Biological Anthropology

COURSE DESCRIPTION: This is an upper level undergraduate course on human osteology. Human osteology is an integral part of several subdisciplines of biological anthropology including: forensic anthropology, bioarchaeology, paleoanthropology and population genetics. Students in this course will learn basic human osteology as well as the skills and techniques necessary to estimate demographic information from the human skeleton (the biological profile). This course focuses on the adult skeleton, although students will learn some aspects of embryology and human growth and development. This course will prepare students to recognize fragmentary remains and provide a foundation for understanding the musculoskeletal system and functional anatomy.

This paper examines a variety of cyborg figures in science fiction and art, and investigates how these posthuman subject’s perceptual capacities are altered through their “cyborging,” how this might lead to greater intersubjective understanding and empathy, and advocates an embodied phenomenology for these figures. The cyborg and the posthuman are not necessarily synonymous but share similar political and ethical goals in theory: to radically redefine the human and the humanities, in order to see a way to better intersubjective and interspecies relations.
Ghost in The Shell, Anne McCaffrey, Neil Harbisson.

The Human Organism: Introduction to Biological Anthropology ----

OPEN ACCESS (FREE) ONLINE SINHALA TEXTBOOK

“Minis Saththwaya” offers an introduction to Biological (Physical) Anthropology with a focus on humans as biological organisms. Using an evolutionary perspective and a bio-cultural approach, this resource outlines the principles of Biological Anthropology, describing humanity. This online open access resource is designed to make anthropological knowledge accessible in Sinhala for A-Level students, University students, instructors and the general public.
Author: Samanti Kulatilake, PhD
Associate Professor, Mount Royal University, Canada


ජෛව මානව විද්‍යාව හදාරන සිසු සිසුවියන්ට මෙන්ම මිනිසාගේ ජෛවී තොරතුරු විමසන්නන් හට සිංහල බසින් ලියැවුණු මූලාශ්‍ර දුර්ලභ ය. මෙම විෂයය පිළිබඳව අවබෝධය පුළුල් කිරීම පිණිස වඩාත් විස්තරාත්මකව නව තොරතුරු සහ අදහස් ඇතුළත් කර, ජෛව මානව විද්‍යාව පිළිබඳ තොරතුරු ප්‍රචලිත කිරීමේ මූලික අභිලාෂය පෙරටු කොට ගෙන මෙම කෘතිය ඉදිරිපත් කරමි.

මානව විවිධත්වය සහ පරිණාමය විද්‍යාත්මකව වටහා ගැනීම කාලීන අවශ්‍යතාවකි. ජෛව (භෞතික) මානව විද්‍යා විෂය පිළිබඳව හැඳින්වීමක් “මිනිස් සත්ත්වයා: ජෛව මානව විද්‍යා ප්‍රවේශය” කෘතියෙන් ඉදිරිපත් වෙයි. පරිණාමවාදී දෘෂ්ටිකෝණයක් තුළින් සහ ජෛව සංස්කෘතික ප්‍රවේශයක් හරහා මිනිසා ජෛව ලෝකයේ සාමාජිකයකු ලෙස අධ්‍යයනය කරන අන්දම මෙහිදී හඳුන්වා දෙනු ලැබේ. මානව විද්‍යාත්මක දැනුම සිංහල භාෂාවෙන් ප්‍රචලිත  කිරීමේ අභිලාෂයෙන් නිර්මාණය කර ඇති මෙම විවෘත ප්‍රවේශ මූලාශ්‍රය උසස් පෙළ සහ විශ්ව විද්‍යාල සිසුන්ට මෙන්ම ආචාර්යවරුන්ට සහ පොදු පාඨකයන්ට ද ප්‍රයෝජනවත් වනු ඇත.

