Ochre

The term "ochre" has many meanings: a colored stone, a pigment, sunscreen, a curiosity item, a mustard hue, or even an object used for ritual. Ochre found at archaeological sites is described as a range of earthy, ferruginous rocks with red-yellow-purple streaks. The use of ochre in the past has proven valuable for interpreting not only cognitive capabili ties of its users but also for its potential to shed light on behavioral and social factors. The late Pleistocene, and specifically the Middle Stone Age in southern Africa, is a time of significant behavioral and cognitive advances for Homo sapiens-this coincides with the habitual use of ochre. By looking at the collection and use of ochre in the African Middle Stone Age, placed within a global and temporal context, important behavioral conclusions can be made. Ochre has many potential uses, making interpretations of ochre use in the past complicated. Ethnographic and modern analogies are considered as well as the ex perimental work that has been produced by numerous researchers. All accounts have deepened our understanding of the many ways that ochre may have been used in the dis tant past. It is likely that both its color and mineralogical content dictated its use in the past.

Ochre is found at many Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites and its use is often attributed to enhanced mental abilities and symbolism. However, the links between the visible uses of ochre, cognition and symbolism have not been clearly  demonstrated. Here, it is argued that by understanding ochre processing technology and some of the stages involved in
using ochre, one can determine the skill, knowledge and cognitive abilities required to execute those activities.
Sibudu, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, has a large ochre assemblage of over 9000 pieces dating between ∼77 and ∼37.6 ka. There are 682 pieces with signs of use. All pieces were examined to determine the types of ochre used and identify all use-traces. Use-traces were placed into activity categories based on ochre experiments. Combined grinding and rubbing is the most frequent activity for which the Sibudu ochre pieces
were used. Grinding and rubbing use-wear also occurs independently on many pieces. Scored pieces are rare and some of the incisions appear to be deliberate engravings,
with the most often repeated patterns being parallel lines and fan-like marks. Use-traces acquired during powder-producing activities predominate, implying a desire to create ochre powder. Powder-producing activities were mainly performed with bright-red pieces, while minimal scoring is mainly present on brown-red pieces.
Once the activities performed with ochre were established, thought-and-action sequences were constructed to establish the procedures and knowledge needed to complete an activity, thereby establishing the cognitive prerequisites. Cognitive interpretations were made using the concept of enhanced executive functions of the brain. Some activities with
ochre at Sibudu required complex mental abilities such as attention-switching, multitasking, response inhibition and abstract thought. The requirement for cognitively complex
abilities in some of the ochre-related activities at Sibudu suggests that the people living there during the MSA had advanced mental capabilities like modern humans living today. This research shows how ochre use can be employed as a proxy for cognitive capabilities and can therefore shed light on the evolution of the modern mind.

The focus of this paper is to examine the legacy of San pygmy spiritual journeys through a three-tiered cosmos of sky, earth, and underworld as they are consciously danced and reinforced by rock paintings, which seem to be the oldest and purest forms of known spiritual connection.

These are material gateways to spirit dimensions entered into through altered states. Images gleaned from past shamanic visions are vivified with countless overlays of fresh revelations, further enhancing this interface. Under the laws of quantum physics, a particle can act on another across time as well as space. This may explain how templates retrieved from timeless dimensions are brought into vivid manifestation through the trance dances and supportive rock images of the San.

Facets of this energetically potent storehouse are expressed on varying levels as dancing shamans, graphic images, mineral components, and spiritual realms. This vast undertaking spans at least 35,000 continuous years, still enacted in ritual trance dances by small groups of pygmy in southern Africa. The San pygmy honors small but significant 'first things of life'. They merge with Source through circular absorption or revelation to achieve understanding, rather than utilizing linear thinking, our commonly accepted learning filter. In this distinction lies the San quest for meaning, to be found in the deeper, unseen layers of living experience. Their awareness of unending change and inevitable renewal challenges our current world paradigm and deserves complete attention if we are to evolve.

