Punishment

Minha tese de doutorado, defendida em 1996 na pós-graduação em Sociologia da Universidade de São Paulo, sob a orientação do professor Sérgio Adorno, teve por objetivo estudar como os discursos da Criminologia e da nova escola penal  emergiram no interior do saber jurídico no Brasil, ao longo da Primeira República.

This paper seeks to examine the depiction of the evil step-mother Queen in Snow White. The focus will be on examining the characterization of the Queen as both step-mother and evil witch as depicted in the traditional fairy tale and subsequent revisions in the short stories: "Blancanieves" (Snow White) by Carmen Boullosa and Neil Gaiman's "Snow Glass Apples". These texts will be compared alongside films that also look at recasting the Queen as victim of her socio-cultural environment and patriarchal standards of beauty in films such as: Mirror, Mirror and Snow White, The Fairest of them All and the television series Once Upon a Time. This presentation proposes to explore how the Queen's monstrosity is replaced with a more humanistic understanding of her behaviour thereby resulting in a more sympathetic and less monstrous depiction of the "old evil Queen".

While the terms prison and prisoner are frequently used in translations and studies based on the texts from early Mesopotamia (ca. 3200–1595 B.C., according to Middle Chronology), 1 the contextual evidence relating to these terms has not been assembled and organized to determine the nature of the so-called prisons of the period, together with any points of continuity and discontinuity with the modern terminology. When done, it may be concluded that prisons in early Mesopotamia do not share a one-to-one correspondence with the various manifestations of prisons in the modern Western world. Although prisons in early Mesopotamia functioned in broader ways than modern examples, I argue that significant functional overlap also exists. These similarities directly relate to theoretical and definitional criteria employed in historical discussions about prisons, demonstrating that the Mesopotamian evidence belongs in a world history of prisons.

There are many ways to destroy a person, but the simplest and most devastating way must be solitary confinement.  Deprived of meaningful human contact, otherwise healthy prisoners literally come unhinged.  Many experience symptoms such as intense anxiety and paranoia, uncontrollable trembling, confusion, hallucinations and other perceptual distortions.  Some prisoners describe their experience in solitary confinement as a form of living death.  Harry Hawser, a poet and inmate at Eastern State Penitentiary in the 1840s, called his cell “a living tomb.” Angela Tucker, an African-American woman held in supermax confinement in the 1980s, said: “It’s like living in a black hole.” Jeremy Pinson, a prisoner at Florence ADX (Administrative Maximum Facility), said, “You feel as if the world has ended but you somehow survived.” What does it mean to recognize, as the effect of a standard and increasingly widespread method of incarceration, the possibility of a suffering that blurs the distinction between life and death?  What must subjectivity be like in order for this to be possible?  Who are we, such that we can be unhinged from ourselves by being separated from others?

Investigators commonly distinguish between primary and secondary psychopathy D.T. Lykken, 1995), though there is a lack of consensus regarding the best means to achieve this distinction. To address the validity of using R. D. Hare's (2003) Psychopathy Checklist and the G. Welsh (1956) Anxiety Scale for this purpose, the authors used 2 measures of J. A. Gray's (1987) behavioral inhibition system/behavioral activation system (BIS/BAS). Following D. T. Lykken (1995) and D. C. Fowles (1980), the authors hypothesized that primary psychopathy would be associated with a weak BIS and a normal BAS, whereas secondary psychopathy would be associated with a strong BAS and a normal BIS. Results for primary psychopathy were as predicted. Results for secondary psychopathy clearly supported the strong BAS prediction but provided mixed support for the normal BIS prediction.

Russell's forensic archival investigations reveal the great lengths that Milgram went to in order to construct an experiment that would 'shock the world'. However, in achieving this goal it is also apparent that the drama of the 'basic' obedience paradigm draws attention away both from variation in obedience and from the task of explaining that variation. Building on points that Russell and others have made concerning the competing 'pulls' that are at play in the Milgram paradigm, this paper outlines the potential for a social identity perspective on obedience to provide such an explanation.