කර්තෘ: සමන්ති කුලතිලක, PhD
සහය මහාචාර්ය, මවුන්ට් රෝයල් විශ්ව විද්‍යාලය, කැනඩාව

Previous research suggests that the moment arm of the m. triceps surae tendon (i.e., Achilles tendon), is positively correlated with the energetic cost of running. This relationship is derived from a model which predicts that shorter ankle moment arms place larger loads on the Achilles tendon, which should result in a greater amount of elastic energy storage and return. However, previous research has not empirically tested this assumed relationship. We test this hypothesis using an inverse dynamics approach in human subjects (n = 24) at speeds ranging from walking to sprinting. The spring function of the Achilles tendon was evaluated using specific net work, a metric of mechanical energy production versus absorption at a limb joint. We also combined kinematic and morphological data to directly estimate tendon stress and elastic energy storage. We find that moment arm length significantly determines the spring-like behavior of the Achilles tendon, as well as estimates of mass-specific tendon stress and elastic energy storage at running and sprinting speeds. Our results provide support for the relationship between short Achilles tendon moment arms and increased elastic energy storage, providing an empirical mechanical rationale for previous studies demonstrating a relationship between calcaneal length and running economy. We also demonstrate that speed and kinematics moderate tendon performance, suggesting a complex relationship between lower limb geometry and foot strike pattern. The role of the Achilles tendon (AT) in elastic energy storage with subsequent return during stance phase is well established 1-7. Recovery of elastic energy imparted to the AT is potentially influenced by AT morphology in three ways: (1) material properties of the tendon, (2) cross-sectional area of the tendon, and (3) the moment arm of the calcaneal tuberosity loading the tendon against the muscle force of the m. triceps surae (i.e., foot geometry). Previous work suggests that foot geometry may explain variation in how much potential energy is stored in the tendon, finding that a shorter AT moment arm is correlated with lower mass-specific energy costs of locomotion (COL; L O 2 kg −1 s −1) 8, 9. This finding suggests that shorter AT moment arms are associated with greater elastic loads imparted to the tendon, which are then recovered as kinetic energy during the support phase of each gait cycle 9 , thereby reducing COL. Scholz et al. 9 also suggest that the length of the AT moment arm is a more significant factor in explaining COL than variation in material properties of the tendon itself or size-related variation in the cost of swinging the leg forward during the aerial phase of the gait cycle 9. However, assumptions about the interacting roles of AT moment arm length, tendon cross-sectional dimensions, and tendon material properties on variation in elastic energy storage have yet to tested in an integrated manner. Moreover, Scholz et al. 9 doesn't directly measure the variables in the model which predict variation in elastic energy storage, including muscle force and the external moment arm. Finally, because previous studies of how AT moment arm length influences COL have used trained runners running on a treadmill at a speed of 16 km/h, it is still unknown how variation in speed and athletic training impacts elastic loading to the tendon in relation to moment arm length. While previous work has explored elastic loading of the AT at different speeds and under different loading conditions 10-21 , this study is the first to investigate the potential correlation between foot geometry like the AT moment arm length and spring-like behavior of this tendon in humans. In this study, we model elastic loading of the AT by characterizing the spring-like behavior over the support phase of each gait cycle using two metrics. First, we calculate specific net work (SNW) at the ankle joint. SNW is OPEN

Howler monkeys (genus Alouatta) display a distinctive cranial architecture characterized by airorhynchy (or retroflexion of the facial skeleton on the cranial base), a small braincase, and a posteriorly oriented foramen magnum. This configuration has been associated with distinct factors including a high folivory diet, locomotion, and the presence of a specialized vocal tract characterized by large hyoid bone. However, the morphological relationships between the facial and neurocranial blocks in Alouatta have been scarcely investigated. In this study we quantitatively analyzed the cranial shape variation in Alouatta seniculus, to evaluate possible influences and constraints in face and braincase associated with airorhynchy. We also considered the structural role of the pteric area within the cranial functional matrix. We applied landmark-based analysis and multivariate statistics to 31 adult crania, computing shape analyses based on 3D coordinates registration as well as the analysis of the Euclidean distance matrix to investigate patterns of intraspecific morphological variability. Our results suggest that allometry is the main source of variation involved in shaping cranial morphology in howlers, influencing the degree of facial proportions and braincase flattening, and generating the main sexual differences. Larger individuals are characterized by a higher degree of airorhynchy, neurocranial flattening, and expansion of the zygomatic arch. Allometric variations influence the skull as a whole, without distinct patterns for face and braincase, which behave as an integrated morphological unit. A preliminary survey on the pteric pattern suggests that the morphology of this area may be the result of variations in the vertical growth rates between face and braincase. Future studies should be dedicated to the ontogenetic series and focus on airorhynchy in terms of differential growth among distinct cranial districts.