The Austrian goddess of Willendorf is a 4 1/2 in. engraved limestone or fired composite with traces of ochre. On her head is a woven headdress, cap, or hairstyle of precisely carved labyrinthine notations ‘layered in seven strata.’ (MG: 10.) Given the miniature scale, she could easily fit in one’s hand and suggests a “personal, not a communal, religious artifact.” (SOTG: 26-27.) The Willendorf goddess from Austria (Moravia), the Lespugue goddess from France, and Dolni Vestonice from Czechoslovakia along with others from Spain, Russia plus Germany and Mal’ta in Siberia all suggest “rituals of an immensely extended culture.” (MG: 684.)

Pētījuma "Dabas minerālu pigmentu krāsas un to toņi kā kultūru identificējoša zīme" mērķis ir fiksēt minerālu pigmentu izmantošanu par krāsvielu no aizvēstures līdz brīdim, kad antropoloģiski tiek lietotas pamata krāsas -sarkans, dzeltens, zils. Paralēls pētījuma objekts ir krāsas toņa semiotika, kas balstās arheoloģisko izrakumu aprakstos un seno kultūru pētījumos (Austrālija, Andamanu salas, Amazones lietus meži (Yanomamo indiāņi) un senās Indas upes ielejas civilizācijas). Pētījumu metodika ir literatūras studijas, atsevišķu objektu izpēte (aizvēstures petroglifi Portugālē Foz Côa un ala Escoural), kā arī praktiska krāsu veidošana no Latvijas krāsu zemēm.

Plus qu'un simple état de la science sur les Cyclades antiques, ce livre entend interroger les perspectives géopolitiques, économiques, diplomatiques et culturelles induites par le rapport entre les Cyclades -comprises comme un ensemble cohérent dans ses diversités -et les différents pouvoirs ayant dominé la région égéenne au cours du millénaire envisagé ici. C'est ainsi face aux pouvoirs naxien, parien, samien, athénien, lagide, rhodien puis finalement romain que l'histoire des îles cycladiques est interrogée par les vingt contributeurs que réunit cet ouvrage, dans une approche fondée sur la convergence des sources historiques et archéologiques.

L'ocre peut-elle être un témoin •actif de la recherche préhistorique?
Il n'existe aucune définition géologique, physique ou chimique de
l'ocre. L'impossibilité de dresser une cartographie des ressources en ocre
de la France, applicable à la compréhension des sites préhistoriques, conduit
à l'établissement d'un compromis: la définition d'une "ocre vraie",
potentiellement' présente dans les terrains du crétacé.
Il est nécessaire de considérer également d'autres types de
terres colorantes qui peuvent la remplacer. Les sites archéologiques ayant
livré des vestiges ocreux se concentrent dans les régions naturellement
riches en ocre. Les exceptions constatées pourraient s'expliquer par une
importation ou le recours à un ersatz. Des analyses d'échantillons permettraient
de faire le• point sur ces éventuels déplacements de matière.
De nombreux objets ocrés, lithiques ou osseux, ont été signalés
et plus particulièrement des spatules et des grattoirs souvent fortement
usés. D'après certaines analyses fonctionnelles ces deux formes d'outils
sont susceptibles d'avoir travaillé sur de la peau sèche ocrée. L'ethnographie
atteste l'emploi technique de l'ocre pour conserver les matières organiques
et préserver de la vermine.
Cinq semaines d'expérimentation ont montré que l'ocre contribue
efficacement au traitement de la peau animale, et confirmé les vertus qui
lui sont prêtées. La préparation de l'ocre et son emploi polluent des secteurs
de l'habitat et des outils spécifiques. L'analyse fonctionnelle permet
de reconnaître la matière ocrée travaillée par les outils, et met en
évidence une macro-usure particulière des fronts de grattoirs.
La synthèse de toutes les informations géologiques et archéologiques
liée à l'analyse des vestiges ocrés, permettra de mieux comprendre
l'ocre préhistorique sous son aspect technique et utilitaire.

