Parenting Stress

The Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) is one of the most commonly used measures of parenting stress both in clinical and research contexts. The PSI-SF is a 36-item, self-report measure with three subscales: Parental Distress (PD), Parent-Child Dysfunctional Interaction (PCDI), and Difficult Child (DC). The objective of this study was to analyse the factor structure and psychometric properties of the Spanish version of PSI-SF. Two different samples (N = 309) of mothers with children under 8 years old participated in the study. The first sample comprised 203 mothers with difficulties managing their children’s behaviour. The second sample comprised 106 mothers from the general population. Factor structure of the PSI-SF, convergent validity, and differences between groups were analysed. The expected three-factor structure was confirmed for both samples. Findings suggested that the total PSI-SF scale and the three subscales had adequate internal consistency and convergent validity. Differences between both samples, and between age and economic subgroups in the first sample were tested. The Spanish version of the PSI-SF can be considered an adequate measure of parenting stress in mothers of children under 8 years old with difficulties to manage their children’s behaviour. Further studies with extended samples from the general population are needed.

This study examined parenting stress among par- ents of adolescents with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The sample comprised 138 adolescents (84 ADHD, 52 boys, 32 girls; 54 non-ADHD, 24 boys, 30 girls) age 13 to 18 and their parents. Mothers (n = 135) and fathers (n = 98) of participating teens completed the Stress Index for Parents of Adolescents. Mothers and fathers of ad- olescents with ADHD reported more stress than parents of adolescents without ADHD with regard to their children’s challenging behaviors (Adolescent domain stress). Mothers of adolescents with ADHD also reported that they experi- enced elevated levels of stress in terms of role restrictions, feelings of social alienation, conflict with their partner, feel- ings of guilt and incompetence (Parent domain stress), and relationship with their children (Adolescent-Parent Relationship domain stress; APR). The extent to which clini- cal levels of adolescent Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) symptoms or externalizing behavior in general were associat- ed with parenting stress depended on the rater of these behav- iors. Parenting stress was associated with higher levels of ODD and other externalizing behaviors when these behaviors were rated by parents but not when they were rated by teachers. In addition, over and above adolescent ADHD clas- sification, mothers’ self-reported ADHD symptoms were as- sociated with higher parenting stress in the Adolescent and Parent domains, and fathers’ self-reported ADHD symptoms were associated with lower APR stress. The results suggest directions that should be considered for addressing parenting stress when designing interventions for families of adolescents with ADHD.

The manner in which parents adapt to the experience of caring for a child with an intellectual disability is generally thought to depend upon a range of variables typically conceptualized within multi-dimensional models. This review briefly describes three such models that share significant common features, incorporating child variables, environmental characteristics, and parental cognitive processes as contributors to parental coping styles or parenting stress. The effects of child and environmental characteristics on parenting stress and coping in parents of children with disabilities have been well documented. It is argued, however, that some aspects of cognitive processes in parents of these children have received less attention from researchers. In particular, there has been a large amount of research into parenting self-esteem, parental attributions, and parental locus of control with parents of other groups of children. This research is reviewed, and it is argued that further research into similar cognitions in parents of children with intellectual disabilities is warranted. Finally, the potential clinical implications of such research are examined in relation to behavioural interventions for children's behavioural difficulties. It is suggested that parental cognitions may influence the acceptability of such interventions and also be associated with their effectiveness. . Behavior problems and parenting stress in families of three-year old children with and without developmental delays. . Expressed emotion, attributions and depression in mothers of children with problem behaviour. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 242-254. Bondy, E. M. and Mash, E. J. (1999). Parenting efficacy, perceived control over caregiving failure and mothers' reactions to preschool children's misbehavior. Child Study Journal, 29, 157-173. Bristol, M. M. (1987). Mothers of children with autism or communication disorders: Successful adaptation and the Double ABCX model.

Background Recent theories of stress and coping in parents of children with intellectual disabilities (ID) emphasize the importance of cognitive appraisals in influencing parents' levels of stress and their adaptations to difficulties presented by the children. This study investigated the relationships between parental cognitions, child characteristics, family support and parenting stress. The aspects of cognitions studied were: parenting self-esteem (including efficacy and satisfaction) and parental locus of control. Methods The group studied consisted of  mothers of children with ID. The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales and Maladaptive Behavior Domain were administered by interview. Mothers also completed four questionnaires: the Family Support Scale, the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale, a shortened form of the Parental Locus of Control Scale and the Parenting Stress Index (Short Form). Results Data were analysed using Pearson's correlation coefficients, partial correlations and a regression analysis. The results indicated that most of the variance in parenting stress was explained by parental locus of control, parenting satisfaction and child behaviour difficulties. Whilst there was also a strong correlation between family support and parenting stress, this was mediated by parental locus of control. Conclusions The results demonstrate the potential importance of parental cognitions in influencing parental stress levels. It is argued that these results have implications for clinical interventions for promoting parents' coping strategies in managing children with ID and behavioural difficulties.

