturais, fisionomia com a maior biodiversidade do Cerrado, que vinha se recuperando até 2000, mas voltou a reduzir-se, fruto principalmente do avanço da pecuária que antes predominava no norte-noroeste e que passou a predominar no centro do estado e intensificou na região nordeste. A produção agrícola concentra-se na porção leste e centro-sul, está bem estabelecida e, em princípio, não compete com as áreas naturais remanescentes. Destaca-se o crescimento de 5.133% do cultivo da cana-de-açúcar, entre 2002 e 2005, e que o financiamento agrícola oficial para os grandes produtores rurais não foi o responsável pela ampliação das áreas de lavoura em Goiás, mas devido ao financiamento da agricultura de pequeno porte, reflexo da guinada para um maior equilíbrio na participação dos contratos de menor valor sobre o volume total de crédito, ocorrido na safra 2000/2001. Para cada R$ 1,00 gasto na pecuária há R$ 1,64 gasto na agricultura, o que provoca uma concentração do fluxo de recursos para a região centro-sul de Goiás. Portanto, é importante considerar o fator indutor do crédito rural na transformação da paisagem e seu potencial como instrumento de gestão ambiental, visto que o financiamento orientado para regiões específicas de Goiás podem levar a redução da perda de cobertura florestal e de áreas naturais. Não obstante, verifica-se que as variações ocorridas nos preços internacionais influenciam sobremaneira as mudanças no uso e ocupação do solo no estado, de modo que alternativas para redução da concentração de renda em uma única atividade rural poderiam reduzir a dimensão dos vetores de mudança. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: análise espacial, crédito rural, gestão ambiental, instrumento econômico INTRODUÇÃO O escopo e escala de problemas ambientais se expandiram entre as décadas de 1960 e 1980 vis-à-vis o aumento do bem-estar social num cenário onde as dimensões e diversificação das atividades humanas rivalizavam com o consumo de recursos naturais frente ao próprio fluxo de matéria e energia dos ecossistemas (Colby, 1991). A lógica fundamental é que transações em mercados competitivos são vantajosas e levam ao equilíbrio na alocação de recursos, ou seja, são economicamente eficientes. Contudo, na realidade, freqüentemente os mercados não são competitivos e a intervenção governamental é necessária para conferir eficiência econômica para as transações e corrigir essas deficiências, ditas falhas de mercado (Pindyck & Rubinfeld, 2010). Nesse contexto, o crédito rural é concedido sob a lógica da dependência climática que gera risco adicional à atividade, em comparação aos riscos enfrentados pela indústria e ou comércio (Banco do Brasil, 2004). O Brasil, dentre os países estudados pela Organização para Cooperação e Desenvolvimento Econômico – OCDE, possui o segundo menor índice de apoio ao produtor (PSE – Producer Subsidy Equivalent) equivalente a 6 % em 2005, comparado aos Estados Unidos com 16 %, ao México com 14 %, à União Européia com 33 % e ao Japão com 56% (Moraes, 2007). Em âmbito nacional, 72,3 % do crédito financiado pelo Sistema Nacional de Crédito Rural (SNCR) destinava-se à agricultura, o que correspondeu a cerca de R$ 54,29 bilhões em 2009. Os estados de maior relevância sobre a carteira de crédito foram: São Paulo com o maior volume (18,5 %), seguido do Rio Grande do Sul (16 %), Paraná (15,6 %), Minas Gerais (14,1 %), Santa Catarina (7,4 %) e Goiás (6,1 %) (BACEN, 2010a).

This article examines the role of gender in the use of digital finance in Kenya, including the well-known case of mobile money but also the emerging use of smartphone apps, payment tills, digital credit services, and digital fund-raising computer programs. Development professionals have explicitly feminist goals in bringing digital finance to women in the Global South. In several recent reports, they outline the belief that gender norms are a barrier to women's use of finance. They hope digital finance will bring women agency and control over money and consequently shift restrictive gender norms. This article offers a critique of these assumptions based on ethnographic conversations, a diary exercise, and network self-portraiture conducted in Kenya in 2016 among both rural farmers and urbanites. Adopting a distributed agency perspective, the ethnographic study demonstrates that Kenyan women and men use digital finance not to seek individual control of their money but to produce themselves as connected and trustworthy members of financial groups and collectivities. Gender norms may not hinder women from finance but rather enhance and deepen women's and men's financial relationships and bring women success in amassing funds.

