Medieval

Archaeobotanical analyses were carried out on layers from the site of Piazza Garibaldi in Parma, a town located in the plain of Emilia Romagna, in northern Italy. The layers dated to the 3rde2nd centuries BC, around the time of the foundation of the Roman town, and to the 10the11th centuries AD. According to archaeological data, the site was a sacred area in Roman times, while it was a market square in Mediaeval times. Data from pollen and seeds/fruits were useful for both palaeoenvironmental and palaeoethnobotanical reconstructions, and together with NPPs including parasite remains contributed to add details on the function of the site in the different chronological phases.

Abordamos algunas de las relaciones entabladas por las aragonesas y aragoneses bajomedievales con sus vivos, sus muertos, sus intercesores más apreciados e incluso con la divinidad en los diversos momentos que engloban lo que Alejo de Venegas denominó en el siglo XVI como "tránsito de la muerte". Analizamos aquellos elementos que pudieron condicionar los comportamientos y las respuestas sociabilizadoras que la muerte generó en el Aragón bajomedieval: la pertenencia a un determinado grupo socioeconómico, la condición de hombre o mujer, de clérigo o laico, el marco urbano o rural donde se vive o la incidencia de la legislación a la hora de canalizar prácticas de bien morir y manifestaciones públicas de duelo y acompañamiento.
La separación del cuerpo social después de la muerte no significa que el difunto sea abandonado por los vivos. Tanto en lo físico como en lo espiritual sigue formando parte del mundo de los vivos. Porque es el mundo de los vivos, el espacio de los vivos, las relaciones sociales de los vivos, los criterios de organización de los vivos y,en definitiva, los comportamientos, acciones y creencias de los vivos los que dan forma al amplio y diverso entramado de relaciones, solidaridades y sociabilidades que entra en funcionamiento ante el hecho biológico de la muerte.""

A principis del 2017 es va tenir notícies d’unes restes megalítiques associades a una necròpolis altmedieval. Estan situades al damunt d’un petit pujol que s’alça just al davant del veïnat de Bevià, al municipi de Madremanya (Gironès). La necròpolis altmedieval ja havia estat esmentada el 1966 per Jaume Marquès, que va ser arxiver de la catedral de Girona i director del museu diocesà de la mateixa ciutat. Segurament, també, els vestigis megalítics ja eren localment coneguts, però fins al dia d’avui mai s’havien documentat ni havien estat objecte de cap estudi. Article: Enric Carreras, Gabriel Martín i Josep Tarrús.

""This article explores the royal castle at Cashel, Co. Tipperary: the history of the castle and the constables who worked there. The article begins with a discussion on the relationship between the English government in London and Dublin with the Archbishop of Cashel in the southern Ireland province of Munster. This relationship had many highs and lows.

The second part of the article explores the castle built by the Dublin administration. Proposals to build a castle began before April 1217 but objections and counter-objections from both sides stopped any stone work until about 1330. The type and size of castle built is unknown as the site of the castle has not yet being found.

Without this structural data the article moves to part three where a brief biographical account is given on the eight people who served as constable of the castle between 1339 and 1365. After 1365 the castle disappears from the financial records of the Dublin administration which records are the primary source for the existence of the castle.

No pictures or maps are included in the article because we have to find the castle first. A happy job for some budding archaeologist!

As the article is for a future journal it would not be right to upload the article to this site until after the journal has been published. I could send a email attachment to individuals but as I do not yet know the page numbers of the article in the journal such attachment would be difficult to use as a reference. Thanks."