Altamura F., Bertolini Blanc A., Bertolini Blanc G., Lungo I., Mussi M., 2019. La scoperta dell’Arnalo dei Bufali (Sezze, LT): documenti fotografici inediti dall’archivio Blanc-Aguet, in 1° incontro di studi “Sezze, i Monti Lepini e il Basso Lazio tra Preistoria e Protostoria” Museo Archeologico di Sezze (LT) 22 aprile 2018, IpoTESI di Preistoria, 11, pp. 165-168. ISSN 1974-7985
RIASSUNTO Si presentano in questo contributo immagini inedite del riparo Arnalo dei Bufali (Sezze, LT) e delle pitture individuate sulle pareti interne. Le fotografie, scattate da Carlo Alberto Blanc nel 1936, quando il complesso archeologico venne scoperto e studiato per la prima volta, sono attualmente conservate presso l'archivio Blanc-Aguet, a Roma. ABSTRACT We present previously unpublished pictures of the rock shelter and the painting at the prehistoric site known as Arnalo dei Bufali (Sezze, LT). The photos were taken by A. C. Blanc in 1936, when the site was discovered and studied for the first time; they are currently stored in the Blanc-Aguet archive, in Rome.

Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit dem Phänomen der Ockerverteilung in den mesolithischen Bestattungen Europas. Ziel ist es zu überprüfen, ob ein Muster diesbezüglich erkennbar ist. Dabei werden folgende Fragen berücksichtigt: Sind der gesamte Körperbereich oder nur bestimmte Körperteile mit Ocker versehen? Besteht ein Unterschied zwischen Geschlecht (Mann, Frau) und Alter (Kinder, Erwachsene) der Individuen, der verschiedenen mesolithischen Zeitabschnitte(Früh- und Spätmesolithikum) oder zwischen Bestattungen mit hoher oder geringer Beigabenanzahl? Ein Muster der Verteilung in Bestattungen könnte möglicherweise weitere Aufschlüsse über die Ockerverwendung in mesolithischen Bestattungen geben. Die Publikationen, die sich mit Ocker in der Steinzeit befassen, geben meist Überblicke zur allgemeinen Verwendungen des Materials. Außerdem beziehen sie sich zeitlich hauptsächlich auf das Paläolithikum und versuchen, die Bedeutung hinter diesem Ritus zu erfassen, wobei immer wieder ethnologische Vergleiche herangezogen werden. Zum Mesolithikum ist im Hinblick auf Bestattungen bekannt, dass Ocker in großen Mengen verwendet wurde. Aber es ist noch nicht umfassend untersucht worden, ob ein Muster der Verteilung auf den Skelettresten in den Gräbern erkennbar ist und was daraus möglicherweise für Schlüsse gezogen werden könnten.

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.1758.4002

The Chauvet Cave complex discovered in 1994, is located in southeast France near Vallon-Pont-d’Arc in the Ardèche (Ardecha) River region, renowned as Europe’s richest collection of Paleolithic art and considered to be the oldest cave with such high-level paintings. “Different periods of visitation are between 31,000 and 27,000 (23,000)” (PO: 128).  In addition to stalactites and stalagmites, plus memorial remains, ochre (ocher) and charcoal artwork include significant animals, hand stencils,  and triangles, plus the Chauvet “Venus” (object of veneration) and Sorcerer.

The properties of ochre from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) layers of Sibudu, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, are described here. The assemblage comprises 5449 pieces (>8 mm), including 682 pieces with markings from use. Shale is the most common geological form. Ochre of medium hardness is common and the grain sizes are generally silty or clayey. Some change in ochre types occurs through time. The Howiesons Poort layers have the highest percentage of utilised pieces. Clayey grain sizes are favoured during the Still Bay and Howiesons Poort, whereas silty grain sizes are preferred in the younger MSA occupations. Bright-red ochre was preferentially selected for use throughout the sequence, with the exception of the final MSA where a wider range of colours was utilised. High frequencies of red amongst the utilised pieces, coupled with high frequencies of yellow or orange pieces with no evidence of use, suggest that colour choices were deliberate and not a product of post-depositional heating. Chemical analysis on a sample of utilised pieces indicates that they all contain iron, silicon, aluminium and calcium. Many pieces contain hematite and some maghemite. There is evidence of preferential selection of specific types of ochre for use in the Sibudu assemblage.

This paper concerns a particular phenomenon that affects a large part of the lithic assemblage found in the final Epigravettian layers of Grotta Continenza (Trasacco - Abruzzo - Central Italy). It is the use of ocher (here understood as a coloring pigment based on iron oxides) in fields ranging from the functional/daily use to the symbolic sphere, and that concerns diversified types of blanks: cores, tools, not retouched blades or flakes. We describe first artifacts in which traces of ocher appear to be linked to treatment of pigment or to works in which ocher performs a practical function (abrasive to skin, degreasing mixed with natural glues).
Later we analyze blanks in which the use of red pigment may be linked to symbolic or spiritual sphere.