Depression is a complex and heterogeneous disorder whose cause is poorly understood. Theories on the mechanisms of the disease have often focused on either its neurobiology or its cognitive and behavioral manifestations. Recently, studies exploring how depressed patients process reward and punishment have linked these two facets together. It has been suggested that individuals with a dysfunction in a specialized network of brain regions are unable to exploit affective information to guide behavior. Deficits in this ability might predispose such individuals to develop depression, whereas subsequent restoration of this ability-whether through pharmacological or behavioral treatments-might enable recovery from the disorder. Here we review behavioral, neuroimaging, and computational findings relevant to this hypothesis. There is good evidence that depressed patients exhibit abnormal behavioral responses to rewards and punishments and that these tendencies correspond to aberrant function in frontostriatal systems modulated by the monoamine systems. Furthermore, computational studies have generated testable predictions for how these neural signaling and neurochemical abnormalities might contribute to the symptoms of depression. Combining these approaches-as well as molecular and behavioral work in animals-provides great promise for furthering our understanding of this common and debilitating disease.

(from the Introduction)
Intending only to research medieval conceptions of hell, author Alan Bernstein wanted to investigate postmortem retribution in the ancient world for historical context. This investigation turned into an entire book of its own. In The Formation of Hell, Bernstein seeks to explain how the idea of hell achieved a prominent place in people’s minds. He explicitly states that he intends to accomplish this without any prior concern for whether hell actually exists or any preceding judgement as to the nature or value of hell.  In the end, Bernstein provides a superb example of historical investigation and rigorous scholarship. Though there are certain theological and metaphysical implications omitted from the book, the author successfully demonstrates that the notion of hell originally arose late in Judaism out of a need to explain the injustices in the world and became a rhetorical device designed to elicit conformity to religious and cultural mores.

O encarceramento massivo e a manicomização dos vulneráveis são alguns dos sintomas que caracterizam um modelo de sociedade regido pela lógica punitivista. Mas o punitivismo não é apenas uma consequência trágica de opções político-criminais ingênuas ou equivocadas que apostam na clausura como mecanismo eficaz de prevenção do delito (...).
As práticas de encarceramento foram convertidas em “credo punitivista” no capitalismo financeiro-predatório. A racionalidade punitivista ultrapassa os muros das instituições totais e o campo jurídico-penal e criminológico e se instala na própria sociedade. O crime e o controle do crime transformam-se em commodities (econômicas e políticas) que reguladoras das ações políticas (...).
O punitivismo passa a operar no âmbito da formação ideológica, pois cria visões de mundo nas quais a eliminação ou o enclausuramento dos indesejáveis são percebidas como as únicas formas de resolução dos conflitos (...).
O fio condutor do livro é a crítica aos fundamentos e às alternativas às formas de enclausuramento no Brasil contemporâneo, sendo duas problematizações constantes: a insustentabilidade dos discursos de justificação e a falácia das alternativas.
O foco é nas penas e nas medidas de segurança, nas prisões e nos manicômios, sobretudo porque, no discurso da Ilustração que estabelece os mitos fundantes do Direito Penal moderno, são os institutos e as instituições que expurgariam os restos de barbárie das práticas punitivas. O sonho iluminista é o da pena racionalizada, humanizada. Lembra Benjamin, porém, que “não há documento de cultura que não seja também um documento de barbárie.” E é no cotidiano das prisões e dos manicômios judiciais brasileiros que reafirmamos, com uma competência assustadora, nossa opção pela barbárie, pelo sofrimento mascarado em forma de sanção jurídica.(Salo de Carvalho e Mariana de Assis Brasil e Weigert, excertos das “Notas Introdutórias”)

""The current work aims to analyse the characters’ quest for the self and their process of growth throughout the narratives. This work is composed of an introduction on the similarities and the intertextual connections between the novels and the literary genres at issue, a chapter about the characters’ self-development as related to the concept of Bildungsroman alongside the concept of quest narrative and finally a chapter about gender ambiguity."

