Papers by Christopher S Henshilwood
South African Journal of Science, 2020
Understanding how hunter-gatherers adapted to the marked environmental changes of the last glacia... more Understanding how hunter-gatherers adapted to the marked environmental changes of the last glacialinterglacial
transition (~18 to 11.7 ka cal. BP) remains a key question for archaeologists. South Africa, with
its rich and well-preserved archaeological sequences, has a major role to play in this study. Reconstructing
the subsistence strategies of people during the Later Stone Age (LSA) is crucial for investigating human–
environment interactions at this period in South Africa, yet data are scarce. Recent excavations at a new
LSA site, Klipdrift Cave, in the southern Cape, revealed c. 14–11 ka levels with excellent faunal preservation
associated with an Oakhurst lithic industry. Taphonomic and zooarchaeological analyses of these levels
show an almost exclusive accumulation of large mammal remains by LSA groups, with evidence of meat
removal, marrow extraction, fire use and the preferential import of nutritious elements back to the site. Large
mammals from the site indicate a relatively stable environment dominated by open grasslands that is in
accordance with isotopic analyses, with only subtle diachronic variability. Comparison of faunal dynamics
with changes in lithic industries, shellfish density and composition reflects complex, asynchronous
changes in the macromammal, micromammal, shellfish and lithic records throughout the Oakhurst levels.
Rather than evidence of a strong impact of global climate change, Klipdrift Cave shows subtle shifts in
subsistence patterns and technology that are better explained by internal societal dynamics and the history
of the Oakhurst techno-complex, or local changes in site occupation and direct environment.
Significance
• LSA archaeological sequences can document the impact of the marked environmental changes of the
Pleistocene–Holocene transition on hunter-gatherer societies. Studies of past subsistence strategies
are central to our understanding of human–environment interactions in these contexts.
• Zooarchaeological, taphonomical and palaeoecological analyses of the large mammal remains from the
excavated LSA sequence at Klipdrift Cave provide new data on these interactions. The data highlight
asynchronous changes in subsistence patterns, lithic technology and local environment, supporting a
complex interplay between climate change, local environment, societal changes and human prehistory.
• Klipdrift Cave data set also shows that excavation and analytical choices can strongly bias faunal
analysis and environmental reconstructions based thereon.
Klasies River, a significant Middle Stone Age (MSA) site, preserves remains of anatomically moder... more Klasies River, a significant Middle Stone Age (MSA) site, preserves remains of anatomically modern humans and a 21 m sequence of human habitation that shows use of sophisticated lithic technology and systematic exploitation of marine and terrestrial resources. In this paper micromammals recovered from the lower MSA sequence (MSA I and MSA II) at Klasies River Main site have been analysed to provide proxy data for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. Small mammals recovered from 183 separate layers ensure a detailed record of local climate and vegetation during Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5. Taphonomic analyses indicate that avian predators accumulated the micromammals. Analysis of post-depositional processes has provided information on intra-site variability and utilisation. The palaeoenvironmental reconstruction shows changes in rainfall seasonality within MIS 5. There was transient movement towards more aseasonal rainfall and significant alterations in the vegetation composition from MIS 5e to MIS 5a. Our study adds new insights to palaeoenvironmental conditions on the Cape coast during MIS 5.