Our paper explores how poor rural households in India are increasingly accumulating debt through micro-finance initiatives channelled through local self-help groups (SHGs). The aim of micro-finance and SHGs is to provide a cheap source of capital for investment in self-sustaining economic practices – typified by the Velugu programme. However, the reality of micro-finance has been more complicated. It has created a class- and caste-related debt-dependency and vulnerability whilst also channelling poor households, and women in particular, into subordinate areas of the economy, which ultimately serve to maintain fundamental inequalities in Indian society. The initiatives may, in addition, be viewed as aspects of broader processes of financialisation.

Snippet from the paper:
Introduction
When one returns from abstraction to real-world contexts, one confronts a messy interconnection of causal processes. This is particularly so in periods and locations undergoing significant change. It is widely acknowledged that India, as one of the BRIC economies, is undergoing rapid urban transformations that are subject to global and local forces. There have also been a number of changes in the conditions of the rural poor. Bonded labour still occurs that ties the very poorest, often of Dalit or ‘scheduled castes’ (SC), to long-term farming servitude on another’s land; but the traditional labour relations of the very poorest have diversified.1 Poor rural households now undertake a range of activities (Harriss-White, 2003; Brass, 2008; Breman et al., 2009).2 Migrant work, often in construction or regional industries and particularly amongst males, has grown. Remittances by migrants and new attitudes amongst landlords to how they might use their land and capital have begun to change local land and labour relations. The growing problem of periodic flood and drought in some regions has also produced change (Bosher et al., 2007). With change have come new issues of social and economic mobility. In keeping with many processes that weave global, national and local threads, new circumstances have created both positive and negative aspects: oppor
tunity, but also insecurity. The combination of micro-finance implemented through forms of initiatives between the state and different kinds of banks – state-backed, commercial, cooperatives - and self-help groups (SHG), which administer local pools of capital for small loans, provides one such example (Morduch, 1999; Karmaker, 2005 & 2008; Srinivasan, 2009).
Rural women in particular have been prime movers and beneficiaries of SHGs.

Le financement est un des instruments importants pour faciliter et appuyer les producteurs dans leur adaptation aux nouvelles exigences en tenant compte des aléas climatiques et du marché. L'ensemble des études consacrées à l'agriculture montre que cette dernière est marquée par une sous-capitalisation qui traduit un sous financement manifeste au niveau de l’exploitation agricole et du secteur en général, ce qui affecte négativement et de manière significative la production et le revenu agricole surtout dans les petites exploitations agricoles familiales exclues du système de financement. Pour voir la totalité de l'article cf. www.bajeddi.com

MSMEs are particularly important for emerging countries. This is primarily because of MSME's potential in job creation. Yet, lack of access to finance is a major obstacle to their growth. The average (i.e., mean) time taken to set up a business in India was 118 days, with a wide variation across states. It took, on average, 63 days to set up a business in Tamil Nadu and 67 days in Andhra Pradesh whereas for Kerala and Assam, firms took 214 days and 248 days respectively. In addition to limited development of industries in NER, there is limited availability of data on whatever industries exist there. Around 54 per cent of industrial units are concentrated in Assam among NE states. There were 37,356 registered MSME units in Assam providing employment to 2.05 lakh persons till the end of March 2013. Formal lending sector is always preferred over informal sector for the MSMEs because of the credibility of such lending institutions. MSMEs need special credit policy especially at the start-up stages. Though registration of the firm is not compulsory for the MSME units, doing so is beneficial for the economy and the MSMEs. The study tries to find out the characteristics of MSMEs operating under rural villages in Assam whether registration with DIC has helped them to overcome problems associated with obtaining credit from banks. From the analysis of data collected, it has been observed that registration has no influence over satisfaction of borrowers over the source of finance, satisfaction with amount sanctioned and the average difficulty in obtaining loans from bank. The registration was seen to have influence only over time taken to sanction loans.