We assess craniometric variation in 153 individually dated human crania from South Africa with the aim of investigating genetic continuity/discontinuity during the Holocene. Evidence from the archaeological record is used to pinpoint likely episodes of genetic discontinuity. Craniometric data are then used to assess the likelihood of genetic change having occurred. Two periods of possible genetic discontinuity are identified: i) c. 4,000 BP, when an increase in overall population size, shifts in site organization and diet, and reduced mobility, were accompanied by reductions in stature; ii) c. 2,000 BP, when the herding of domesticates and the use of pottery vessels were introduced into the region. Results indicate that there was a decrease in cranial size and concomitant size-related changes in craniofacial shape between c.4,000 BP and 3,000 BP. This was followed almost immediately by a recovery in craniofacial size and a return to pre-4,000 BP craniofacial shape at c. 3,000 BP. This recovery continued gradually, extending into the herder period without any major shifts in morphology at 2,000 BP. It is suggested that the fluctuations in craniofacial size/shape were related to changes in environmental factors. Results obtained are consistent with long term continuity in South African Later Stone Age populations during the Holocene.

Hisashi Fujitai) g ， Hirohiko Hirano2) and Takao Suzuki3) 1)o四四ent・)fAn伽ρ・嬬」w如αα〃ege・・fハTursing 2)DePartment・・fDe吻1伽I Su・ge・y， T・ky・Met・・p・1伽Geriat・ic・H・spita1 3)D下等ent・fEpi伽i・1・gy， T・ley・Metr・p・litan・lnstitute・・f・Ger・nt・1・gy i) 240 Sh innan 一cho， Joetsu， Niigata 943-014Z JaPan 2・3)35-2Sakae-cho， Itabashi 一 leu， Toleyo 173-0015；ノ41》an

Background: Obesity has been identified as an important risk factor in the development of cardiovascular diseases; however, other factors, combined or not with obesity, can influence cardiovascular risk and should be considered in cardiovascular risk stratification in pediatrics. Objective: To analyze the association between anthropometry measures and cardiovascular risk factors, to investigate the determinants to changes in blood pressure (BP), and to propose a prediction equation to waist circumference (WC) in children and adolescents. Methods: We evaluated 1,950 children and adolescents, aged 7 to 18 years. Visceral fat was assessed by WC and waist-hip relationship, BP and body mass index (BMI). In a randomly selected subsample of these volunteers (n = 578), total cholesterol, glucose and triglycerides levels were evaluated. Results: WC was positively correlated with BMI (r = 0.85; p < 0.001) and BP (SBP r = 0.45 and DBP = 0.37; p < 0.001). Glycaemia and triglycerides showed a weak correlation with WC (r = 0.110; p = 0.008 e r = 0.201; p < 0.001, respectively). Total cholesterol did not correlate with any of the variables. Age, BMI and WC were significant predictors on the regression models for BP (p < 0.001). We propose a WC prediction equation for children and adolescents: boys: y = 17.243 + 0.316 (height in cm); girls: y = 25.197 + 0.256 (height in cm). Conclusion: WC is associated with cardiovascular risk factors and presents itself as a risk factor predictor of hypertension in children and adolescents. The WC prediction equation proposed by us should be tested in future studies. (Arq Bras Cardiol. 2013; [online].ahead print, PP.0-0