The analysis of the lithics recovered from the layers dating between cal BP 10,700 and cal BP 13,... more The analysis of the lithics recovered from the layers dating between cal BP 10,700 and cal BP 13,700 at Klipdrift Cave, southern Cape, South Africa, provides new information on the Oakhurst techno-complex. A comparison with contemporary sites such as Matjes River Rock Shelter indicates not only technological similarities, but also unexpected differences. The Klipdrift Cave Oakhurst shares many characteristics typical of this techno-complex from the southern Cape, for example, in the dominance of quartzite, irregular and unstandardised flakes; the occurrence of irregular cores; and typical large side and end scrapers. It differs from most coastal Oakhurst sites however, in the more intensive exploitation of quartz, and the presence of a blade component, especially in the lowermost layers. Palaeoenvironmental data, derived from stable isotope analysis of ostrich eggshell, suggest that it was dry in this region during this time period. This was partially a result of the colder conditions that prevailed during the Younger Dryas. The lithic technological production techniques are stable at Klipdrift Cave during the period that the site was occupied from cal BP 13,700 to cal BP 10,700. Our data suggest that the lithic technology did not change in response to possible climatic variability. Résumé L'analyse des ensembles lithiques provenant des dépôts datés entre 13 700 et 10 760 ans BP à Klipdrift Cave, dans la région sud du Cap en Afrique du Sud, fournit de nouvelles informations sur l'industrie Oakhurst. La comparaison avec des sites contemporains tels que Matjes River Rock Shelter montre des similarités technologiques, mais aussi des différences inattendues. L'Oakhurst de Klipdrift Cave présente de nombreuses caractéristiques typiques de ce techno-complexe du sud du Cap, par exemple la prédominance de quartzite, d'éclats irréguliers et non-standardisés, la présence de nucléus irréguliers, ainsi que de grands grattoirs. Cette industrie diffère cependant de la plupart des sites côtiers Oakhurst par une exploitation du quartz plus intense et la présence de lames, et ce, particulièrement dans les couches les plus inférieures. Les données paléoenvironnementales, issues de l'analyse des isotopes stables sur des coquilles d'autruche, suggèrent un climat sec pour la région pour cette même période. Ceci s'explique partiellement comme une conséquence des conditions froides ayant prévalu dans la région au cours du Dryas inférieur. Les techniques mises en place pour la production lithique sont stables à Klipdrift Cave tout au long de la période d'occupation du site, c'est à dire entre 13 700 et 10 760 ans BP. Nos données suggèrent donc que les traditions technologiques n'ont pas changé en réponse aux possibles variations climatiques.
In this paper we conduct geochemical and colourimetric measurements of glauconite grains in micro... more In this paper we conduct geochemical and colourimetric measurements of glauconite grains in micromorphological thin sections from the Middle Stone Age site of Blombos Cave, South Africa, to investigate the formation, internal structure and reworking of heat-exposed cave deposits that are related to prehistoric burning events. Controlled heating experiments were first carried out on glauconite-rich loose sediments and block samples, both of which were collected from the Blombos Cave bedrock. The control samples were then subjected to Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR), microscopic Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (micro-FTIR) and petrographic-colourimetric analyses. The control experiment shows that glauconitic minerals undergo a gradual and systematic colour change when temperatures reach higher than c. 300–400 °C, primarily due to dehydration and iron oxidation. They also undergo clear structural changes when temperatures reach higher than c. 550 °C due to dehydroxylation and mineral transformation. By assessing the nature and degree of heat-induced optical and molecular alteration in glauconitic minerals, we demonstrate how glauconite grains in thin sections can be classified by the temperature to which they were exposed (20–400 °C, >400 °C, >600 °C and >800 °C). To assess the archaeological relevance of our controlled heating experiment, we applied this glauconite classification scheme to >200 grains found in three micromorphological thin sections of a Middle Stone Age (MSA) combustion feature. These grains were individually geo-referenced within the local coordinate system of Blombos Cave, through a thin-section-based GIS mapping procedure. With improved spatial control, we were able to study both the general distribution of non-altered and heat-altered glauconite grains in their original sedimentary context, as well as to calculate heat distribution models that cover the entire sampled section. This combined geo-chemical, optical and spatio-contextual approach provides insights into more elusive aspects of MSA site structure and burning events, such as heat intensity, burning frequency, temperature distribution, internal hearth structure and post-depositional reworking. The workflow we propose may easily be implemented and adapted to other archaeological contexts and to analogous sedimentary materials that show comparable heat-induced alteration patterns.
The Still Bay (SB) and Howiesons Poort (HP) were two significant techno-complexes in the Middle S... more The Still Bay (SB) and Howiesons Poort (HP) were two significant techno-complexes in the Middle Stone Age and key periods in the expression of behavioral complexity. In this study, we compare the recently excavated fauna from the SB layers at Blombos Cave (BBC) with that from the HP levels at Klipdrift Shelter (KDS) in the southern Cape of South Africa. We consider our findings in the framework of recent models for early human subsistence behavior. In particular, we link our study with models involving resource intensification to examine whether foraging strategies in the HP were more or less intensive than those in the SB. Based on our criteria used to assess intensificationdthe exploitation of low-ranked prey, the processing of low-utility elements, transport decisions, and occupational intensitydintensive subsistence strategies are more evident at KDS than BBC. Our results suggest that low-ranked elements were processed more heavily and diet breath was broader at KDS than at BBC. However, foraging ranges may have been more extensive at BBC than at KDS. Taphonomic data also suggests that the SB at BBC was a low-intensity, sporadically occupied period in contrast to the high-intensity occupations during the HP at KDS. We argue that this may be related to differences in mobility and residential patterns between these techno-complexes.