In Brazil, Rural Credit and Technical Assistance policies for family farming were formulated with the goal of promoting rural development in a sustainable and integrated manner. This study is the result of the Monitoring and assessment of public policies for territory management in the Pará Amazon project, undertaken by the Federal University of Pará (UFPA), aimed to evaluate the main socioeconomic impacts and limitations for the execution of these policies in the Transamazonian Territory. It is characterized as qualitative and exploratory, developed from bibliographic research and field research, based on data obtained through interviews conducted with 22 families of farmers who are beneficiaries of Rural Credit, the B modality of the National Programme for Strengthening Family Agriculture (PRONAF) and of the Technical Assistance Policy, whose sample corresponds to 10% of total contracts made effective within that Territory, between the years of 2013 and 2014. In addition to these farmers, for the analysis of the Technical Assistance service, interviews were conducted with extension workers from eight organizations, one of which is a state public company and seven of which are outsourced companies hired by the Federal Government to provide this service. The descriptive analysis shows that PRONAF B focuses on areas that produce short cycle food crops and on fishing activities. The technical assistance service provided by the public company is carried out in all the cities within the Territory, but only meets 10% of the demand; the service provided by the outsourced companies also occurs in all cities and its greatest setback is the delay in the release of funds by the Federal Government, which generates delays in the agricultural calendar and discontinuity in the productive activities, due to the end of the term of the companies' contracts.

An examination of the loans recorded by the notary in the seigneurie of Delle during the eighteenth century sheds light on alterations to the mechanisms of trust. In early modern France, the traditional local credit market was based on strong norms of cooperation and reciprocity, in which trust was taken for granted. Changes in the nature of investors and investments during the eighteenth century, however, disturbed this fragile social equilibrium, causing trust to migrate in several new directions.

This paper was submitted for the BANCON ( Annual Bankers Conference of the Indian Banks Association) 2009, but did not get selected, possibly for over highlighting the problems. However, looking back today (2014), it is quite evident that it was on the spot and prophetic in identifying the critical constraints in delivering Rural Credit, as many of the issues have since got the attention of policy makers & are being addressed through policy interventions, whose results are evident.

The objectives of this book chapter are twofold. First, it aims to provide a pre´cis of the rural credit sector and recent institutional changes. Second, by drawing on the author’s household survey data, it provides in-depth analyses of the RCCs, the most prevalent rural credit institutions in China. The survey investigates why farmers become RCC members, why they bank with RCCs, their perceptions of loan conditions, and their uses of formal and informal loans. The household survey consisting of 277 respondents was conducted during 2004–06 in seven townships across three provinces—Shandong, Hebei, and Sichuan. Aside from the survey, this chapter also draws upon the author’s numerous field interviews with bank officers and local officials throughout rural China.

2 The Indian State has looked at development finance as a major instrument of poverty reduction only after the nationalisation of banks in 1969. The banking system was mandated to allocate certain proportion of total credit to priority sectors, including agriculture. The Integrated Rural Development Programme was conceived to provide means of production to the population below the poverty line by providing them credit and subsidy to acquire capital assets. While the direct correlation between these policies of development finance and the actual extent of poverty reduction cannot be established, evidence exists to prove that a large percentage of families below the poverty line were able to acquire a level of capital assets through these programmes. But, after 1991 India embarked on a path of financial sector liberalisation in which there was a slowdown as well as a reversal of policies of development finance. The outcome was a drastic reduction the share of credit to priority sector...

La venta de “pan fiado”, es decir, la venta de grano a crédito es una actividad que se puede rastrear y dimensionar por distintas áreas de la Corona de Castilla a finales del siglo XV a través del Archivo General de Simancas, en el Registro General del Sello (RGS). Esta documentación ofrece una perspectiva casi siempre conflictiva del negocio en el que se confrontan las necesidades de los deudores con la búsqueda de beneficio de los acreedores. El conflicto se presenta habitualmente bajo la forma de “mayor precio”, pero también se asocia en muchos casos a la usura.En el caso de este trabajo, por el contrario, se ha recopilado una cantidad amplia de testimonios que muestran una intensa conflictividad, ubicada con precisión dentro de unos límites espaciales –el arzobispado de Toledo–, y cronológicos –entre julio de 1494 y mayo de 1495. Destaca, además, la implicación en las quejas y peticiones la implicación de la Iglesia de Toledo en este negocio.

Indian banking sector is an important constituent of the Indian financial system. Banking in India has a very old origin. It started in the Vedic period where literature shows the giving of loans to others on interest. India has over the last decades experienced different degree of responsive policies in the banking sector. The banking sector plays a vital role through promoting business in urban as well as in rural areas in recent years. It helps to develop economy of the country. It is always said that rural development cannot be possible without agricultural development. Hence, this researches work especially emphasis on agriculture credit.