RESUMEN
La relación interna entre filosofía, literatura y arte permite examinar con propiedad qué significan la pluralidad y complejidad en los usos de la razón. Posibilita la aproximación a esos usos y figuras desde un ángulo privilegiado. El interés por lo literario y artístico no tendría por qué significar un apresurado abandono del modelo discursivo y analítico -que es característico de la filosofía-, sino más bien el acceso a un punto de vista más completo, un nuevo método reflexivo, otro límite crítico. Esta perspectiva facilita la puesta al día de las tesis modernas sobre la filosofía como emancipación, esto es, como su salida de la minoría de edad.
Espacios ficcionales, campos de proyección de la experiencia, métodos y perspectivas trasdisciplinarias constituyen los distintos niveles a través de los cuales se trata de definir un nexo complejo entre discursos. La ficción como conocimiento, subjetividad y texto, así como la relación entre mundo y lenguaje pretenden acotar algunas dimensiones de esa relación.
A través de la literatura llegamos a estar familiarizados con situaciones, sentimientos, formas de vida, obteniendo así una mirada desde dentro -epistemológicamente empática-. Cada nueva visión del mundo constituye un nuevo tipo de conocimiento, un conocimiento que puede incluir aspectos cognitivos y emotivos y que demandará, probablemente, algún tipo de lógica paraconsistente. De modo que a la par que por nuestras narrativas creamos o descubrimos mundos (dependiendo del estatuto ontológico otorgado a la ficción) también establecemos o desentrañamos la legislación lógica, según la cual tal curso de sucesos o tal tipo de entidades son o no admisibles al interior de este particular mundo posible.
Precisamente, es en la constante re-creación de sus objetos, práctica que surge en una comunidad de problemas -un espacio de representación colectiva- el espacio en que se da la ciencia. Es, precisamente, en una particular forma de hablar y de referirse a objetos, creándolos con el habla, el que funda a la medicina -por ejemplo- como cuerpo autónomo de conocimientos, vale decir como ciencia de primer orden. Las disciplinas, pues, en tanto discursos, están, literalmente, constituidas por él. Por ello es necesario estudiar el discurso científico en tanto que discurso, hay que reflexionar sobre sus orígenes y modo de constitución, hay que aceptar que no es sólo un producto sino una fuerza productiva. La realidad es una narrativa exitosa. Es aquello que se hace hablando. Las comunidades científicas son comunidades de problemas y, sobre todo, de retóricas, reconstrucciones de objetos que sólo existen en tanto se habla de ellos de una determinada manera,
Hasta los mundos narrativos más imposibles tienen como fondo lo que es posible en el mundo que concebimos como real. Las entidades y situaciones que no son explícitamente nombradas y descritas como diferentes del mundo real son entendidas a partir de las leyes que aplicamos a la comprensión del mundo real.
Así, pues, la narración de ficción construye un modelo análogo del universo real, una proyección...lo que permite conocer la estructura y los procesos internos de la realidad y manipularla cognitivamente. Se otorga así un valor cognoscitivo a la ficción, de modo tal que todas las posibles connotaciones, no expresadas directamente por el texto, sino -más bien- mostradas implícitamente o implicadas contextualmente en lo allí dicho, iluminan aspectos de la realidad que sin estas extrapolaciones ficcionales permanecerían en penumbras.
La perspectiva crítica -propia de la filosofía- puede hallarse así implícita en escritos de ficción, de la misma manera como las teorías filosóficas pueden aceptar como suyos a los argumentos procedentes del discurso literario. La reflexión filosófica se articula, pues, desde distintos ámbitos y modalidades discursivas.
Dr. Adolfo Vásquez Rocca

The Composite Index of Anthropometric Failure (CIAF) is an overall indicator of undernutrition composed of stunting, underweight and wasting. A cross sectional study was conducted in an urban area (Haldia) of Purba Medinipur District, West Bengal, India, to assess the effect of socioeconomic factors on CIAF among 621 (307 boys; 314 girls) children aged 3-12 years. Body height (cm) and weight (kg) were recorded using standard procedure. Selected socioeconomic and demographic information were recorded using pre-structured schedule. The NCHS reference values were used to calculate Z (<-2SD) scores for the three conventional indices namely underweight, stunting and wasting, and finally, to derive CIAF. Data were analyzed using chi-square test and binary as well as stepwise multiple logistic regression analysis. The CIAF showed a high prevalence of 47.66%. Sex specific prevalence was higher among girls. Low monthly per capita income (Odds ratio, OR = 2.1; p< 0.001) and households having two or less number of rooms (OR = 1.55, p < 0.001) were independently associated with higher risk of anthropometric failure (AF). Factors having a direct impact on earnings which provide basic infrastructure for a healthy livelihood seemed to be the major predictor of AF among children.

Data are scarce on underweight and stunting among school children in West Bengal. In view of this, present study was carried out to assess the level of underweight and stunting among school children aged 6-18 years old in Paschim Medinipur, Bankura and Puruliya districts of West Bengal.