Fungi were isolated from selected areas of two medieval wall paintings in the chapel of the castle of Herberstein and the parish church of St Georgen (Styria, Austria), in different states of conservation. The aim of this study is a contribution to the knowledge of mycoflora that occurs on frescoes. The fungal colonies were characterized using a chemotaxonomical approach based on the analysis of ubiquinone systems, comparison of protein patterns and classical morphological methods following identification keys. The results show that the mycoflora can vary from each sampling site even when the environmental conditions are similar. The majority of fungal colonies were isolated from the paintings in Herberstein. Since the last restoration of the paintings in 1950, the chapel of Herberstein has been neglected and the walls have been significantly affected by the accumulation of moisture. In St Georgen, prolonged dampness and salts were responsible for the main damage to the paintings. Fungi were mainly found to grow on the remaining fibers of the cellulose pulp used during restoration. Twenty different fungal forms were isolated, the most common belonging to the genera Acremonium, Engyodontium, Cladosporium, Blastobotrys, Verticillium Mortierella, Aspergillus and Penicillium. Some of them are known to occur on frescoes, but a few species have not been isolated before on this substrate. An inventory of fungi isolated in Herberstein and St Georgen was undertaken to give measures for restoration in order to prevent further damage. 0 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

Referência: 2. SANTOS, Selene Candian dos. O Apologia ad Guillelmum abbatem de Bernardo de Claraval e a Espiritualidade no Século XII. In: JORNADA DE ESTUDOS ANTIGOS E MEDIEVAIS E CICLO DE ESTUDOS ANTIGOS E MEDIEVAIS DO PARANÁ E SANTA CATARINA, 11. e  9., 2012, Maringá. Anais da Jornada de Estudos Antigos e Medievais. Maringá: [s.n.], 2012. Disponível em: CD-ROM.

Na década de 1120, Bernardo de Claraval escreveu o Apologia ad Guillelmum abbatem, no qual se posiciona contra monges da Ordem Cisterciense que alegadamente eram detratores da Ordem de Cluny e admoesta os cluniacenses no que diz respeito à sua superfluidade e imoderação. A análise dos argumentos agenciados por Bernardo de Claraval nesse documento, levando em consideração seu gênero discursivo, possibilita a identificação de como seu posicionamento se articula com as transformações no campo da espiritualidade na época. Assim, pretende-se com este artigo analisar de que forma Bernardo de Claraval não só é informado pela valorização de novos aspectos da vida cristã, mas também contribui para essa valorização.
Após a análise do documento, verifica-se que existem ao menos três práticas cristãs que Bernardo destaca em sua importância e que parecem ser características da espiritualidade no século XII: a preeminência da humildade como virtude, das atitudes interiores em comparação às exteriores e da personalização da vida religiosa; a identificação da Igreja primitiva, da vida dos apóstolos e, em específico, dos primeiros monges, como a perfeição de vida cristã e de obediência à Regra; e a valorização crescente da pobreza material ascética em contraposição ao luxo e à riqueza.

"Nel Friuli patriarcale Cividale era solo una 'terra', ma la vocazione urbana - già visibile nella 'forma urbis' - era fortissima. Nel corso del Trecento il consiglio del Comune attuò una chiusura oligarchica: 'milites' e 'pedites' appaiono ormai come etichette prive di valore, ma sono un gruppo coeso, che nei confronti del patriarca Bertrando di Saint-Geniés seglie la via del conflitto, fino al tragico epilogo del 1350.
Nel saggio sono descritte le magistrature cittadine e individuato il gruppo dirigente urbano tra tra 1328-45 (riassunto in due tavole poste in appendice)."

-L'amour avait sa place parmi les maladies dans le paysage nosographique de la médecine arabomusulmane médiévale. Les médecins arabes portaient un grand intérêt aux émotions et à leur impact sur la santé physique et mentale. En effet, l'interaction entre le corps et l'esprit était la base de leur réflexion théorique et une préoccupation constante dans leur pratique clinique. C'est dans ce cadre qu'ils se sont penchés sur le mal d'amour ; ils ont décrit ses signes, discuté son origine, exposé ses bienfaits et ses méfaits et proposé des remèdes pour soigner les amoureux. À partir de textes originaux, nous présentons la vision du mal d'amour chez les médecins arabes et tentons de la situer dans le contexte de la pensée médicale de l'époque. © 2001 Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS amour / histoire de la médecine / Mal d'amour / médecine arabomusulmane / Moyen Âge / psychosomatique Summary-Lovesickness in islamic medicine. This article presents lovesickness as viewed by Arab physicians. One of the major features of medieval Islamic medicine was the idea that strong emotions could produce physical illness as interaction between body and mind was the basis of medical thought of the time. In this perspective, Arab physicians studied lovesickness, a condition related to melancholia and obsession. They described it, discussed its origin and proposed remedies to soothe lover's suffering. A few examples are given to illustrate the importance of this clinical entity in the medical practice of the time.

