Mangrove Restoration

On August 11, 2006 more than 2 million liters of Bunker C oil spilled in southern Guimaras Island, central Philippines. Over 200 kilometers of coastline have been affected including the traditional livelihood in the island. The immediate effects involved death of marine fauna and massive mortality of mangroves which accounted to almost one hectare and two years after the incident some albino propagules of Rhizophora stylosa were observed. Additionally, some species of mangroves found in heavily impacted sites exhibited significant reduction of leaf sizes. Monitoring of the deforested mangrove areas three years after the incident showed a varying recruitment-to-mortality ratio. Recruitment and settlement of seedlings was impaired in areas where dead trees are extracted mainly for firewood purposes. The harvesting of dead trees created a forest gap, exposed the area to surging waves and thus increased the hydrodynamics. On the other hand, faster recovery dynamics was observed in area ...

La producción acuícola ecuatoriana ha tenido crecimiento exponencial a los mercados internacionales, causando de manera directa un incremento en la extensión de hectáreas deforestadas especialmente en las zonas costeras de manglar del país. El objetivo de este estudio fue mapear y estimar el impacto que ha producido la deforestación producto de la actividad camaronera en los manglares del Golfo de Guayaquil, Ecuador. Para ello, se realizó un análisis espacial con imágenes satelitales Landsat de 1985 y 2017, se utilizó el índice espectral NDVI para mapear la cobertura vegetal y NDWI para mapear e identificar las piscinas camaroneras. Además, se realizó un análisis bibliográfico para conocer el posible impacto negativo de la deforestación. Los resultados obtenidos nos permitieron mapear las piscinas camaroneras, convirtiéndose en una posible herramienta para monitorear nuevas actividades de deforestación ilegal. La afectación directa se da en la red trófica produciendo afectaciones en la población que se dedica a la pesca artesanal de ictiofauna, malacofauna y carcinofauna, además degrada la barrera natural contra la
erosión y la asimilación de carbono en el planeta aumentando así el efecto invernadero. Ecuador ha perdido aproximadamente 27% del manglar original, especialmente por la producción acuícola, el urbanismo y extracción de recursos naturales en esta región.

In many parts of the tropical world mangroves coexist with traditional, rural or urban people living in poor or developing areas. In these cities and villages learning processes at school or outside it are challenges enlarged by the few number of schools, their distance, the low proportion of teachers in relation to students and low or none technological inputs as computers and internet access. As well the contents of books and learning materials have examples and languages far from the reality locally experienced. These issues bringing together often turn learning processes boring and hard. In such communities it is usual a number of students leaving classrooms very early without completing their elementary studies. Teachers also claim for more learning tools appropriated to local realities in which they can adapt curricular and educational contents in a more feasible way. Besides, people who live in mangrove areas also need to be capable to understand, discuss and manage environmental issues that are directly related to their lives. These issues must be learnt and somehow experienced in order to people develop the skills to deal with them. So to address learning processes combined to environmental issues in particular with mangrove protection and conservation educational games were designed fora program of environmental education in the Amazon Coast of Brazil.

Mangrove Ecosystems in Sri Lanka: Climate Change Impacts and
Community-Based Conservation and Restoration

Sri Lanka has 19,500 hectares and more than 20 species of true mangroves. Mangrove forests are highly valuable ecosystems that capture carbon, protect the coastline, and provide a wide variety of
services worth US$33,000-57,000/ha per year.
Large areas of mangroves have been destroyed or degraded over the past decades in Sri Lanka. Even though mangroves are afforded comprehensive legal protection throughout the island, the existing laws are not always implemented or followed. Conserving and expanding mangroves is a national goal formulated in recent policies, plans, and strategies, as well as a priority for climate change adaptation and resilience.
Sustainable mangrove restoration hinges on community participation and ownership. Scoping sites, identifying and mapping key stakeholders, building capacities, creating awareness, and implementing community-driven actions are steps to establish a community-based restoration system.
Connecting restoration and sustainable livelihoods like ecotourism is crucial to give ownership to and incentivize local stakeholders.