Les textes de ce volume s’efforcent d’explorer les diverses expressions des identités juives médiévales. Ils relatent la démarche suivie et exposent les principaux résultats d’un travail d’abord ancré en Cerdagne et en Roussillon, mais qui s’ouvrit ensuite à l’ensemble des sources concernant la Catalogne. Cette exploration systématique s’attacha à saisir l’insertion des juifs dans les territoires concrets ou immatériels pour écrire une histoire sociale et culturelle des juifs de Catalogne. Il fallait donc étudier la topographie des quartiers juifs et l’insertion dans l’espace de la ville et de la diaspora, mais aussi la conception de cet espace exprimée par les juifs médiévaux. La judéité, telle qu’elle s’exprimait au sein des communautés et de la société englobante devait également être examinée, particulièrement des questions aussi essentielles que celles du mariage, de la famille et de la transmission des valeurs. L’analyse du fonctionnement des réseaux sociaux semblait fondamentale, d’autant que leur reconstitution demeure le principal résultat de la méthode prosopographique. En Péninsule ibérique, le cas des conversos ne pouvait être omis.
Ces textes furent composés durant les dix dernières années. La plupart d’entre eux formèrent le corpus qui constitua une partie du dossier présenté lors de mon Habilitation à Diriger des Recherches. Le recueil remis au jury en 2006 comportait d’autres chapitres qui ont été exclus ici car ils traitent de l’histoire générale du Roussillon et de la Cerdagne. Par contre, deux articles plus anciens ont été ajoutés ici, car ils présentent les juifs de la collecta de Perpignan et une synthèse sur le crédit rural, toujours actuelle même si elle fut conçue dès le début de ces recherches. De plus récents, enfin, présentent des conclusions nouvelles. Certains —communications présentées lors de séminaires et de colloques— furent édités en leur temps. Cependant, ils ont tous été revus, voire réécrits, la bibliographie et les notes mises à jour, les aspects contingents des communications supprimés.
Quatre thèmes structurent ces réflexions. Les échelles spatiales sont envisagées d’abord, du quartier juif à l’espace transnational, pour une relecture de la notion de diaspora. Plutôt que la violence, l’observation s’est portée sur les conflits, tant à l’intérieur que contre les communautés. La nature et les modalités de de la transmission de la judéité s’éclaire à travers les choix anthroponymiques et religieux. Enfin, les relations réticulaires ont la part belle grâce à l’exploitation de la masse des documents concernant le crédit. Chacun d’entre eux contient une analyse des sources qui orientent fortement le questionnement, une analyse, parfois micro-historique, un exposé des conclusions, suivi d’une synthèse, voire d’une réflexion plus large sur les questions envisagées.

Table des matières
Du quartier juif à l’espace transnational.
1. La rue à Puigcerdà au temps des premiers registres notariés
2. Aux origines de l’implantation juive dans une villeneuve de montagne, Puigcerdà
3. Être juif dans la collecta de Perpignan après 1260
4. La diaspora juive méridionale et ibérique (XIIe-XVe siècles)

Communautés et conflits.
1. Les aléas de la tolérance entre 1260 et 1420
2. Des « sentiers invisibles ». Les juifs venus de France en Roussillon et Catalogne au début du XIVe siècle
3. Les conflits en Cerdagne et en Roussillon à la fin du Moyen Âge
4. Identités et jeu des émotions devant la justice du roi d’Aragon : prêteurs juifs et courtiers chrétiens
5. Du mariage juif comme contrat social au XIIIe siècle
6. L’homme juif et son épouse à la fin du Moyen Âge

Judéité, transmission, passages.
1. L’anthroponymie juive pyrénéenne et catalane du XIIe au XVe siècle
2. « Jeux anthroponymiques identitaires des migrants juifs aux XIVe et XVe siècles »
3. Se convertir en Cerdagne à la fin du XIVe siècle
4. L’affaire Struch Boniach
5. Déracinement et intégration des néophytes au XVe siècle
6. Pour une histoire de la conversion (Espagnes, XIIe-XVIe siècles) »

Réseaux
1. Crédit et notariat en Cerdagne et Roussillon du XIIIe au XVe siècle
2. Notaires et cour de justice en Catalogne, 1250-1320
3. Les sources de l’histoire du crédit juif en Catalogne
4. Le crédit juif dans les campagnes cerdanes aux XIIIe et XIVe siècles
5. Réseaux relationnels des prêteurs juifs de 1260 à 1420
6. Réseaux de crédit et marché textile dans la Cerdagne du bas Moyen Âge
7. «La gratification et le salaire». De la générosité et du crédit juif 
8. Crédit juif et usures chrétiennes dans les bourgs ruraux catalans à la fin du XIIIe siècle.