Im Verlauf der Evolution hat der Mensch den Gebrauch von Farbe auf eine Art und Weise kultiviert, wie es bisher in dieser Form für keine andere Spezies nachgewiesen werden konnte. Im Vergleich zu Tieren sind Menschen nicht mehr auf das Sehen von Farbe angewiesen, um ihr Überleben zu sichern. Menschen können sich Farben als ein Attribut vorstellen, welches auf alle möglichen Formen angewendet werden kann aber auch für sich allein funktioniert, d.h. Farben sind damit zu polysemischen Symbolen geworden. Der Prähistorischen Archäologie sind seit dem ausgehenden 19. Jahrhundert Funde von Farbstoffen bekannt, die bereits auf eine abstrakte Farbwahrnehmung und -nutzung im Paläolithikum hinweisen. Der Fundbestand umfasst überwiegend rot, orange, gelb oder violett färbende Stücke, die mitunter Eisenhydroxide und/oder Eisenoxide enthalten und allgemein unter dem Sammelbegriff Ocker zusammengefasst werden. Bis in die zweite Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts wurden nur wenige systematische Untersuchungen an diesem Material durchgeführt. Den Farbstoffen wurde lediglich Aufmerksamkeit zuteil, sobald diese in jungpaläolithischen Kontexten vorgefunden wurden, die mit einem abstrakten Denken assoziiert wurden (z. B. Bestattungen und Höhlenmalereien). Infolge dieser Fokussierung auf symbolisch aufgeladene Befunde kam es zu einer Vernachlässigung der übrigen Nutzungs- und Fundkontexte von Farbstoffen, insbesondere bei denen aus der Zeit vor dem Jungpaläolithikum.
Ausgehend von einer Zusammenstellung alt-, mittel- und jungpaläolithischer Ockerfunde aus Afrika, Westasien und Europa werden grundlegende Tendenzen in der Geschichte der menschlichen Farbnutzung diskutiert. Neben einer chronologischen Übersicht zu den frühesten Hinweisen auf eine spezifische Farbwahrnehmung beim Homo erectus und Homo neanderthalensis werden Artefaktgattungen aus Ocker bzw. Hämatit zusammengetragen („Crayons“, gravierte wie auch perforierte Stücke etc.). Ferner wird eine Darstellung von Abbaustellen und möglichen Transportstrecken von Farbstoffen geboten. Weitere Schwerpunkte bilden archäologische und naturwissenschaftliche Indizien für eine gezielte Hitzebehandlung von Ocker zur Gewinnung spezifischer Farbtöne beim Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis und Homo sapiens sowie praktische Nutzungen wie die Verwendung von Ocker in Klebstoffen, bei der Verarbeitung von Häuten und Fellen sowie medizinische Anwendungsmöglichkeiten. Ergänzend werden das Vorkommen von Ocker in Bestattungen und im Bereich von Behausungen, wie auch die Herstellung bzw. Färbung von Statuetten aus/mit Ocker  vorgestellt. Den Abschluss bildet eine Zusammenstellung von Knochen-, Geweih-, Horn- und Molluskenartefakten im Kontext der Nutzung und Verarbeitung von Farbstoffen.

Recorrido sobre la importancia y significado de los óxidos de hierro/ocre/hematites en la Prehistoria. Se aborda el análisis de las atribuciones de este mineral, ampliamente utilizado en sociedades prehistóricas, tanto con fines funcionales –usos para curtido de pieles, como adhesivo, medicinal u otros– como simbólicos –no solo en distintos ámbitos de arte prehistórico, sino también en ambientes funerarios y/o como pintura corporal–. Posteriormente, indagando en las causas de su amplia distribución en sentido contextual, cronológico y geográfico, se exponen algunas de las teorías más relevantes que han buscado una explicación para este fenómeno y se ofrece una nueva hipótesis. En última instancia, se propone el doble uso –funcional y simbólico– como motor de desarrollo de las relaciones humanas para con los óxidos de hierro.