In Côte d'Ivoire, there are not yet any public policies that mention menstruation in school. This work aims to document the experience of menstruation in primary schools on the city of Korhogo and its interactions with school infrastructure. The data collected comes from interviews with girls settled on the experiences of menstruation at school and from field observations of school infrastructure. The results show poor sanitation infrastructure and difficult access to water in school toilets. Anything that does not allow the physical and psychosocial well-being of young girls settled in the school environment during the period of menstruation.

The 16th century Colonial Period Maya cemetery (ca. 585 skeletons) at Tipu, Belize is very large and well preserved, relative to Maya populations of any period. Much is known about these skeletal remains, including: gender, relative age, epigenetic dental traits, and visible pathologies. The Tipu Maya project not only continues, but it has been expanded to include ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis. The primary goal for this preliminary project was to successfully extract aDNA from bone and teeth samples to establish which protocol yielded the best quality of aDNA. Once isolated, aDNA was amplified using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) in conjunction with primers that only target a 211 base pair region on the human 17th chromosome. Sequencing of the 14 base pair mitochondrial hypervariable region revealed a high frequency of rare Asian variants. Further analyses with a more targeted amplification and subsequent enzyme and sequencing application generated data that indicated all samples tes...

Following the death of 17-year-old Leelah Alcorn, a transgender teen who committed suicide after forced “conversion therapy,” President Barack Obama called for a nationwide ban on psychotherapy aimed at changing sexual orientation or gender identity. The administration argued that because conversion therapy causes substantial psychological harm to minors, it is neither medically nor ethically appropriate. We fully agree with the President and believe that this is a step in the right direction. Of course, in addition to being unsafe as well as ethically unsound, current conversion therapy approaches aren’t actually effective at doing what they claim to do – changing sexual orientation. But we also worry that this may be a short-term legislative solution to what is really a conceptual problem. The question we ought to be asking is “what will happen if and when scientists do end up developing safe and effective technologies that can alter sexual orientation?”

We present results, analyses, and an in-depth historical contextualization of the fieldwork undertaken in 2012 and 2013 at the Kindoki site in the Lower Congo (DRC). This site is linked to Mbanza Nsundi, one of the Kongo Kingdom's provincial capitals, which turns out to be archaeologically 'elusive'. Pinpointing its location proved to be particularly challenging. To this end, a historically informed survey methodology was applied that has rarely been implemented on such a scale in Central Africa before. We combined a strategy * Koen Bostoen

Background: Stature can be estimated using certain anthropometric measures. This may be due to the inaccessibility to the height measuring tool at the time of need. Hand dimensions on the other hand can be easily measured using ordinary transparent graded ruler, sliding or Vernier caliper. This study is aimed at getting a simple equation that will be utilized for the estimation of stature of the Hausa ethnic group using only hand length and hand breadth. Methodology: Each subject has been studied for the measurement of the height (Stature, S), Hand Length (HL), and the Hand Breadth (HB) using the Vernier Caliper and anthropometer. The data was recorded and analyzed using MINITAB software version 12.21 and for formulating the regression equation. Microsoft Word 2007 was used for tables. The regression equation is: Stature (HT) in cm = 168 + 0.5HL-1.2HB Results: Six hundred and twelve (612) Hausa students aged 18 45 ye ars with a mean age of 25 years ± 0.55 at Bayero University Kano were selected using simple random sampling technique. The subjects consist of 451 males and 161 females. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the data was carried out to find out whether there is any statistically significant difference. The males have higher values than females in one of the three dimensions measured. The stature mean value is 169.3cm ± SD in males and 165.2cm ± SD in females. The mean value for the hand length is 18.5cm ± SD for both males and females. The mean value for the hand breadth is 7.5cm ± SD also for both males and females. Conclusion: This equation will be helpful in approximation of stature where there is difficulty in getting direct measurement or where there is a hand print of a criminal or an amputated hand of criminal, in the field of war, in a mass accidents or massive death due to disaster.