RAMOS, Rodrigo Viriato — Quest for the Self in The Passion of New Eve and
in Sexing the Cherry. Tese de mestrado. Universidade de Aveiro, 2010."

Theories of instrumental learning are centred on understanding how success and failure are used to improve future decisions 1 . These theories highlight a central role for reward prediction errors in updating the values associated with available actions 2 . In animals, substantial evidence indicates that the neurotransmitter dopamine might have a key function in this type of learning, through its ability to modulate cortico-striatal synaptic efficacy 3 . However, no direct evidence links dopamine, striatal activity and behavioural choice in humans. Here we show that, during instrumental learning, the magnitude of reward prediction error expressed in the striatum is modulated by the administration of drugs enhancing (3,4-dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine; L-DOPA) or reducing (haloperidol) dopaminergic function. Accordingly, subjects treated with L-DOPA have a greater propensity to choose the most rewarding action relative to subjects treated with haloperidol. Furthermore, incorporating the magnitude of the prediction errors into a standard action-value learning algorithm accurately reproduced subjects' behavioural choices under the different drug conditions. We conclude that dopamine-dependent modulation of striatal activity can account for how the human brain uses reward prediction errors to improve future decisions.

Minha tese de Livre Docência, defendida na Faculdade de Filosofia, Letras e Ciências Humanas da Universidade de São Paulo em agosto de 2013, apresenta textos que foram publicados anteriormente como artigos em revistas especializadas ou como capítulos em coletâneas da área, bem como alguns excertos como reflexões inéditas. A primeira parte da tese reúne trabalhos que caracterizam e problematizam o percurso intelectual do filósofo Michel Foucault (1926-1984), explorando, também, aspectos de suas análises históricas e elaborações conceituais. A segunda parte, por sua vez, apresenta trabalhos de investigação ou de reflexão voltados para um escopo histórico mais amplo. Busca-se empregar a pesquisa histórica, juntamente com a análise sociológica de forma a descortinar as condições de existência de práticas contemporâneas no âmbito da punição e das instituições de controle social no Brasil. Finalmente, na terceira parte, são discutidos temas contemporâneos que desdobram as questões teóricas e a perspectiva de investigação anteriormente caracterizadas. Tal como permitido no edital de Livre Docência, alguns textos foram elaborados em co-autoria e os créditos estão indicados ao longo do trabalho.

We present in this paper a picture of the neural systems controlling defense that updates and simplifies Gray's "Neuropsychology of Anxiety". It is based on two behavioural dimensions: 'defensive distance' as defined by the Blanchards and 'defensive direction'. Defensive direction is a categorical dimension with avoidance of threat corresponding to fear and approach to threat corresponding to anxiety. These two psychological dimensions are mapped to underlying neural dimensions. Defensive distance is mapped to neural level, with the shortest defensive distances involving the lowest neural level (periaqueductal grey) and the largest defensive distances the highest neural level (prefrontal cortex). Defensive direction is mapped to separate parallel streams that run across these levels. A significant departure from prior models is the proposal that both fear and anxiety are represented at all levels. The theory is presented in a simplified form that does not incorporate the interactions that must occur between non-adjacent levels of the system. It also requires expansion to include the dimension of escapability of threat. Our current development and these proposed future extensions do not change the core concepts originally proposed by Gray and, we argue, demonstrate their enduring value. q

Feelings of guilt may be resolved in various ways. The scientific literature has mainly highlighted beneficial interpersonal consequences of guilt, showing repeatedly that guilt motivates compensatory pro-social behavior to repair social bonds. The authors reveal that when opportunities for compensation are not present, guilt may evoke self-punishment. Self-punishment was demonstrated through self-denied pleasure in a scenario study, and by self-enforced penalties in an experimental study. The authors call this tendency for self-punishment the Dobby Effect, and discuss it as an explanation for the widely held conviction that atonement absolves sins, its contribution to some types of psychopathology, as well as its possible functional relevance.