Objective: The transition to parenthood, from pregnancy to postpartum period, is a critical process, particularly for couples expecting twins. There is very little literature regarding the links between anxiety, depression, dyadic adjustment, parental stress, and infant temperament spanning from pregnancy to postpartum. This study has two aims: first, to examine whether mothers' and fathers' anxiety, depression, and dyadic adjustment, assessed at the sixth month of pregnancy and 3 months postpartum, are associated with infants' negative affectivity (NA) and parenting stress; second, to examine whether there is any difference between fathers' and mothers' levels of parenting stress and perception of the twins' temperament, as well as to evaluate, separately for mothers and fathers, whether the levels of parenting stress and perception of child temperament differ for each twin. Method: The study participants were 58 parents (29 couples) and their healthy 58 twin babies (51.7% boys, 48.3% girls). Mothers' ages ranged from 30 to 44 years, (M Age = 36.3 years, SD = 3.2 years), and fathers' ages ranged from 32 to 52 years, (M Age = 38.2 years, SD = 4.4 years). The parents, during the pregnancy period and 3 months after delivery, filled out the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the Dyadic Adjustment Scale. Three months after delivery they also filled out the Parenting Stress Index—Short Form and the Infant Behavior Questionnaire Revised. Results: The analyses showed a significant correlation between parental anxiety/depression symptoms and infants' NA and parenting stress (in both mothers and fathers). Moreover, compared to fathers, mothers reported higher scores on specific dimensions of the infants' NA, [t(28) = −2.62 and p < 0.05; t(28) = 2.09 and p < 0.05], and parenting stress, [t(28) = 2.19 and p < 0.05; t(28) = 2.23 and p < 0.05], but only for Twin 2. Finally, the results showed that mothers' perceptions of child temperament vary between two twins, [e.g., distress to limitations: t(28) = 2.08 and p < 0.05].

Objectives We aimed to explore profiles of mothers with respect to two key risk factors, SES and parenting stress, and then examine the role of maternal perceived social support and negative intentionality in toddlers' internalizing and externalizing behaviors in these mother profiles. Method A sample of 463 mothers with 1-3 years old non-clinical toddlers completed scales. First, in Latent Profile Analysis (LPA), we identified two distinct mother profiles, as high SES-low stress (low-risk) and low SES-high stress (high-risk) groups. Then, we tested the pattern of associations among maternal perceived social support, negative intentionality, and child internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors in a multi-group SEM analysis based on these two profiles. Results There was a strong negative association between social support and both internalizing and externalizing behaviors in the low-risk profile mothers, but not in the high-risk profile mothers. Regardless of mothers' profiles, the perceived negative intentionality in toddlers' behaviors positively predicted both internalizing and externalizing behaviors. However, the perceived negative intentionality did not mediate the negative association between perceived social support and toddlers' problem behaviors. Conclusion Our findings suggest that mothers' negative attributions about child's behaviors can play a critical role at the early stages of problem behaviors and social support can be an important factor to decrease the child's externalizing problem behaviors especially for the low-risk group of mothers. Intervention programs should be designed with the differential contribution of social support and negative intentionality in the onset of toddlers' problem behaviors.

Children’s characteristics, including gender, influence their development by eliciting differential responses from their environments, and by influencing differential responses to their environments. Parenting-related stress, associated with poverty environments, negatively influences children’s language, likely through its impact on parent-child interactions, but may impact boys’ and girls’ development differently. Early intervention represents one tool for supporting development in at-risk toddlers, but gender-differences in effects of intervention are rarely described. The current studies assessed the effects of Early Head Start (EHS) on children’s productive vocabulary in the context of parenting stress and examined gender differences in program effects on vocbulary. Data were from the national EHS Research and Evaluation (EHSRE) study (Study 1, N = 3,001), and from a dataset associated with one EHSRE site (Study 2, N = 146) where additional data on productive vocabulary were collected. Study 1 found that at 24 months of age, the EHS program protected girls’ productive vocabulary from the negative effects of parenting stress, but had little impact on boys’ vocabulary. In Study 2, the local EHS site promoted girls’ vocabulary development over time from 14 to 36 months despite the negative effects of parenting stress, and protected boys’ vocabulary from the negative parenting stress effects. These results suggest differential ways in which at-risk toddlers are affected by early intervention.