We present the results of a technological and morphometric analysis of all the Still Bay points (... more We present the results of a technological and morphometric analysis of all the Still Bay points (n ¼ 371) recovered from the 1993 to 2004 excavations at Blombos Cave. We have been able to reconstruct the manufacturing sequence of the bifacial points from initial shaping, by direct internal percussion, to finished morphology, by direct marginal percussion. Identifications of impact fractures and manufacturing breaks are based on comparisons with experimental and archaeological bifacial points of verified function, i.e. Paleoindian points from bison kill sites, replicates of Solutrean points mounted as spear-heads or arrow-heads and shot into adult cattle, and experimental replication on local raw materials. Our analysis shows that: (a) only a minority of the points are finished forms, and that a large number of pieces are production failures, a situation known at bifacial point production sites of later ages; (b) morphometric and impact scar analyses should take into account this process and distinguish finished points from preforms and unfinished points; (c) there were at least three different kinds of raw material sources and that there is a marked increase in the frequencies of silcrete with respect to the M2 and M3 phases at Blombos; (d) three kinds of evidence prove that some of the points were hafted axially and used as spear tips; (e) production of bifacial points was a primary activity at the site but the hypothesis of intergroup exchange of Still Bay points cannot be sustained on the basis of present evidence; and (f) the Still Bay phase appears to initiate a trend to relatively rapid changes in specialized hunting weaponry and that this innovation is congruent with other innovations such as bone tools, shell beads and engraved ochre of the M1 and M2 phases at Blombos.
The Still Bay, c. 76–72 ka, a prominent techno-tradition during the Middle Stone Age of southern ... more The Still Bay, c. 76–72 ka, a prominent techno-tradition during the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa, has yielded innovative technologies, symbolic material culture, and shows evidence of expansion of hunting techniques and subsistence strategies. In this paper we present the results of the first systematic, taphonomic and palaeoenvironmental study of micromammals from the Still Bay levels at Blombos Cave. Our taphonomic analysis indicates that the micromammals were accumulated by avian predators occupying the cave. Post-depositional processes affecting the micromammal assemblage include organic waste decomposition and conditions associated with a limestone cave environment. The palaeoenvironmental reconstruction shows that Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5a at Blombos Cave had diverse micromammal communities occupying a variety of habitats and with rainfall pattern equal to present. The transition from MIS 5a to 4 is indicated by less diverse micromammal assemblages, increase in grassland and scrub vegetation, shifts in seasonal precipitation, and a decline in shrubs associated with fynbos. The onset of the glacial conditions associated with MIS 4 is visible in the micromammal assemblage. However humans occupying Blombos Cave during this c. 5 ka period showed an ability to cope with changing environmental conditions and were able to adapt and utilise a variety of available resources.
We present the results of a technological and morphometric analysis of all the Still Bay points (... more We present the results of a technological and morphometric analysis of all the Still Bay points (n ¼ 371) recovered from the 1993 to 2004 excavations at Blombos Cave. We have been able to reconstruct the manufacturing sequence of the bifacial points from initial shaping, by direct internal percussion, to finished morphology, by direct marginal percussion. Identifications of impact fractures and manufacturing breaks are based on comparisons with experimental and archaeological bifacial points of verified function, i.e. Paleoindian points from bison kill sites, replicates of Solutrean points mounted as spear-heads or arrow-heads and shot into adult cattle, and experimental replication on local raw materials. Our analysis shows that: (a) only a minority of the points are finished forms, and that a large number of pieces are production failures, a situation known at bifacial point production sites of later ages; (b) morphometric and impact scar analyses should take into account this process and distinguish finished points from preforms and unfinished points; (c) there were at least three different kinds of raw material sources and that there is a marked increase in the frequencies of silcrete with respect to the M2 and M3 phases at Blombos; (d) three kinds of evidence prove that some of the points were hafted axially and used as spear tips; (e) production of bifacial points was a primary activity at the site but the hypothesis of intergroup exchange of Still Bay points cannot be sustained on the basis of present evidence; and (f) the Still Bay phase appears to initiate a trend to relatively rapid changes in specialized hunting weaponry and that this innovation is congruent with other innovations such as bone tools, shell beads and engraved ochre of the M1 and M2 phases at Blombos.