Mangroves in Guyana The predominant mangrove species found in Guyana are Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa and Rhizophora mangle (Pastakia, 1990). Avicennia germinans is often found in monospecific stands along much of the coast often characterised by a thin fringe of Laguncularia racemosa growing on its landward margin. Rhizophora mangle is commonly found in the river banks and the coasts adjacent to mouths of rivers and creeks (Pastakia, 1990). The 400km Guyanese coast forms part of part of a 1600 km-long muddy coastal system dominated by massive mud banks that migrate from the mouth of the Amazon river in Brazil to that of the Orinoco river in Venezuela (Augustinus. 1978; Anthony et al., 2010). The mud-bank activity is characterised by 'bank' and 'inter-bank' phases, which induce patterns of rapid shoreline accretion and/or erosion of the mudbanks and fringing mangrove forests (up to hundreds of metres a year) (Anthony et al., 2010). Importance of mangroves in Guyana The mangroves of Guyana provide a number of major ecosystem services including stabilisation of the Guyanese shoreline, sustenance of coastal fisheries and as a habitat for water birds and other wildlife. Shoreline protection The entire Guyanese coastal zone lies between 0.5 and 1.0 m below the Atlantic spring high tides, and is protected sea defenses that range from earthen banks to concrete walls and natural defenses. The vulnerability of Guyana's coastal zone is made more acute by predictions of a climate change-driven rise in mean sea level of as much as 0.88m by 2100 (NMMAP 2010). The ability of the sea defense structures to protect the land behind them has historically been reinforced by a wide belt of mangrove forest extending as much as a mile into the intertidal zone and acting as a wave energy-dissipating buffer to threats from storms and high tides. Fisheries values Guyana's mangroves offer breeding and nursery grounds to marine life in tropical coastal waters. Twenty seven species of fish species have been recorded from Guyana's mangroves while recent studies in neighbouring Suriname have shown that 60-80% of all fish sold at coastal fish markets originated from mangrove areas (Finlayson and Moser, 1991). Habitat for water birds and other wildlife Guyana's mangroves are important as feeding and /or breeding areas for coastal bird species including migratory species and permanent residents. Of the migratory species, twenty-six (26) species, are identified as either Austral, Nearctic or Caribbean Migrants. Species of note in the Guyanese mangrove forests are the Scarlet Ibis (Eudocimus ruber), the Little Blue Heron (Egretta caerulea) and the white necked heron (Ardea cocoi). The crab-eating raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus) is commonly found in mangrove areas while other larger animals such as the spectacled cayman (Cayman crocodylus) and the manatee (Trichcus manatus) are less common visitors (Pastakia 1990).

Mangrove forests are valuable and vulnerable ecosystems covering the liminal area between sea and land. According to Forest Department data, Sri Lanka has 15,670 hectares of mangroves which are mainly concentrated in the Puttalam, Jaffna, Trincomalee, and Batticaloa districts. Mangroves have been diminished by shrimp farming, construction, tourism, industry, and the civil war, especially over the last decades.
This paper gives an overview of mangrove ecosystems in Sri Lanka and evaluates existing projects to restore and protect mangrove ecosystems with a focus on community participation and the usage of local knowledge.
On paper, mangroves ecosystems are protected in Sri Lanka. There are, however, very few dedicated areas for them to grow undisturbed, mainly one terrestrial protected area and a handful of sanctuaries. As seen in other countries, marine protected areas can be a useful tool to protect mangroves, but their effectiveness depends on active management and enforcement. Legislature is in conflict with the interests of local communities that depend on mangrove ecosystems for their livelihoods, especially in the face of progressive climate change. Protection efforts are also opposed by commercial interests and coastal development, especially in the tourism and industrial sector, and pollution coming from inland sources.
After the 2004 Tsunami, a surge of donor-driven mangrove reforestation projects attempted to improve coastal protection. 14 years later, the results are sobering: out of 1,000-1,200 hectares of restoration efforts, only 200-220 hectares survived. The main reasons for this comprise inappropriate locations, unsuitable mangrove species, and a lack of post-planting monitoring and care.
The paper tries to extract lessons learnt and best practices in mangrove conservation. It recognizes that mangrove conservation cannot happen without local communities, and that it has to take their developmental problems and poverty, often exacerbated by climate change, into account. Awareness creation as well as the engagement of local communities are integral to the success of preservation measures. Successful projects all use an inclusive approach that relies as much on technical expertise as it does on local knowledge, sustainable cooperation, and the empowerment of coastal communities.