Objectives: Any form of disability is considered a critical factor having significant effects on a
family. Stress is the main result of such effects on parents. According to the classical procedure,
the mothers play a major role as child caregiver, so they experience more stress than other
members of the family. The goal of this study was to develop and assess the role of the de-stress
training program in decreasing the stress of mothers of mentally disabled children.
Methods: This study was a semi-experimental research with follow-up. The study sample
included 20 mothers of children with mental disabled who live in Tehran. The parental stress
scale was used for measuring mother’s stress. Data was analyzed by univariate analysis of
covariance.
Results: The data presented a significant difference between the control and experiment
groups. Also, the results did not show a significant difference between pre-test and follow-up,
indicating a persistent effect of the training.
Discussion: De-stress training program was found to significantly decrease the stress of
mothers of mentally disabled children.

Compared to negative experiences associated with parenting a child with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), research has paid much less attention to positive aspects of experiences. This study examined both experiences of stress and enrichment in parenting a child with ASD to provide insights for practical community support services. Eighty-seven caregivers responded to the Effects of the Situation Questionnaire, a modified version of the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (2nd Ed.), and the Parental Sense of Competence Scale. Stress and enrichment were examined in their relations to child symptom severity, number of child-focused services, and parenting self-efficacy. Parenting self-efficacy and perceived level of stress, but not child symptom severity or number of child-focused services, were correlated with parental experiences of enrichment. The link between parenting self-efficacy and enrichment was mitigated by reported levels of stress. The findings revealed the paradoxical existence of enrichment experiences despite challenges in parenting a child with ASD. Notably, a higher number of community supports was associated with higher levels of stress, suggesting quality of support may be more important than involvement in numerous services. Moreover, enrichment occurs disregarding child's symptoms and entails properly managing stress and a sense of parenting efficacy.

Objective One of the treatments that have been proposed recently for deaf children is cochlear implant.
It is a new technology and an accepted treatment for children with hearing impairment. In recent years,
researchers have paid special attention to the family and its relationship with the developmental skills of
children with hearing loss. Clinical experience has also shown that emotional performance and psychological
problems of the caregiver can have unfavorable effects on cochlear implanted children’s developmental
skills. Therefore, the present study was conducted with the aim of determining the relationship
of parent-child stress with developmental skills of children with cochlear implants.
Materials & Methods The present study was a correlational study that was conducted in 2015. The study
population comprised all children undergone cochlear implant surgery in Al-Zahra Hospital of Isfahan.
Out of them, 57 participants (34 boys and 23 girls) were selected randomly. To evaluate the research
variables, the Parenting Stress Index, Leiter International Performance Scale, the Vineland Social Maturity
Scale, the Language Development Scale, and the Cochlear Implanted Children’s Communication
Performance Scale were used. The data of the research were analyzed using descriptive statistics as well
as correlational and regression analysis methods. SPSS version 22 was used for data analysis.
Results The results of analyzing data indicated that there is a negative (reverse) significant correlation
between parent-child stress and language development (-0.59), social development (-0.38), and communication
development (-0.54) of children (P≤0.01). According to regression analysis investigating the
explanation of language development (criterion variable) based on parent-child stress (predictive variables),
the coefficient of determination equals to 0.34 (R2=0.34) and thus, 34% of the variance in the
dependent variable (language development) are explained via parent-child stress. Also, in explaining the
social development (criterion variable) based on parent-child stress (predictive variables), the coefficient
of determination equals to 0.14 (R2=0.14) and thus, 14% of the variance in the dependent variable (social
development) are explained via parent-child stress. Also, in explaining communication function (criterion
variable) based on parent-child stress (predictive variables), the coefficient of determination equals to
0.29 (R2=0.29) and thus, 29% of the variance in the dependent variable (communication function) are
explained via parent-child stress.
Conclusion The results of this study showed that parent-child stress had a significant effect on developmental
skills of children with cochlear implants. Due to the importance of developmental skills in
children with cochlear implants, the results of this study warned the need to provide counseling and psychological
support for this group of parents. Accordingly, the programs should be offered in the form of
workshops for mothers of these children. Also, psychologists and family counselors and experts in family
therapy are recommended to have special attention to the role of stress in parent-child relationships in
treatment programs and training.