The site of Blombos Cave (BBC), Western Cape, South Africa has been a strong contributor to estab... more The site of Blombos Cave (BBC), Western Cape, South Africa has been a strong contributor to establishing the antiquity of important aspects of modern human behaviour, such as early symbolism and technological complexity. However, many linkages between Middle Stone Age (MSA) behaviour and the subsistence record remain to be investigated. Understanding the contribution of small fauna such as tortoises to the human diet is necessary for identifying shifts in overall foraging strategies as well as the collecting and processing behaviour of individuals unable to participate in large-game hunting. This study uses published data to estimate the number of calories present in tortoises as well as ungulates of different body size classes common at South African sites. A single tortoise (Chersina angulata) provides approximately 3332 kJ (796 kcal) of calories in its edible tissues, which is between 20 and 30% of the daily energetic requirements for an active adult (estimated between 9360 kJ [3327 kcal] and 14,580 kJ [3485 kcal] per day). Because they are easy to process, this would have made tortoises a highly-ranked resource, but their slow growth and reproduction makes them susceptible to over-exploitation. Zooarchaeological abundance data show that during the ca. 75 ka (thousands of years) upper Still Bay M1 phase at BBC, tortoises contributed twice as many calories to the diet relative to ungulates than they did during the ca. 100 ka lower M3 phase. However, in spite of the abundance of their fossils, their absolute caloric contribution relative to ungulates remained modest in both phases. At the end of the site's MSA occupation history, human subsistence strategies shifted to emphasise high-return large hunted mammals, which likely precipitated changes in the social roles of hunters and gatherers during the Still Bay.
In the Eurasian Upper Paleolithic after about 35,000 years ago, abstract or depictional images pr... more In the Eurasian Upper Paleolithic after about 35,000 years ago, abstract or depictional images provide evidence for cognitive abilities considered integral to modern human behavior. Here we report on two abstract representations engraved on pieces of red ochre recovered from the Middle Stone Age layers at Blombos Cave in South Africa. A mean date of 77,000 years was obtained for the layers containing the engraved ochres by thermoluminescence dating of burnt lithics, and the stratigraphic integrity was confirmed by an optically stimulated luminescence age of 70,000 years on an overlying dune. These engravings support the emergence of modern human behavior in Africa at least 35,000 years before the start of the Upper Paleolithic.
The Middle Stone Age (MSA) of southern Africa, and in particular its Still Bay and Howie-sons Poo... more The Middle Stone Age (MSA) of southern Africa, and in particular its Still Bay and Howie-sons Poort lithic traditions, represents a period of dramatic subsistence, cultural, and technological innovation by our species, Homo sapiens. Climate change has frequently been postulated as a primary driver of the appearance of these innovative behaviours, with researchers invoking either climate instability as a reason for the development of buffering mechanisms, or environmentally stable refugia as providing a stable setting for experimentation. Testing these alternative models has proved intractable, however, as existing regional palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental records remain spatially, stratigraphically, and chronologically disconnected from the archaeological record. Here we report high-resolution records of environmental shifts based on stable carbon and oxygen isotopes in ostrich eggshell (OES) fragments, faunal remains, and shellfish assemblages excavated from two key MSA archaeological sequences, Blombos Cave and Klipdrift Shelter. We compare these records with archaeological material remains in the same strata. The results from both sites, spanning the periods 98–73 ka and 72–59 ka, respectively, show significant changes in vegetation, aridity, rainfall seasonality, and sea temperature in the vicinity of the sites during periods of human occupation. While these changes clearly influenced human subsistence strategies, we find that the remarkable cultural and technological innovations seen in the sites cannot be linked directly to climate shifts. Our results demonstrate the PLOS ONE | Data Availability Statement: Due to permit restrictions, photographs of the OES specimens sampled are available from the authors, following a review process by the Curator of the Iziko Museum, Wendy Black. All faunal and shellfish samples listed by quadrant and layer, respectively, are available in the Supporting Information S2 File. Further information can be obtained from JR, SB and KLvN.