ABSTRACT: This present work constitutes an overview about the importance and meaning of iron oxides/ochre/hematite in Prehistory. The diverse properties of this material, broadly used by prehistoric societies, either with functional –tanning, as adhesive, medicinal or others– or symbolic –not only within different rock art environments, but also for funerary practices and/or body painting– utilities are analyzed. Afterwards, while inquiring on causes for its wide dissemination in its contextual, chronologic and geographic senses, some of the most relevant theories which have looked for an explanation of this phenomenon are exposed, whilst a new hypothesis is offered. Ultimately, a double use –functional and symbolic– is proposed as a driving force for the development of human relationships regarding iron oxides.

Particular stones found on Epi-Palaeolithic sites in the Levant are thought to be for grinding vegetable matter and to be essential instruments in the development of food processing. Finding an assemblage of these tools in a burial cave, the authors ask a harder question: could they have been used for processing hides with ochre? Use-wear analysis allows a positive verdict, and so the tools take their place in the ritual apparatus associated with burial.

This article is a part of the results of the master thesis, which aim was to improve significantly the studies of the conditions of pictorial elements in a rock art mural, that is, to know the materials that were used and their interactions with the open air. This academic exercise introduces new aspects in the research process concerning the materials present in these rock art works and leads up to the works about technology of pigments in the studied area, extending the descriptive possibilities of the conservation conditions of rock art. The study of the materials opens a route towards the conservation work, and constitutes an essential way for the projected studies on dating. In this work, pigments were analyzed, some accretions, the rock substrate and the possible raw material of the rock art paintings. This analysis was done using Spectrometry Infrared. This investigation process is set in the context that the research group GIPRI has developed, as an extension of the methodological model of record and documentation of rock art in Colombia, especially in the cundiboyacense highplateau. The rock chosen was "La Piedra de La Cuadrícula ", located in a set of 167 rocks in Tequendama's area, Soacha's Municipality, in Cundinamarca's department. This sector is one of the most important archaeological sites of the country. In this site cultural stratigraphic sequences between 12 500 B.P. and 2500 B.P. have been found. On the other hand, there have been developed very important studies of the Pleistocenic and Holocenic environment.

Dr Camilla Power (26th March, 2013) - Lunarchy: The original human economics of time. The Ecology, Cosmos and Consciousness Salon, The Institute of Ecotechnics, October Gallery, Bloomsbury, London. (Host and compère)

Scientific discourse rarely allows mention of the moon. The enlightenment’s rational tradition drawing from its Christian heritage in male-only theological colleges had problems with two things: 1) women; 2) the moon. Apparent from 'lunatics', 'moonshine', and 'looney' figures as regular patriarchal putdowns. Yet the question of what made us human cannot be solved without a focus on women, the moon and menstruation. African hunter-gatherer cosmology takes the lunar cycle as the crucial timeframe for ritual, sex and economic activities. The shared sources of this cosmology carry us back to earliest human symbolic culture, the very origins of art and ritual itself, over 100,000 years ago. These hunter-gatherer societies are among the most gender egalitarian on earth. But how does such egalitarianism work? Women especially assert power through their bodies collectively to resist any threat of male exploitation. As the moon waxes and wanes, the dynamic of power switches in more or less playful battles between the sexes. No one rules but the moon. Could lunarchy offer us a way to transform our lives and reclaim our revolutionary heritage as humans?

Distinctive mulberry paintings found in northern Australia, particularly those of Kimberley region, have been argued to represent some of the oldest surviving rock art on the continent. Significant research efforts continue to focus on resolving the age of these motifs, but comparatively little attention has been given to understanding their physical composition and potential source(s).  In a pilot investigation we conclude that (at least) two mineralogically distinct mulberry pigments occur in Gwion motifs and demonstrate that their major components can be indicatively chemically differentiated, non-invasively. Characterisation of a ‘quarried’ mulberry ochre source demonstrates that these pigments occur locally as natural minerals.