This paper contributes to a growing scholarship examining the ways in which dispossession in neoliberal India is reinforcing and reconfiguring agrarian social hierarchies. Existing studies have focussed on the differential successes of villagers in Special Economic Zone (SEZ)‐generated real estate markets, incorporation of land losers into stratified labour markets and the caste‐based politics of dispossession. Few studies, however, have systematically explored the long‐term implications of state‐orchestrated dispossession on agrarian credit and debt relations. Based on long‐term fieldwork on a village partially expropriated for a SEZ in the South Indian state of Telangana, this study shows how dispossession has led to a sharp rise of over‐indebtedness within the land losing population. Dispossession deprived villagers of land and livestock; low compensation was inadequate to obtain replacement assets; and labour inside the SEZ was insufficient to ensure the reproduction of most households. The result was a cascading process of indebtedness for consumption smoothing that was generalized but the greatest among former untouchables (Scheduled Castes, SCs) and Lambadas (Scheduled Tribes, STs). Since dispossession precluded these historically marginalized groups from access to institutional credit, their reliance on largely upper caste moneylenders—whose land was spared expropriation—was deepened. Thus, I show how dispossession for neoliberal projects has reinforced this traditional caste‐based form of exploitation.

An investigation into rural credit delivery system in Maharashtra shows slower growth in institutional finances through commercial banks, credit cooperatives, RRBs and LDBs, particularly during the decade of 1991-2000, which is mainly due to adverse environment created by the financial sector reforms. Due to unfavorable policy framework. the entire rural credit delivery system is reduced to a moribund state. High transaction costs and poor repayment performance are the twin root causes of the moribund slate of rural credit delivery system. With a view to revive the agricultural credit delivery system, there is need to adopt innovative approaches like linking of Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) with mainstream financial institutions. The revival of rural credit delivery system of Maharashtra also depends on strategies that are required for tackling issues such as sustainability and viability. operational efficiency. recovery performance. small farmer coverage and balanced sectoral development of the state.

The objective of this study is to investigate empirically the influence of social capital on the rural credit in the case of a Javanese village. Estimation results indicate difference impact of social capital on each type of credit. Meeting attendance was found positively influence the amount of formal credit. Meanwhile, number of memberships negatively affects the amount of informal credit. This study also confirms that the rural elites have more accessibility to economic opportunities such as formal credit than non-elites do. Therefore, this study suggests that the implementation of formal credit program in rural areas should consider not only the existing social capital but also the elites in the rural society. This approach perhaps bring improvement on the role of formal credit program as an anti poverty program in rural areas.

This study verifies, through econometric models of conditional convergence of productivity of land and labor in relation to rural credit and other variables, whether it contributes positively to economic growth in municipalities and there is a spatial effect between them in the period 1996-2006 for Brazilian regions, beyond the influence of others. To this end, Statistical Yearbook of Rural Credito of Central Bank (BACEN), Ipeadata and IBGE were used as source of data. In addition, descriptive statistics were developed in relation to the number of contracts and average values of the credit transfer to municipalities by macro-region. As a result of the models, accepted the hypothesis of conditional β-convergence for all regions, there was a positive credit impact on the productivity of land and labor in most models, and other findings related to other variables, including the spatial interaction between the municipalities was significant, with convergence also in the spatial model and an overall positive effect on the same. Thus, the study completed all the goals that had been proposed.

This paper reviews and shows the RCCs financial system and its role in economic development of China. RCCs are important reforms of china. It improves the performance consistently every year and constituted about 12.3 % all financial loans in China. Rural Credit Cooperatives Development in China constituted an integral and important part of rural reforms in China.

Agriculture sector is the largest contributor to the national incomes (GDP) of the world economies as well as for Pakistan contributing nearly 21 percent to the GDP and provides employment to nearly 43 percent of the workforce and supplies raw material to the industrial sector (notably textile industry) of Pakistan. Credit is an important tool for getting the inputs in time increasing thereby the productivity of the farms particularly those of small ones. The current study was designed know the diversifying characteristics of the loanee ...