Southern Africa has provided much information concerning the cultural, technological and cognitiv... more Southern Africa has provided much information concerning the cultural, technological and cognitive evolution of Homo sapiens. As indications of cognitive complexity that become prevalent during the Middle Stone Age, abstract and figurative art present explicit evidence for modern and symbolic human behavioural capacity. The only examples of African figurative art securely dated to the Late Pleisto-cene comprise seven stone plaques from Apollo 11 Cave in the Huns Mountains, Karas region, Namibia. These were recovered by Wendt in 1969 and 1972 from levels dated to c. 30 000 years ago. Given the cultural and evolutionary significance of these artefacts, the objective of this report is to make available high resolution actual-size colour and digitally enhanced photographs of these unique examples of early art mobilier. Chemical analysis of the plaques and the pigments that compose the imagery is ongoing and will be presented in a forthcoming publication.
As an unambiguous indication of complex cognitive capacity, representational art presents explici... more As an unambiguous indication of complex cognitive capacity, representational art presents explicit evidence for modern and symbolic human behaviour. The only examples of African figurative art dating to the Late Pleistocene comprise seven stone plaques recovered from Apollo 11 Cave in the Huns Mountains, southern Namibia. The plaques derive from a single anthropogenic layer dated by radiocarbon (14C) accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) and optically simulated luminescence (OSL) methods to c. 30 000 years ago.Wepresent the results of digital (CIE) L*a*b* colourimetric and portable energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (ED-XRF), Raman spectroscopic
and Fourier transforminfrared reflectance (FT-IR) analyses of the pigments present on the plaques. These results provide the earliest direct evidence, in Africa, for the preparation of pigment-based paint-like mixtures and their application to create prehistoric art. Our research shows that in the creation of the depictions on the plaques, the
artists used black pigments derived from manganese and charcoal, red pigments likely derived from ocherous shale and white pigments possibly derived from ostrich eggshell. Additionally, these plaques provide unique evidence for the combined use of mineral- and carbon-based pigment ‘crayons’ during the African Middle Stone
Age.
©
The large mammal remains from the c. 100 ka layers of the M3 phase at Blombos Cave in the souther... more The large mammal remains from the c. 100 ka layers of the M3 phase at Blombos Cave in the southern Cape, are reported. A wide range of mammal taxa are present, dominated by small game animals, including rock hyrax, Cape dune molerat, steenbok/grysbok and Cape fur seal. These taxa also dominate other important Middle Stone Age sites on the southern and western coast of the Western Cape of South Africa. There is sufficient evidence that most of the mammals, including rock hyrax and Cape dune molerat, were collected by humans. The fauna suggests an open and rocky environment, as well as moist conditions.
The classification of archaeological assemblages in the Middle Stone Age of South Africa in terms... more The classification of archaeological assemblages in the Middle Stone Age of South Africa in terms of diversity and temporal continuity has significant implications with respect to recent cultural evolutionary models which propose either gradual accumulation or discontinuous, episodic processes for the emergence and diffusion of cultural traits. We present the results of a systematic technological and typological analysis of the Still Bay assemblages from Sibudu and Blombos. A similar approach is used in the analysis of the Howiesons Poort (HP) assemblages from Sibudu seen in comparison with broadly contemporaneous assemblages from Rose Cottage and Klasies River Cave 1A. Using our own and published data from other sites we report on the diversity between stone artifact assemblages and discuss to what extent they can be grouped into homogeneous lithic sets. The gradual evolution of debitage techniques within the Howiesons Poort sequence with a progressive abandon-ment of the HP technological style argues against the saltational model for its disappearance while the technological differences between the Sibudu and Blombos Still Bay artifacts considerably weaken an interpretation of similarities between the assemblages and their grouping into the same cultural unit. Limited sampling of a fragmented record may explain why simple models of cultural evolution do not seem to apply to a complex reality.
In Africa, ochre is ubiquitous in archaeological sites after 100 ka and likely served a symbolic ... more In Africa, ochre is ubiquitous in archaeological sites after 100 ka and likely served a symbolic role in the lives of prehistoric people. Archaeological excavation of the c. 100e72 ka Middle Stone Age (MSA) levels at Blombos Cave (BBC) located in the southern Cape, South Africa, have yielded significant amounts of ochre as artefacts or residues. Although recent archaeological evidence from BBC and elsewhere has provided remarkable insights into the ways that ochre was used, for example its use as a pigmented 'paint', the significance of ochre can be further understood by studying its procurement pattern. To this end, the geochemical characterisation of recovered ochre can tell us about the temporal and spatial variation present at a site. The analysis of BBC ochre was accomplished using FTIR, ED XRF, ICP OES and XRD with the aim of determining the mineral and elemental composition variability of ochre across layers and thereby gauging whether there were preferred or different ochre procurement patterns or sources over time. For example, it was found that ochre residues from the c. 100 ka CP layer had kaolinite and quartz as the principal minerals, while ochre residues from the c. 97 ka CJ layer consisted mainly of calcite and quartz. Thus, mineral composition can indicate procurement of different sources of ochre during the various stages of the cave occupation. Elemental analysis of ochre residues from the c. 77 e72 ka Still Bay, CJ and CP layers also revealed differences in minor and trace elements. These findings seem to indicate some differences in the ochre from these levels and can also be taken as an indication of different ochre sourcing.