RIASSUNTO / L'arte rupestre della Valsorda (Trentino, Italia) è caratterizzata dalla presenza di circa 6000 iscrizioni realizzate utilizzando un'ocra rossa locale su 228 pareti rocciose situate ai piedi del Latemar. L'iscrizione più antica è del 1801 e quella più recente del 1960. Rispetto all'arte rupestre del vicino Monte Cornón, le scritte della Valsorda sono artisticamente meno curate ma presentano un'originalità e un carico simbolico stupefacente. Molto interessanti sono le scritte dei pastori veneti, venuti qui in cerca di lavoro a fine Ottocento. Lo studio dei contenuti delle iscrizioni ha permesso di rilevare come i temi trattati siano di carattere prevalentemente economico, affettivo e religioso, ma non politico e nazionalistico.

Microscopy was performed on tools obtained from the Middle Stone Age deposits of Sibudu Cave because previous observations suggested that there might be a possible functional role for ochre at the site. Analyses of the distribution patterns of ochre residues conducted on post-Howiesons Poort points and Howiesons Poort segments from Sibudu Cave show that ochre was an integral part of the hafting technologies for the duration of these techno-complexes. Close associations between ochre and resin on these tools strengthen the hypothesis that ground ochre was probably mixed into the adhesives that were used to glue the tools to hafts. The evidence presented here expands our understanding of the versatility and value of pigmentatious material in prehistory; it is not intended to be an alternative or replacement hypothesis for its possible symbolic role.

Although there are many interpretations of the African Middle Stone Age (MSA), this essay will review the relevant evidence relating to the significance of ochre use during this period. Contention regarding the MSA focusses on whether people of this period were capable of modern human cognition, especially important as the MSA period predates anatomically modern humans. In an effort to understand when behavioural modernity occurred, archaeologists examining the archaeological MSA record, such as the abundance of ochre artefacts, have resulted in differing conclusions. Ongoing debate emphasises ochre use, signifying functional behaviour and beginnings of advanced thought, or ritual behaviour and fully human cognition. Proponents for both sides concur that ochre use could have been both functional and ritualistic. Whether people of the MSA decorated objects or themselves with special colours, created tanned hides, or composite weapons, they can no longer be seen as archaic due to new evidence of growing human cognition throughout the period.

This contribution provides direct evidence for the use of ochre in adhesive recipes during the Howiesons Poort of South Africa. Stone segments from two KwaZulu-Natal sites were microscopically analyzed to document ochre and resin microresidue occurrences. These microresidues show a clear distribution pattern on the tool portions that are associated with hafting. Results from a separate quartz and crystal-quartz sample may indicate that different adhesive recipes were applied to different raw materials. A possible functional application for ochre in association with Later Stone Age mastics is also explored. The evidence and suggestions presented here expand our understanding of the versatility, use, and value of pigmentatious materials in prehistory; it is not viewed as an alternative or replacement hypothesis for its possible symbolic role during the late Pleistocene.

This is a book about colour as a primary aspect of things. What can we learn if we give colour this respect? In the following essays, colours are materialized as cake icing, railway signals, gravestones, clothing, landscapes and atmospheres, paintings, film and photographs. The colours are 're-materialized' because as material stuff they are part of our everyday lives and not merely the mental concept 'colour' , an idea that belongs to post-Enlightenment European cultures. This is also a book about the socialness of colours. Attaching colour to culture refigures it as part of human society relevant to political economy and aesthetics (Gage 1993; Pinney 2006). Colour can swiftly travel from being merely a consumer choice to a fundamental idea about ordering and classifying the world. Investigating the concept of colour leads to some other key concepts: universality and relativity, cognition, classification, agency and the vitality of things, the colonialism of ideas, the dynamic interaction of people and environment, of subjects and objects. Colour in the singular often refers to the concept of colour, and colours in the plural to practices and substances (Batchelor 2008). over recent years materiality has become important theoretically in anthropology. Cultural theories about things promise that the relationships between people and things (subjects and objects) are central to understanding cosmology, power and multiple facets of a society (Miller 2005). Things have qualities that they bring to bear on humans. one of the purposes of this book is to ask what coloured materials do. It is not novel to write about colour as materialized. There are a multitude of books on colour already in the world. The majority are practical manuals aimed at the consumer, and they provide tips on colouring your home, choosing assemblages of colour in your clothing,