O artigo diferencia os elementos da teoria da pena, com especial destaque ao fundamento e às finalidades da pena criminal. Analisa as doutrinas absolutas e relativas e as suas respectivas capacidades de oferecer tratamento específico aos problemas do fundamento e das finalidades da pena criminal. Pretende demonstrar a imprecisão da classificação dicotômica que confunde o fundamento da pena com as suas diversas finalidades. A conclusão é que o fundamento da pena é a retribuição da culpa do autor da ofensa, independentemente de quais sejam as finalidades primordiais de cada espécie de pena.

A discussion of the development of criminal law in Uganda can be divided into three epochs: the pre-colonial era, the colonial period, and the age of independence and post-independence characterised by nation-building efforts. James Read rightly notes that the development of the penal system can be divided
into two major phases: first, the introduction of western apparatus that gradually replaced the practices of traditional societies, and second, the testing and modification of the new legal order to apply to conditions in Africa. As Uganda's legal history is long and complex, this chapter will explore only the most significant developments in criminal law, Criminal procedure, and punishment. These legal developments are
intertwined with events in Uganda's political and constitutional history.

The United States is at a pivotal moment in terms of rethinking class and racial inequality within the criminal justice system. However, there is a lack of shared conceptual tools to frame this debate. First, there is no clear or comprehensive theoretical tool to describe, categorize, or analyze class and racial inequality throughout the criminal justice process. Current tools focus, separately, on the enactment of laws, on the performance of police officers, on the actions of judges, juries, and prosecutors, or on the administration of punishment. Second, scholars use different language to describe how inequality operates in each of the mentioned stages within the criminal justice process. Third, there is a lack of conceptual precision about the mechanisms through which inequality operates. These three problematic aspects of the conceptual framing result in ambiguity at the moment of discussing consistent crime policy. This study helps overcome this gap and offer conceptual tools that can serve as analytical categories to precisely describe and analyze inequality within the criminal justice system. This article also puts the suggested categories in practice to analyze the functioning of the criminal justice system in the United States since the 1970s. Overall, this article proposes that only a comprehensive, interdisciplinary and inter-sectorial approach to define and analyze crime control will help overcome the current situation of conceptual ambiguity, opening the path for thorough and lasting crime policies.

To cite this work/Para citar este trabajo: Vegh Weis, Valeria “Criminal Selectivity in the United States. A History Plagued by Class & Race Bias.” De Paul Journal of Social Justice, vol. 10, no. 2, 2017, pp. 1-31.

The main purpose of this article consists of examining the crucial significance of mutilation, as a punishment following a crime committed against the prevailing legal and moral order, in the study of early Chinese intellectual history. It aims to show that focusing on this hitherto disregarded topic is highly beneficial in order to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of some of the most relevant problems in this period since legally mutilated persons seem to embody better than any other category the currently accepted logic about the correlation between body and ethics or, to put it more negatively, between physical deformity and moral deviance. Indeed, as it will be demonstrated, amputees were excluded in early China not only from any kind of politically significant role but also from any important ritual and social functions. This article discusses then the philosophical, political, social, legal and religious implications of those individuals who lost limbs as a result of penal dismemberment. * Financial support for this article was provided by a generous postdoctoral grant from the Department of Education, Universities and Research of the Basque Country Government. I profited immeasurably from consultations with J. Levi, P. Goldin, Y. Pines, O. Milburn, R. Gassmann, and J. F. Billeter. I would like to thank these scholars for the opportunity to share my work with them and for providing me insightful suggestions for improvement. I also owe a debt of gratitude to Emma Graham-Harrison and Julie Wark for polishing my English. In spite of this invaluable help, the inadequacies and errors that remain are of course entirely mine.

Objective: This study examines the relationship between parental self-confidence, warmth, and involvement, and corporal punishment in families of children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Method: The diagnosis of ADHD was established through clinical interviews with the parents, children, and teachers, according the criteria in DSM-IV-TR. This diagnosis was also established by having the parents complete the Conners' Parent Rating Scale, and the teachers complete the Conners' Teacher Rating Scale. Two groups of Iranian parents, one group with children who have ADHD (N = 130) and a control group (N = 120), completed questionnaires measuring parental self-confidence and parenting styles. Results: Parents of children with ADHD were found to have lower self-confidence and less warmth and involvement with their children, and used corporal punishment significantly more than the parents of control children.