The Howiesons Poort techno-complex of southern Africa was a particularly significant phase in the... more The Howiesons Poort techno-complex of southern Africa was a particularly significant phase in the development of complex cognition in Homo sapiens and new sites are crucial to our understanding of this period. Here, we present the results of a taphonomic and zooarchaeological analysis of Klipdrift Shelter to investigate subsistence strategies during the Late Pleistocene. In particular, we focus on the tapho-nomic history of the assemblage. Our analysis shows that the Klipdrift Shelter faunal assemblage is extensively fragmented; probably as a result of anthropogenic processing and post-depositional alteration. As a result, little significant information can be extrapolated from the analysis of skeletal-part abundance per layer. Human involvement in the accumulation of ungulate, small mammal, carnivore and tortoise remains is apparent in all layers. We show evidence of disarticulation, marrow extraction, skinning, filleting and carnivore consumption and document the processing of low-ranked game and elements. We also discuss the possibility of remote-capture technology at Klipdrift during the Howiesons Poort.
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Papers by Christopher S Henshilwood
transition (~18 to 11.7 ka cal. BP) remains a key question for archaeologists. South Africa, with
its rich and well-preserved archaeological sequences, has a major role to play in this study. Reconstructing
the subsistence strategies of people during the Later Stone Age (LSA) is crucial for investigating human–
environment interactions at this period in South Africa, yet data are scarce. Recent excavations at a new
LSA site, Klipdrift Cave, in the southern Cape, revealed c. 14–11 ka levels with excellent faunal preservation
associated with an Oakhurst lithic industry. Taphonomic and zooarchaeological analyses of these levels
show an almost exclusive accumulation of large mammal remains by LSA groups, with evidence of meat
removal, marrow extraction, fire use and the preferential import of nutritious elements back to the site. Large
mammals from the site indicate a relatively stable environment dominated by open grasslands that is in
accordance with isotopic analyses, with only subtle diachronic variability. Comparison of faunal dynamics
with changes in lithic industries, shellfish density and composition reflects complex, asynchronous
changes in the macromammal, micromammal, shellfish and lithic records throughout the Oakhurst levels.
Rather than evidence of a strong impact of global climate change, Klipdrift Cave shows subtle shifts in
subsistence patterns and technology that are better explained by internal societal dynamics and the history
of the Oakhurst techno-complex, or local changes in site occupation and direct environment.
Significance
• LSA archaeological sequences can document the impact of the marked environmental changes of the
Pleistocene–Holocene transition on hunter-gatherer societies. Studies of past subsistence strategies
are central to our understanding of human–environment interactions in these contexts.
• Zooarchaeological, taphonomical and palaeoecological analyses of the large mammal remains from the
excavated LSA sequence at Klipdrift Cave provide new data on these interactions. The data highlight
asynchronous changes in subsistence patterns, lithic technology and local environment, supporting a
complex interplay between climate change, local environment, societal changes and human prehistory.
• Klipdrift Cave data set also shows that excavation and analytical choices can strongly bias faunal
analysis and environmental reconstructions based thereon.
and Fourier transforminfrared reflectance (FT-IR) analyses of the pigments present on the plaques. These results provide the earliest direct evidence, in Africa, for the preparation of pigment-based paint-like mixtures and their application to create prehistoric art. Our research shows that in the creation of the depictions on the plaques, the
artists used black pigments derived from manganese and charcoal, red pigments likely derived from ocherous shale and white pigments possibly derived from ostrich eggshell. Additionally, these plaques provide unique evidence for the combined use of mineral- and carbon-based pigment ‘crayons’ during the African Middle Stone
Age.