Desde una perspectiva histórico-arqueológica, esto es, manejando información de diversas intervenciones arqueológicas, documentación histórica de archivos y cartografía histórica, se plantea cómo el agua ha sido pieza fundamental a la hora de elegir y desarrollar los distintos asentamientos que se han producido en Alicante desde el Neolítico a época moderna, centrándonos sobre todo en la prehistoria (asentamiento del Tossal de les Basses) y en época tardo-antigua e islámica (laderas del Benacantil), éste último, el espacio en donde luego se consolidó el hábitat hasta nuestro días, subsistiendo hasta bien entrado el siglo XIX con el agua de las mismas fuentes naturales usadas por los musulmanes desde el s. VIII.

Depois de termos apresentado um trabalho sobre o Livro Preto, dedicamos novo artigo a um outro cartulário da Sé de Coimbra, códice de menores dimensões e muito menos conhecido, que se conserva na Biblioteca nacional de Portugal. Trata-se de um manuscrito elaborado na segunda metade do século XIII, decerto a mando do bispo D. Egas Fafes (1247--1267), cujo conteúdo se reporta a diversos eventos sucedidos durante o seu episcopado, e que constitui um dos poucos testemunhos que chegou até nós da actividade do scriptorium da catedral conimbricense nessa época.

The consensus on Pope Honorius III (1216–27) is that he was a conciliatory politician who lacked the harder edge possessed by his immediate predecessor and successor. Yet, using overlooked evidence regarding the role of Honorius in Frederick II’s seizure of the kingdom of Jerusalem from John of Brienne in 1225, this article reveals that he was in fact capable of acting in a ruthlessly pragmatic manner. It provides a rare case study of the duplicitous uses that could be made of the papal chancery by an early thirteenth–century pope while navigating a difficult diplomatic path between two kings.

Radiocarbon-dated pollen sequences from two areas of Bodmin Moor—Rough Tor in the north-west and the East Moor—are presented and the evidence for settlement in the prehistoric period on the moor considered. The nature and extent of human impact in the two areas ...

In 1127 Charles the Good, count of Flanders, was surrounded by assassins while at prayer and killed by a sword blow to the forehead. His murder upset the fragile balance of power between England, France, and the Holy Roman Empire, giving rise to a bloody civil war while impacting the commercial life of medieval Europe. The eyewitness account by the Flemish cleric Galbert of Bruges of the assassination and the struggle for power that ensued is the only journal to have survived from twelfth century Europe. This new translation by medieval studies expert Jeff Rider greatly improves upon all previous versions, substantially advancing scholarship on the Middle Ages while granting new life and immediacy to Galbert’s well informed and courageously candid narrative.

“Jeff Rider’s new translation remains faithful to the journalistic organization and impulses of The Murder of Charles of Flanders, which enables him to bring out previously obscured elements of the text as well as the concerns that prompted Galbert to write his important chronicle in the first place. This is an outstanding piece of scholarship that all students of the Middle Ages will appreciate.”—Gabrielle M. Spiegel, Johns Hopkins University

“The 1959 translation of Galbert of Bruges by James Bruce Ross set a high bar for replacement, but it was time for one and Jeff Rider is the scholar who understands this crucial 12th-century text most thoroughly and profoundly. His lucid and readable translation rests on a deep foundation of historical and literary scholarship—all of which is made available to the reader. Rider has ensured that this fascinating book will remain central to medieval scholarship and teaching.”—Nancy Partner, McGill University