Studies in mangrove ecosystem are often focused on biological or ecological criteria and interdependency between mangroves and people is normally neglected. The situation is similar in Tamil Nadu; India which has a coastline of about 950 km. One of the major mangrove forests in Tamil Nadu is situated in Pichavaram, Cuddalore district. The present study was carried out in the seventeen hamlets, which are directly or indirectly dependent on the Pichavaram mangrove wetlands for their livelihood and survival. These seventeen hamlets consist of over 2600 households many of whom derive their principal income from fishing and related activities. Individual surveys were carried out for 10% of the households in each of the selected hamlets. Semi-structured questionnaires were used for surveys to study the attitude and perception of the community on the conservation and importance of mangrove wetlands and resources. The study was conducted to assess the awareness, attitudes and views of people dependent on the mangrove ecosystem towards conservation issues and development options. It was observed that a large percentage of the sampled population showed a positive inclination towards conservation of the ecosystem and were well aware of their responsibility towards it.

The organizing committee is pleased to welcome you to Georgetown, Guyana for the 1st Guyana Mangrove Forum, Restoring and Managing Mangrove Ecosystems in a changing world. We are excited to have a strong turnout with more than 100 attendees, 4 exhibitors and 16 poster presentations with broad participation from government, Non Government organisations, universities and private sector in Guyana and from 9 countries in the immediate region. As part of the forum we have also organized an educational exhibition focusing on the importance of mangroves and efforts in Guyana, the region and internationally to restore and conserve mangrove ecosystems for a broader audience of school children and community members who we expect to attend portions of the forum proceedings. Our 27 presenters at the forum will address all aspects of mangrove restoration and management from the technical aspects of mangrove restoration to approaches to restoration and sustainable use of mangroves, coastal processes and engineering solutions to mangrove loss, institutional issues associated with mangrove restoration and management and emerging areas of blue carbon and GIS/ remote
sensing technologies which can be applied to management of mangrove ecosystems.
We selected the theme for the forum “Restoring and Managing mangrove ecosystems in a changing world” to highlight the realities of mangrove restoration
on the ground in Guyana which is occurring in the context of an extremely dynamic coastline and the realities of sea level rise and a complex socio-economic and institutional environment. The Forum, is an important event of the Guyana
Mangrove Restoration Project (GMRP), a project co-funded by the Government of Guyana and the European Union, as it provides an opportunity for the project to share experience and reflect on the work completed over the last two years since project
inception and hear from other mangrove practitioners in the region on their experiences on related projects. Importantly, the forum also provides an
opportunity to capture lessons learnt from the above and to look forward to the next phase of mangrove restoration and management in Guyana including the potential for ongoing cooperation and collaboration with regional partners. We wish you an enjoyable and successful forum. The Organising Committee

El presente reporte preliminar revisa algunos aspectos iniciales a las condiciones socioambientales a la zona estuarina de la desembocadura del río Neverí, Barcelona, Venezuela. Se realizan algunas aproximaciones taxonómicas de la vegetación asociada al ecosistema de manglares, así como una breves referencias dasométricas que dan cuenta de la importancia de la prevalenciay socioconservación de dicho ecosistema para la región.

Although the protective role of mangroves for coasts has been increasingly recognized, that of estuarine mangroves is less well acknowledged. The complex root, stem, and canopy system of healthy estuarine mangroves efficiently reduces the impact of a strong, along-bank flow during high tides and high river discharge, protecting the riverbank from eroding. If a sediment source is available, a healthy mangrove forest also offers a higher potential for sedimentation to compensate for sea-level rise. Unfortunately, along the Mekong, Vietnam, estuaries, mangroves have been rapidly destroyed. In many regions, estuarine mangroves have degraded into narrow strips of ,50 m. Riverbanks at those locations are eroding at a rate of 2–4 m y À1. The main reason for this ''estuarine mangrove squeeze'' phenomenon is due to the increasing demand to create more space for local fish farming. Hence, squeeze is used in a broader sense than in the context of sea-level rise impact alone. The hypothesis is that there is a critical minimum width for an estuarine mangrove forest strip to maintain its ability to survive. The analysis of available data, both from literature and from satellite observations, supports the hypothesis: An average critical width for Mekong estuaries was found to be approximately 80 m. To obtain insight into the efficiency of a mangrove forest in reducing the impacts of alongshore flow, the state-of-the-art Delft3D model was applied to the data. The model showed that the penetration-length scale of the shear layer into a mangrove forest requires a certain minimum space to develop fully. It is hypothesized that the minimum width of a mangrove forest, which equals this maximum penetration-length scale, has a crucial role for the health of a mangrove system. ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Riverbank erosion, fish farm, critical width, flow penetration.