©
transition (~18 to 11.7 ka cal. BP) remains a key question for archaeologists. South Africa, with
its rich and well-preserved archaeological sequences, has a major role to play in this study. Reconstructing
the subsistence strategies of people during the Later Stone Age (LSA) is crucial for investigating human–
environment interactions at this period in South Africa, yet data are scarce. Recent excavations at a new
LSA site, Klipdrift Cave, in the southern Cape, revealed c. 14–11 ka levels with excellent faunal preservation
associated with an Oakhurst lithic industry. Taphonomic and zooarchaeological analyses of these levels
show an almost exclusive accumulation of large mammal remains by LSA groups, with evidence of meat
removal, marrow extraction, fire use and the preferential import of nutritious elements back to the site. Large
mammals from the site indicate a relatively stable environment dominated by open grasslands that is in
accordance with isotopic analyses, with only subtle diachronic variability. Comparison of faunal dynamics
with changes in lithic industries, shellfish density and composition reflects complex, asynchronous
changes in the macromammal, micromammal, shellfish and lithic records throughout the Oakhurst levels.
Rather than evidence of a strong impact of global climate change, Klipdrift Cave shows subtle shifts in
subsistence patterns and technology that are better explained by internal societal dynamics and the history
of the Oakhurst techno-complex, or local changes in site occupation and direct environment.
Significance
• LSA archaeological sequences can document the impact of the marked environmental changes of the
Pleistocene–Holocene transition on hunter-gatherer societies. Studies of past subsistence strategies
are central to our understanding of human–environment interactions in these contexts.
• Zooarchaeological, taphonomical and palaeoecological analyses of the large mammal remains from the
excavated LSA sequence at Klipdrift Cave provide new data on these interactions. The data highlight
asynchronous changes in subsistence patterns, lithic technology and local environment, supporting a
complex interplay between climate change, local environment, societal changes and human prehistory.
• Klipdrift Cave data set also shows that excavation and analytical choices can strongly bias faunal
analysis and environmental reconstructions based thereon.
and Fourier transforminfrared reflectance (FT-IR) analyses of the pigments present on the plaques. These results provide the earliest direct evidence, in Africa, for the preparation of pigment-based paint-like mixtures and their application to create prehistoric art. Our research shows that in the creation of the depictions on the plaques, the
artists used black pigments derived from manganese and charcoal, red pigments likely derived from ocherous shale and white pigments possibly derived from ostrich eggshell. Additionally, these plaques provide unique evidence for the combined use of mineral- and carbon-based pigment ‘crayons’ during the African Middle Stone
Age.
©
12 the southern Cape coastline, South Africa,
13 contains Middle Stone Age (MSA) deposits
14 dated at between c. 130 and 72 ka (ka ¼ 1,000
15 years ago), possibly the most important period in
16 the early development of modern human
17 behavior. Since 1992 each excavation season at
18 the site has yielded important new information on
19 the behavioral evolution of Homo sapiens. This
20 includes, at ca. 75 ka, among the earliest known
21 evidence for the manufacture of personal
22 ornaments on shell beads, formal bone tool
23 production, engraving of abstract designs on
24 ochre and bone, the deliberate heating of silcrete,
25 a lithic raw material, and the subsequent
26 manufacture of bifacial stone points on this mate-
27 rial using pressure flaking. In the 100 ka levels,
28 a complex toolkit was uncovered that provides
29 the oldest known evidence for the use of
30 containers and for the production of an ochre-rich
31 pigment or paint. These findings from Blombos
Cave and subsequent reanalysis and excavation 32
of other contemporary sites have resulted in 33
a paradigm shift with regard to our understanding 34
of the timing and location of the development of 35
modern human behavior. 36
Definition 37
In tandem with the anatomical evolution of 38
modern H. sapiens in Africa after 200 ka was 39
the increasing capacity for symbolically driven 40
behavior. Exactly when or how this capacity first 41
translates into material culture that carried sym- 42
bolic meaning is unclear. Innovative material 43
culture recovered from Blombos Cave provides 44
a clear signal that by 100 ka human behavior was 45
mediated by symbols. This evidence is likely 46
only one part of a behavioral mosaic, a “wind of 47
change” throughout the African Middle Stone 48
Age that culminated in the diasporas at ca. 49
60–80 ka – a series of human expansions from 50
Africa that first introduced fully symbolic sapiens 51
behavior to Eurasia and the rest of the world
This review challenges the idea of a strict link between biological and behavioural change and suggests that modern cognition and language are results of a gradual, complex and non-linear process to whose advancement different human populations and possibly a number of fossil human species have contributed.