“More than just superseding the deeply flawed text of James Bruce Ross from 1959, this new translation is a serious contribution to knowledge, enhancing and advancing scholarship on the Middle Ages. Rider’s introduction is learned and thoughtful, adroitly establishing the context of the De Multro. His scholarly apparatus to the translation is wonderful, always detailed and rewarding to read, never descending into numbing pedantry.”— Mark Gregory Pegg, Washington University

"This is truly a splendid work. Users of the old translation by James Bruce Ross (1959) will be delighted by Jeff Rider’s text and adopt it for teaching. Rider’s unique knowledge of the book’s genesis and the historical figures that feature in it offers fresh insights without taking anything away from the pleasure of discovery that will await all readers."—Walter Simons, Dartmouth College

“This new English translation . . . is a triumph of scholarship . . . Essential.”—R. F. Berkhofer III, Choice

Rider’s translation is clear and accessible to students of all levels. The volume includes an in-depth introduction to the author, his complicated political context, and the character of his work, . . . It also boasts a short essay by Marc Ryckaert and James M. Murray on the history and physical features of the city of Bruges in the Middle Ages and copious notes by Rider to the translation itself. . . . The Murder, Betrayal, and Slaughter of the Glorious Charles, Count of Flanders is unlike any other historical text from the twelfth century available in English translation. The author does not fit easily into the medieval tradition of history writing . . . [T]he text is tremendously appealing for the immediacy of its voice and the clarity of its details; it demands our attention because it seems to speak in an idiom that we understand.—Scott G. Bruce, Speculum

Providing a comprehensive and accessible orientation to the field of medieval manuscript studies, this lavishly illustrated book by Raymond Clemens and Timothy Graham is unique among handbooks on paleography, codicology, and manuscript illumination in its scope and level of detail. It will be of immeasurable help to students in history, art history, literature, and religious studies who are encountering medieval manuscripts for the first time, while also appealing to advanced scholars and general readers interested in the history of the book before the age of print.
Introduction to Manuscript Studies features three sections:
• Part 1, "Making the Medieval Manuscript," offers an in-depth examination of the process of manuscript production, from the preparation of the writing surface through the stages of copying the text, rubrication, decoration, glossing, and annotation to the binding and storage of the completed codex.
• Part 2, "Reading the Medieval Manuscript," focuses on the skills necessary for the successful study of manuscripts, with chapters on transcribing and editing; reading texts damaged by fire, water, insects, and other factors; assessing evidence for origin and provenance; and describing and cataloguing manuscripts. This part ends with a survey of sixteen medieval scripts dating from the eighth to the fifteenth century.
• Part 3, "Some Manuscript Genres," provides an analysis of several of the most frequently encountered types of medieval manuscripts, including Bibles and biblical concordances, liturgical service books, Books of Hours, charters and cartularies, maps, and rolls and scrolls. The book concludes with an extensive glossary, a guide to dictionaries of medieval Latin, and a bibliography subdivided and keyed to the subsections of the volume's chapters.
Every chapter in this magisterial guidebook features numerous color plates that exemplify each aspect described in the text and are drawn primarily from the collections of the Newberry Library in Chicago and the Parker Library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.

Frontispiz: © Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien. Das Werk ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Die dadurch begründeten Rechte, insbesondere die der Übersetzung, des Nachdrucks, der Entnahme von Abbildungen, der Funksendung, der Wiedergabe auf fotomechanischem oder ähnlichem Wege und der Speicherung in Datenverarbeitungsanlagen bleiben, auch bei nur auszugsweiser Verwertung, vorbehalten. Die Vergütungsansprüche des § 54 Abs. 2 UrhG werden durch die Verwertungsgesellschaft Wort wahrgenommen.