Ochre is a natural pigment of yellow or red color, mainly consisting of iron minerals. Along with determining the origin of mineral dyes, one of the main problems of studying natural pigments in archaeology is identifying the origin of the so-called "red" ochre, made on the basis of hematite. Hematite is a widespread mineral found everywhere. However, it can be obtained by pyroprocessing goethite, which is the main component of the "yellow" ochre. To test the hypothesis of the red ochre production through the pyroprocessing of iron oxides, 3 samples of ochre from the burials of the Bronze Age in the Republic of Adygea and the Krasnodar area have been studied. To identify the traces of thermal treatment of the raw ochre, we've carried out complex analysis, including the X-ray diffractometry, element analysis, infrared spectroscopy and microstructure analysis. The traces of the pyroprocessing have been revealed in the ochre sample from the burial of the Early Bronze Age near the Kazanskaya settlement. The form and size of the hematite crystals in the burial of the Ladozhskaya settlement indicate the unperformed heat treatment and the endogenous origin. The sample from the Novosvobodnaya village shows the traces of pyroprocessing, but the pigment's microstructure indicates the sedimentary origin of the iron minerals from which it is composed. It's been found that the color of pigments does not depend on the percentage of iron in the raw material sample. The presence and the ratio of hematite and goethite in the pigment, as well as the composition of other minerals in the final product are the most significant discoveries. P.I. Kalinin has carried out the complex analysis of pigment properties, data interpretation, literature review and paper writing; V.A. Trifonov has determined the archaeological context, interpreted the data, edited paper and approved the final version; N.I. Shishlina has provided samples for analysis, interpreted the data, made fundamental editiond to the paper; A.O. Alekseev has interpreted the mineralogical analysis and made certain amendments.

Los óxidos de hierro son prácticamente omnipresentes al analizar contextos, no solo referentes al arte rupestre, sino también en relación con toda una serie de actividades que podríamos considerar cotidianas en ambientes prehistóricos. Sin embargo, su estudio sistemático no ha comenzado hasta tiempos muy recientes. Fruto de ello, podría decirse que una parte de la literatura arqueológica no especializada en el campo de la pigmentología muestra, en ocasiones, cierta inexactitud terminológica. Con este documento pretendemos, a través de un análisis tanto de su funcionamiento, como de las propiedades geoquímicas y mineralógicas del ocre, la hematites y los propios óxidos de hierro, exponer la necesidad de propiedad en su nomenclatura, así como los problemas que podrían derivarse de la falta de precisión. Por último, establecemos algunas propuestas que tal vez pudieran ayudar en esta normativización.

The Dalmeri rockshelter is located at 1240 m a.s.l. on the northern edge of the Piana della Marcesina (Grigno – Altopiano
dei Sette Comuni – Trentino). From 1991 the stratigraphic excavations carried out by the Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturali have revealed
a sequence of anthropic levels datable to the Recent Epigravettian. The interdisciplinary research has allowed us to reconstruct part of the spatial
organisation of the site and the resources exploitation of the mountain environment by the Epigravettian hunter-gatherers. Two principal
dwelling phases can be identified in the anthropic levels. The first, dated at about 13,200 years 14C cal BP, represents the most ancient human
dwelling phase (US 65/15a) and is strictly connected to the location of 229 stones painted with red ochre. The second phase, dated at about
13,000 14C cal BP, corresponds to the dwelling surfaces 26c and 26b that conserved evident structures (hearths) and latent ones (subcircular
structure interpreted as a hut). The paintings in red-pigment (hematite) were carried out on oolitic grainstone from the natural landslide which
took place before the human settlement occupation. The restoration of these paintings yielded different types of figures: zoomorphic, signs,
anthropomorphic, hands, composite figures on both sides and diverse types of stones with red pigment traces. The dimensional analysis of
the stones revealed a certain standardisation in the choice of the calcareous supports used. The spatial distribution of the painted stones highlighted
a preferential belt of concentration orientated on an east-west axis inside the most ancient settlement level (US65/15a). The present
data suggests that an area had been marked off in this most ancient settlement level of the rockshelter where ritual activities took place. Even
though the complexity of the rituals is not clear to us, the data available at this time suggests a spatial organization, which will become more
evident after further excavation.