Mueller-Weiss disease is an alteration of the tarsal navicular that is primarily due to anomalous ossifi-cation of the bone and lateral deviation of the talar head associated with screw-like movement through the axis of the subtalar joint. This syndrome tends to be associated with various degrees of flatfoot and hindfoot valgus combined with subtalar joint varus. Ancient cases of Mueller-Weiss disease have not been described in specialized literature. We present the case of an adult male from the Hellenistic period (Ptole-maic dynasty; fourth to first century BC), the skeleton for which was found inside a sarcophagus in the archaeological site of Sharuna (middle Egypt) with Mueller-Weiss disease. The specimen is, in all likelihood , the earliest case of this type of foot pathology in the archaeological record.

This overview paper presents the leading theories which attempt to explain the emergence of one of the prominent features specific to our species – the protruding chin. Established theories discussing this phenomenon include the effect of masticatory stress theory, a sexual selection theory and theories relating the human chin to the emergence of spoken language. However, these explanations have proved inconclusive and the processes responsible for the emergence of mentum osseum in the Late Pleistocene remain unclear.

Teniendo en cuenta que entre los objetivos
de la Asociación de Antropología Biológica Argentina
(AABA) figuran la difusión, la promoción y la transferencia
de los estudios en antropología biológica, la Comisión
Directiva 2012-2013 planteó la necesidad de disponer de
un documento institucional que resumiera las principales
líneas de investigación desarrolladas por sus miembros, a
fin de contar con información actualizada factible de ser
utilizada cuando se la requiriese. Fue así, que se solicitó a los socios responder un cuestionario que indagaba sobre
las áreas temáticas de investigación y proyectos en curso.
La información recabada fue analizada y organizada,
definiéndose líneas de investigación. El documento que
se presenta a continuación es el resultado de este trabajo
que fue avalado por la totalidad de la Comisión Directiva
y enviado a los socios de la AABA para su conocimiento
y eventual utilización.
In regard to the aims of the Asociación de Antropología
Biológica Argentina (AABA) of diffusing and promoting
bioanthropological studies, the 2012-2013 Executive Committee has created a document summarizing the main areas of research developed in Argentina. To this end, a survey was conducted enquiring the fellows of the AABA about lines of research and projects. The information gathered was analyzed and organized into a unique document, which was approved by all the members of the Executive Committee and then sent to the members of the AABA. This synthesis is expected to be a useful means to make the skills of biological anthropologists widely known.

Vor dem Hintergrund des demographischen Ungleichgewichts von Männern und Frauen in Asien beschäftigen sich diverse Autoren mit möglichen Konsequenzen eines Frauen- oder Männermangels, unter anderem für die Gewaltinzidenz in den betroffenen Gesellschaften oder Regionen. Allerdings präsentieren sich die bisherigen theoretischen Ansätze wie auch die empirische Evidenz als uneinheitlich. Der Beitrag gibt einen Überblick über sozialwissenschaftliche und evolutionstheoretische Perspektiven auf die Fragestellung und versucht diese zu integrieren. Darüber hinaus werden empirische Befunde dargestellt und eingeordnet sowie eigene Projekte vorgestellt und Forschungsdesiderata formuliert.

What you are about to read is a new theory about the cause, and prevention, of thyroid disease. We believe a simple lifestyle issue that characterizes modern life is leading to thyroid dysfunction. It’s something you can test for yourself, on yourself. And the concept itself will change the way science thinks about thyroid function.

Twenty-five defleshed pig femora and 25 metatarsals were placed outdoors and observed over 291 days to establish: (1) bone weathering patterns for use in estimating time since death in Southern Ontario and (2) whether larger (femora) or smaller (metatarsals) bones provide a better indicator of time since death. Pig hind limbs were observed to determine a timeline for decomposition of soft tissues during the fall and winter. Ambient air temperature, humidity, precipitation, sunlight, soil pH, and freezing and thawing were considered as factors affecting the breakdown of bone. Weathering patterns were observed based on the extent of bleaching, amount of periosteum and soft tissues present, as well as the appearance of greasiness, cracking and flaking of cortical bone. Both entomological activity and climatic conditions affected soft tissue decomposition. Animal activity affected both the process of bone weathering and soft tissue decomposition, causing variability in sample decomposition and bone breakdown. The variation in microenvironment, partially caused by soil composition, introduced variability in bone weathering rates. Four bone weathering stages were established based on patterns observed. Femora proved to be more resilient and showed more degrees of change due to weathering, thus proving to be a better indicator of time since death than metatarsals. #