This paper will discuss the following heads;

What is Islamic Criminal Law?
Classification of Crimes
Purpose of harsh punishments: An analysis
Application of Islamic Criminal Law in the Muslim Countries
Pakistan Hudood Laws: To what extent they are applied?
Why Islamic punishments are rarely applied in Pakistan and other Muslim
world?

This article has two objectives. First, and in particular, it seeks to reinterpret the ostracism procedure of early democratic Athens. Since Aristotle, this has been understood as a rational, political weapon of collective defense, intended to expel from Athens a disproportionately powerful individual. In this article, by putting emphasis on the materiality, gestures, and location of ostraka-casting, I propose instead that the institution can more fruitfully be understood as a ritual enactment of civic unity. Second, and more generally, I hope to explore the frames within which early Athenian democracy is placed: while Greek kingship and tyranny (i.e.“primitive” polities) have been very successfully explored through anthropological and cross-cultural comparison, Greek democracy for the most part has remained in the domains of
the institutional historian and political theorist. Taking a phenomenological and comparative approach, this article asks how the citizens of early democratic Athens experienced and
comprehended their new sovereignty and the invented procedures of mass decision-making through which it was expressed.

Restorative justice goals are frequently articulated on micro, meso and macro levels. One macro-level goal frequently made by advocates is that restorative justice may serve as a viable means of reducing incarceration. Focusing on Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States, this article argues that while these countries have seen some of the largest increases in incarceration within western industrialized countries, as well as the most widespread use of restorative justice, there is little evidence that restorative justice has reduced prison populations. It also argues that as currently practiced there is little reason to assume that restorative justice will have a significant impact on incarceration in the near future. Attention is given to the problem of the 'transformation assumption' inherent in restorative justice that micro-level changes in offender behaviours or restorative outcomes can significantly affect the larger social structures of punishment and incarceration.

Garland, C. (2014) ‘As Barriers Fall, Contingency Becomes Possibility: Protest Resisting and Escaping Containment and Categorization’, Part II Identity, Embodiment and Categorisation in Eds. Lamond, I. and Spracklen, K. 'Protests as Events: Politics, Activism and Leisure (London: Rowman & Littlefield International) Hardback ISBN/9781783480760 Paperback ISBN/978-1-78348-077-7 eBook ISBN/978-1-78348-078-4 

https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781783480760

The authors report that beliefs favoring the reciprocation of unfavorable treatment form a unitary factor that is distinct from beliefs favoring the reciprocation of favorable treatment. Individual differences in endorsement of this negative reciprocity norm were related to (a) beliefs that people are generally malevolent; (b) inclination toward anger in everyday life; (c) anger, disagreement, and ridicule directed toward a new acquaintance who treated participants unfavorably; and (d) reduced anxiety, positive emotional engagement, and encouragement of a new acquaintance who treated participants favorably. These findings suggest that individual differences in endorsement of the negative norm of reciprocity influence the extent of vengeance.

Once considered a legitimate parenting tool, physical punishment is increasingly being redefined as a developmental risk factor by health professionals. Three forces that have contributed to this significant social change are the evolution of pediatric psychology, increasing understanding of the dynamics of parental violence, and growing recognition of children as rights bearers. However, despite the consistency of research findings demonstrating the risks of physical punishment, some practitioners still struggle with the question of whether physical punishment is an appropriate practice among some cultural or ethnic groups. This issue is explored through an analysis of studies examining cultural differences and similarities in physical punishment's effects, as well as legal decisions made throughout the world. Despite practitioners' awareness of the prevalence and impact of parental violence, some still struggle with deciding where to "draw the line" in advising parents about spanking. This issue is addressed through an examination of the role that physical punishment plays in child maltreatment. Finally, the human rights perspective on physical punishment is offered as a new lens through which practitioners may view physical punishment to clarify the fuzzy issues of cultural relativity and the punishment-abuse dichotomy. (J Dev Behav Pediatr 29:55-66, 2008)