La obra Kitáb a!-'lbar del gran historiador árabe del siglo XIV, de origen andalusí, Ibn Jaldún; el cual describe al fundador del movimiento almohade como «un jurista versado en la ciencia, que daba consejos y practicaba la enseñanza». Mientras que, desde el punto de vista externo, ofrece este sobrio retrato del fundador almohade: «Llevaba un vestido de lana remendada, se dedicaba con frecuencia a ejercicios ascéticos y a prácticas piadosas».

The modelling and visualisation of networks is based on the material in: M. Mullett, Theophylact of Ochrid. Reading the Letters of a Byzantine Archbishop. Birmingham 1997.

The first graph is a visualisation of the connections between letters in localities between which these letters were exchanged (" 2mode network").

The second graph is a visualisation of the weighted network of localities on the basis of Theophylact´s correspondence; two localities are connected if letters of Theophylact were exchanged between them. Links are scaled according to the number of letters within Theophylact´s collection documenting exchanges between them.

The third graph visualises these connections between localities on a map. Links are again scaled according to the number of letters within Theophylact´s collection documenting exchanges between them. The size of nodes is scaled according to their number of connections within the network ("degree").

The fourth graph is a "zoom" into these geographical visualisation of the network for the Western Balkans; links are again scaled according to the number of letters within Theophylact´s collection documenting exchanges between them.

For the localisation of sites within the historical region of Macedonia cf. also the upcoming volumes on Macedonia (Southern Part) by Peter Soustal and on Macedonia (Northern Part) by Mihailo Popovic within the series "Tabula Imperii Byzantini" (http://www.oeaw.ac.at/imafo/die-abteilungen/byzanzforschung/communities-landscapes/historische-geographie/)

For any further questions, please contact [email protected].

When dissolved in water, the crystalline powder saltpetre causes a chemical reaction that greatly reduces the temperature of the solution.  When a vessel containing a beverage is immersed in a basin of the cooled water, the effect spreads enough to chill the beverage.  This discovery was used in ancient Asia, and was adopted in Europe by the sixteenth century.  In my experiment, I wished to revive this technique and discover whether it could be applied practically in an SCA camp environment as a period method to chill beverages without the use of ice or modern refrigeration.  The results from the experiment proved that the technique is sound, and it does chill the basin and the beverage well.  However, it is sadly not cost effective or practical to use this method “in the field” unless an inexpensive and accessible source of industrial saltpetre can be found.

En la serie de televisión Married with children (Casado con hijos, en su versión chilena) se nos presenta la figura de la mujer deformada por convenciones antifemeninas, cuyos orígenes bien podemos rastrear en la literatura misógina medieval. La española, en particular, cuenta con algunos interesantes testimonios -el Libro de buen amor, La Celestina y el Corbacho, entre otrosdonde podemos ver cómo la figura de la mujer es heredera de la tradición misógina que en parte proviene de La Biblia y en parte de textos satíricos grecolatinos. A pesar de todo, estas tendencias antifemeninas fueron excepcionales y no alcanzaron a opacar una época en que el enaltecimiento de la mujer y el profeminismo fueron la regla general.

While literary scholars have delved into the nuances of each pronoun used to narrate their lives, art historians have hardly acknowledged the phenomena of transvestite saints, as individual figures or as a categorical topic. This imbalance in
attention among the various scholarly fields derives logically from the material available—transvestite saints figure prominently in numerous textual sources while they are markedly scarce in medieval art—but it has unintentionally affected contemporary understanding of how medievals recieved these figures and interpreted their meaning. Taking an art historical perspective, this essay demonstrates that the popularity of transvestite saints in hagiographic or ecclesiastic writings belies the disruptive threat they posed to medieval visual representation and the stability of the symbolic order. Only by understanding why these stories were acceptable within textual narrative but problematic as artistic subjects can we fully appreciate how they operated within the medieval context, what social needs they served,
and what reactionary restrictions they provoked.

Joannes Leo Africanus, (c. 1494 – c. 1554?) (or al-Hasan ibn Muhammad al-Wazzan al-Fasi, Arabic:حسن ابن محمد الوزان الفاسي) was an Andalusian Amazigh Moorish diplomat and author who is best known for his book Descrittione dell’Africa (Description of Africa) describing the geography of North Africa.