Long bone length is one of the best-known indicators of human stature. Although the long bone length/height ratio differs in tall and short individuals, no detailed study has investigated whether specific formulae should be used to calculate height in different stature groups. This study proposes a new height estimation method. Body height and tibia length were measured in 121 male subjects aged 18.0 -34.3 years. Three subgroups were established according to body height (short, medium, or tall), using the 15th and 85th percentiles as cutoff levels. The general formula and a group-specific regression formula were used to estimate height in each sub-

The colonial mentality is dominated by a manichean allegory of white and black, good and evil, salvation and damnation, civilization and savagery, superiority and inferiority, intelligence and emotion, self and the other, subject and object." (JanMohamed, 1983:4).

The distinctly human ability for forceful precision and power "squeeze" gripping is linked to two key evolutionary transitions in hand use: a reduction in arboreal climbing and the manufacture and use of tools. However, it is unclear when these locomotory and manipulative transitions occurred. Here we show that Australopithecus africanus (~3 to 2 million years ago) and several Pleistocene hominins, traditionally considered not to have engaged in habitual tool manufacture, have a human-like trabecular bone pattern in the metacarpals consistent with forceful opposition of the thumb and fingers typically adopted during tool use. These results support archaeological evidence for stone tool use in australopiths and provide morphological evidence that Pliocene hominins achieved human-like hand postures much earlier and more frequently than previously considered.

Musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM) have been used to reconstruct activity patterns and labour intensity of past populations. Age and size have been found to correlate with MSM, and these aspects should be considered in activity reconstructions. The aim of this study was to find out the nature and the effects of labour intensity, age and size on MSM. Study material were skeletons (N ¼ 108) of individuals of known age, sex and occupation housed at the Natural History Museum, Finland. MSM were scored for Pectoralis major, Deltoid, Teres major and Biceps brachii. These scores were combined to reflect total activity of an individual. Geometric mean of humeral measurements was used as a size indicator and radial tuberosity size was used as a muscle size indicator. Factors explaining MSM were studied using ANCOVA. This included age, size, muscle size, sex, labour intensity, and their interactions. Age and muscle size were the most significant factors explaining MSM, where muscle attachment areas and MSM grow with advancing age. Muscle attachment areas and skeletal frame size were also found to correlate. Least squares regression parameter estimates were used to study the effects of labour intensity, sex and side on MSM. It was found that in early life scores are higher in heavy labour group, but there is less age-related increase in these scores. This could mean that bone is unable to respond to heavy and continuous loading with surface structure. Therefore labour intensity cannot be reliably recorded in old individuals. Also age and size (as reflected in muscle attachment area) affect MSM and these aspects should be considered before making assumptions on labour intensity.

The Kemna Cave skeletons provide a rare look at the burial customs of prehistoric Missouri Indians. Although initially reported as “Mother and Child,” recent analysis of the remains suggests a very different picture. Individual 1 represents a young individual between the ages of 11 and 14 years, and is likely male. Regardless of sex, it is doubtful that Individual 1 was the ‘mother’ of Individual 2, given the physiological constraints of fecundity at this age range. Individual 2 represents a younger individual, between the ages of 1.5 and 2 years. As evidenced by the incidence of cribia orbitalia, this individual suffered from a poor diet and/or large disease load, which likely contributed to the early death of this individual. In conclusion, the Kemna Cave individuals provide a unique look at prehistoric burial practices, and the importance of skeletal biology in their interpretation.

The social brain hypothesis posits that social complexity is the primary driver of primate cognitive complexity, and that social pressures ultimately led to the evolution of the large human brain. Although this idea has been supported by studies indicating positive relationships between relative brain and/or neocortex size and group size, reported effects of different social and mating systems are highly conflicting. Here, we use a much larger sample of primates, more recent phylogenies, and updated statistical techniques, to show that brain size is predicted by diet, rather than multiple measures of sociality, after controlling for body size and phylogeny. Specifically, frugivores exhibit larger brains than folivores. Our results call into question the current emphasis on social rather than ecological explanations for the evolution of large brains in primates and evoke a range of ecological and developmental hypotheses centred on frugivory, including spatial information storage, ex...