Participants in laboratory games are often willing to alter others' incomes at a cost to themselves, and this behaviour has the effect of promoting cooperation 1-3 . What motivates this action is unclear: punishment and reward aimed at promoting cooperation cannot be distinguished from attempts to produce equality 4 . To understand costly taking and costly giving, we create an experimental game that isolates egalitarian motives. The results show that subjects reduce and augment others' incomes, at a personal cost, even when there is no cooperative behaviour to be reinforced. Furthermore, the size and frequency of income alterations are strongly influenced by inequality. Emotions towards top earners become increasingly negative as inequality increases, and those who express these emotions spend more to reduce above-average earners' incomes and to increase below-average earners' incomes. The results suggest that egalitarian motives affect income-altering behaviours, and may therefore be an important factor underlying the evolution of strong reciprocity 5 and, hence, cooperation in humans.

In an important 1984 paper, “The Moral Education Theory of Punishment,” Jean Hampton justifies the practice of inflicting painful criminal punishments if and only if punishment is morally educative. Hampton’s suggestion forms the point of departure for this paper on Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment. Below, I show that Dostoevsky agrees with Hampton that punishment should aim at moral reform; however, Dostoevsky presents no evidence that self-punishment or legal punishment reliably cultivates respect for law, legal authority, oneself, or for others as moral agents. Instead, Dostoevsky’s post-Siberian writings are highly critical of Russian criminal justice, and emphasize that moral education comes through dialogue, reflection, and criticism. This highly individualized treatment may be experienced as painful, but it does not have to result from, and it may even be impeded by, legal “hard treatment.”
Keywords: moral education; punishment; Dostoevsky; rehabilitation; crime

This book offers a novel approach for the study of law in the Judean Desert Scrolls, using the prism of legal theory. Following a couple of decades of scholarly consensus withdrawing from the "Essene hypothesis," it proposes to revive the term, and suggests employing it for the sectarian movement as a whole, while considering the group that lived in Qumran as the Yahad. It further proposes a new suggestion for the emergence of the Yahad, based on the roles of the Examiner and the Instructor in the two major legal codes, the Damascus Document and the Community Rule.

The understanding of Essene law is divided into concepts and practices, in order to emphasize the discrepancy between creed, rhetoric, and practices. The abstract exploration of notions such as time, space, obligation, intention, and retribution, is then compared against the realities of social practices, including admission, initiation, covenant, leadership, reproof, and punishment.

The legal analysis yields several new suggestions for the study of the scrolls: first, Amihay proposes to rename the two strands of thought of Jewish law, formerly referred to as "nominalism" and "realism," with the terms "legal essentialism" and "legal formalism." The two laws of admission in the Community Rule are distinguished as two different laws, one of an association for a group as a whole, the other as an admission of an individual. The law of reproof is proven to be an independent legal procedure, rather than a preliminary stage of prosecution. The methodological division in this study of thought and practice provides a nuanced approach for the study of law in general, and religious law in particular.

There are a number of important links and similarities between public health and safety. In this extended essay, Gregg D. Caruso defends and expands his public health-quarantine model, which is a non-retributive alternative for addressing criminal behavior that draws on the public health framework and prioritizes prevention and social justice. In developing his account, he explores the relationship between public health and safety, focusing on how social inequalities and systemic injustices affect health outcomes and crime rates, how poverty affects brain development, how offenders often have pre-existing medical conditions (especially mental health issues), how involvement in the criminal justice system itself can lead to or worsen health and cognitive problems, how treatment and rehabilitation methods can best be employed to reduce recidivism and reintegrate offenders back into society, and how a public health approach could be successfully applied within the criminal justice system. Caruso's approach draws on research from the health sciences, social sciences, public policy, law, psychiatry, medical ethics, neuroscience, and philosophy, and he delivers a set of ethically defensible and practically workable proposals for implementing the public health-quarantine model.