Il volume propone la corrispondenza intercorsa tra 1484-85 tra l'oratore Giovanni Lanfredini, le magistrature fiorentine (Signoria e Dieci di Balia), Lorenzo de'Medici e altri destinatari diversi (Bartolomeo Scala, Galzerano Requesens, Eleonora d'Aragona, Antonio Pollaiolo, Francesco Sassetti ...). Si tratta di oltre 400 lettere, corredate di regesto e apparati di note storiche e filologiche. L'introduzione offre un'analisi sulla figura dell'ambasciatore e sul suo modo di operare (cancelleria, confezione delle lettere e funzionamento del sistema postale); sul quadro politico-diplomatico; sulla corte aragonese e gli interessi dei mercanti fiorentini operativi nel regno di Napoli. In appendice è proposto l'inventario della documentazione conservata per lo stesso arco cronologico presso gli archivi di Stato di Modena e Mantova e un Itinerario quotidiano di re Ferrante e di suo figlio Alfonso.

Reviewed by:
- R. GONZALES AREVALO in «Anuario de Estudios Medievales» 36 (2006), pp. 465-467.
- M. SIMONETTA in «Roma nel Rinascimento», 28 (2005), pp. 88-89.

Augustine of Canterbury, who came from Rome to Kingdom of Kent in 597, is considered a founder of the English Church. This paper tries to describe his identity as a missionary preaching the Word to pagan Anglo-Saxons. The identity is discovered by analyzing descriptions of Augustine's activity presented in the works of Gregory the Great and the Venerable Bede.

There is little historical evidence for the storage of crops before the twelfth century. Archaeology suggests that most crops were stored in ricks, although barns were built on some of the larger manorial farmsteads from at least the eighth century onwards. Barns are difficult to distinguish from other buildings, although the presence of a line of posts along the centre of the building may provide a useful indicator. Granaries are identifiable as square buildings with deep postholes, but they too are found infrequently on early medieval settlements. Underground storage pits are unknown: England lay firmly within the North European system of crop processing and storage identified by Sigaut. A growth in the number of barns and granaries from the eleventh century is associated with the development of local markets for agricultural produce.

Komentari u ovom izdanju Fojni~kog grbovnika sadr`e blazon ili opis grba, kra}e izlaganje o njegovom zna~enju, porijeklu i historijskom razvoju, te dostupne ili zanimljive podatke o li~nostima ili porodicama koje su opisivani grb nosile. Blazon grbovnog {tita dat je po ustaljenim heraldi~kim pravilima u kojima se lijeva i desna strana {tita posmatraju iz perspektive njegovog nositelja a ~injenica da su amblemi okrenuti na desnu stranu posebno se ne nagla{ava. Iz komentara su izostavljeni opisi ~elenke i pla{ta, osim ako ne izazivaju naro~itu heraldi~ku pa`nju, bilo da su kori{teni na suvremenim izvorima, ili da upu}uju na srodstvo s nekom drugom porodicom ~iji je grb prisutan u ovom Grbovniku. Selekcija i prezentacija podataka o pojedinim grbovima i njihovim vlasnicima bila je uslovljena kvantitetom, ali i kvalitetom raspolo`ivih izvora zbog koje nije bilo mogu}e posti}i ravnote`u me|u komentarima. To je dovelo do toga da smo za neke slu~ajeve bili u prilici da ponudimo op{irniji prikaz, jer smo raspolagali ve}im brojem raznovrsnih informacija, dok za neke porodice i grbove nije bilo mogu}e ni{ta re}i {to bi bilo zasnovano na izvornoj gra|i. Posao je u znatnoj mjeri tako|er ote`ala ~injenica da pojedinci ili porodice zastupljene u Fojni~kom grbovniku nisu `ivjele u ograni~enom vremenskom periodu i na jasno ome|enom prostoru. Poseban problem predstavljalo je i to {to prezimena u srednjem vijeku nisu bila ustaljena nego su se naj~e{}e zadr`avala samo u jednoj generaciji jer su uglavnom izvo|ena iz o~evog imena ili titule (npr. Radin Jablani} → Pavle Radinovi} → Radoslav Pavlovi}; Herceg → Hercegovi}; @upan → @upani} i sl.). Pojedine porodice u Grbovniku se javljaju pod vi{e istih prezimena (npr. bosanska vladarska dinastija pod Kotromani}, Tvrtkovi} i Kristi}), a u nekim slu~ajevima imamo u izvorima vi{e porodica koje se javljaju pod jednim prezimenom (npr. Vukovi}, izvedeno od ~estog imena Vuk), a uz grb nije precizirano o kojoj se porodici ta~no radi. Tako|er je bitno istaknuti da nisu sve porodice zastupljene u Fojni~kom grbovniku bile plemi}ke te da nisu sve vukle svoje korijenje iz srednjeg vijeka. Njihovo prisustvo u ovoj knjizi potrebno je posmatrati u okviru "ilirske ideologije" u kojoj je Grbovnik i nastao. S obzirom da je njegov sastavlja~ imao selektivan pristup ionako ograni~enom izvornom materijalu u Grbovnik su, pored poznatih plemi}kih porodica, uvr{tavane i one sasvim bezna~ajne koje u ranijem periodu nisu igrale nikakvu historijsku ulogu a kojima je plemstvo, pã ak i fiktivno, otvaralo vrata mnogim mogu}nostima u zemljama koje su naselili nakon pada Bosanske dr`ave 1463. godine. To najbolje dolazi do izra`aja u ~injenici da je za grbove poznatijih porodica ili pojedinaca autor Grbovnika raspolagao ta~nim podacima (npr. Kosa~e, Hrvoje Vuk~i} Hrvatini}, Pavlovi}i), dok su neki grbovi

X wiek, a zwłaszcza jego druga połowa, jest czasem ożywionej i zwieńczonej sukcesami działalności chrystianizacyjnej 2 w Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej i Północnej. W tym czasie chrzest przyjmują -Harald Sinozęby w Danii (ok. 960 r.), Mieszko I w państwie gnieźnieńskim (966 r.), Gejza na Węgrzech (974 r.), Włodzimierz na Rusi (988 r.), Olaf Tryggvason w Norwegii (ok. 995 r.) i Olaf Skötkonung w Szwecji (ok. 1000 r.) 3 . Także islandzki Althing w 1000 r. podejmuje decyzję o przyjęciu chrześcijaństwa 4 . Wraz z rozwojem kultu św. Wacława i powstaniem biskupstwa praskiego chrześcijaństwo ugruntowuje się również w Czechach, których chrystianizację jeszcze w końcu IX wieku rozpoczęli książę Borzywoj i jego syn Spitygniew 5 . Z decyzją władzy zwierzchniej o konwersji postępuje także rozwój organizacji kościelnej. Jednakże wielkie obszary Europy, do których można zaliczyć tereny zajmowane przez koczowników z okolic Morza Czarnego, ziemie północne z ludem fińskim, czy przede wszystkim terytoria położone nad południowym i wschodnim Bałtykiem, zamieszkałe przez Słowian Połabskich i Bałtów, pozostawały nadal pogańskie 6 . Pod koniec X wieku idea misyjna była wyraźnie na porządku dziennym 7 a przedstawiciele ówczesnej elity marzyli o pokojowej misji wśród pogan 8 . Niezwykle charakterystyczne jest szczególne cenienie 1 Praca roczna napisana pod kierunkiem prof. Marka Barańskiego w roku akademickim 2007/2008. 2

Il "rito della piuma", della "doppia morte" o più semplicemente "répit" è "una delle manifestazioni più durature, più profonde ed allo stesso tempo più segrete della religione popolare". Purtroppo, però, pochi conoscono questo pezzetto di tradizione dell'Europa occidentale.