The essay begins by discussing recent empirical findings in psychology, neuroscience, and the social sciences that provide us with an increased understanding of the social and neurological determinants of health and criminal behavior. It then turns to Caruso's public health-quarantine model and argues that the model provides the most justified, humane, and effective approach for addressing criminal behavior. Caruso concludes by proposing a capability approach to social justice grounded in six key features of human well-being. He argues that we cannot successfully address concerns over public health and safety without simultaneously addressing issues of social justice—including the social determinants of health (SDH) and the social determinants of criminal behavior (SDCB)—and he recommends eight general policy proposals consistent with his model.

After the 1964 coup, a peculiar system of social control was set up in Brazil to ensure the success of that dictatorial political project and the maintenance of that social order. This system remained active until 1988, passing, however, through a series of transformations over the period. Its performance on the field of higher education reveals certain specificities. Four modes of control (surveillance, repression, propaganda and formation of intellectuals)
are analyzed with an emphasis on the relations among themselves, as well as on targets, structures, methods and functions of each one of them. The four modes were based on the notion of subversion with significant influence of the National Security Doctrine produced by the Escola Superior de Guerra (war college) and other sources (such as anti-communist imaginary). For repression and surveillance processes, several organs of these two structures
of control are examined , such as Departamentos de Ordem Política e Social (political police), Polícia Federal (federal police), military intelligence agencies (Centro de
Informações do Exército, Centro de Informações de Segurança da Aeronáutica, Centro de Informações da Marinha and Segundas Seções), Serviço Nacional de Informações (intelligence agency), paramilitary groups, Operação Bandeirante and the DOI/CODI system
(political police), Ministério da Educação e Cultura (Ministry of Education and Culture) and some subordinate offices (Comissão de Investigação Sumária, Divisão de Segurança e
Informações, Assessorias [Especiais] de Segurança e Informações) as well as the cooperation of deans and other agents in the field of higher education. Boletins Diários à Imprensa (daily bulletins sent to press) and three newsreels (Informativo, Atualidades and Brasil Hoje), all produced by Agência Nacional, are used for analysis of social control through propaganda. To study the formation of pro-regime intellectuals and social support, it’s especially evaluated the contributions of Escola Superior de Guerra (ESG), Associação dos Diplomados da Escola Superior de Guerra (ESG alumni association) and moral and civic education at the undergraduate and graduate level (Estudos de Problemas Brasileiros discipline).

Punishment is an important behaviour modification technique that has been under contention for as long as it has been used. Hence, the following essay sought to explore the contention around its use, while comparing and analysing the evidence in the literature for and against it, while also exploring two of its dominant models, that is, the direct-suppression model and the competitive-suppression model. In doing so, it was discovered that the effectiveness of punishment outweighs its potential risks and ethical issues. This was due to the observation that the majority of the literature against the use of punishment highlighted its potential to induce aggression and negative emotions; while the literature for it, demonstrated a vast array of potential benefits, which included, its effectiveness in the treatment of stereotypy, self-stimulatory behaviours, and drugs and alcohol issues, modification of socially disruptive behaviours in sociopaths and criminals with MR, potential to induce complete and immediate response suppression especially when the problem-causing variables cannot be identified, controlled or manipulated, and when response-reinforcement relationship cannot be disrupted completely, and the need for limited resources. Hence, the analysis concluded that punishment is a viable and effective behaviour modification technique which has its limitations but none that cannot be outweighed by its potential benefits.

Narcissism is a dynamic form of personality characterized by a pervasive sense of grandiosity and self-importance, and by a need to obtain continuous self-validation from others. Very little is known about its etiology and development. What factors (e.g., temperament, parenting experiences) and processes (e.g., transactions between these factors over time) cause some children to become more narcissistic than others? When does narcissism first emerge, and how does narcissism develop over time? This article describes a framework for research on the etiology and development of narcissism, and recommends ten research priorities. This research should yield fundamental knowledge and should inform intervention efforts to minimize the negative impact narcissistic individuals have on themselves and on others.