Using a space-for-time substitution approach, we investigated the effects of a typhoon on the vegetation and soil development trajectories of monospecific stands of Rhizophora mucronata mangroves of different ages (6-, 8-10-, 11-, 12-, 17-, 18-and 50-year stands). The vegetation and soil parameters were compared to a reference system comprised of mature, natural mangrove stands. Pretyphoon measures of vegetation and soil parameters were compared with 1-mo, 7-mo and 9-mo posttyphoon. Prior to the occurrence of the typhoon, there were clear patterns of vegetation and soil development with age of the stands. The development trajectory was however interrupted by the occurrence of the typhoon. Severe damage was more apparent in older mangrove stands (11and 18-year stands) with very low to no damage in the younger stands. The typhoon-impacted sites experienced a number of changes, including: complete defoliation; reduced living tree densities of 61-69 %; decreased above-ground biomass of 70-79 %; increased soil nutrient levels of 40-60 %; more waterlogged soils by at least 113 % and increased soil temperature of 8-10°C. Cumulative tree mortality, compounded by the lack of seedling recruits and unfavourable soil conditions may limit long-term recovery of the typhoonimpacted stands.

On August 11, 2006 more than 2 million liters of Bunker C oil spilled in southern Guimaras Island, central Philippines. Over 200 kilometers of coastline have been affected including the traditional livelihood in the island. The immediate effects involved death of marine fauna and massive mortality of mangroves which accounted to almost one hectare and two years after the incident some albino propagules of Rhizophora stylosa were observed. Additionally, some species of mangroves found in heavily impacted sites exhibited significant reduction of leaf sizes. Monitoring of the deforested mangrove areas three years after the incident showed a varying recruitment-to-mortality ratio. Recruitment and settlement of seedlings was impaired in areas where dead trees are extracted mainly for firewood purposes. The harvesting of dead trees created a forest gap, exposed the area to surging waves and thus increased the hydrodynamics. On the other hand, faster recovery dynamics was observed in area where the dead trees are not harvested. The presence of logs trapped the available propagules and facilitated the colonization of new cohorts. Quantification

This work is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License AOMB.MS.ID.000517. Figure 1: Mangrove fruit which can be processed into crackers. Pigment of mangrove waste for hypoallergenic natural batik dye The use of mangrove waste as a natural dye pigment of batik is more environmentally friendly because the waste produced will not damage the land and sea environment and is more easily decomposed. In addition, the mangrove waste used is obtained directly from nature by taking fallen bark and leaves, at no cost at all because the principle used is to recycle organic "waste". Research found 6 species of mangroves that can be used as natural fabric dyes, namely Sorenasia alba, Rhizophora sp, Avecenia sp, Ceriops decandra, Lunicera sp each leaf and stem are used, except C. decandra, which is only used for leaves. The mangrove species Lunicera sp only uses lotus fixer solution on leaves and stems, while combined fixers are also used as treatment for processing Lunicera sp leaves [2]. The color produced by each type of mangrove Retention of fabric dyes from mangrove waste has not been widely studied and applied to batik cloth. The mangrove species of Rizhophora mucronata, which can produce light brown to maroon colors, has the potential to be applied as a unique fabric

The response of mangrove (Avicennia marina) seedlings to treated (wet) sludge from a sewage treatment plant (STP) was tested in a randomized block design experiment at a tree nursery on Mubarraz Island in the Arabian Gulf. The growth response of seedlings to half-strength and full-strength STP sludge was monitored over 103 days and compared with the response to freshwater, seawater and half-strength seawater treatments. Sludge treatments resulted in significantly greater plant growth, leaf number, leaf biomass and root biomass than the other treatments did. The positive effect of STP sludge on seedling growth is attributed to enhanced levels of total nitrogen (8.9 ± 0.1 mg l − 1) and total phosphorus (7.8 ± 0.2 mg l − 1) in the sludge and its low salinity. These results suggest that sludge from sewage treatment plants may be beneficially used in mangrove nurseries and plantations in this arid region, where soils are nutrient-poor and fresh water is scarce.

Structural analysis of mangrove  forests was carried out in Turiaçu Bay during 1997 and 1998. The study area is influenced by brackish to saline waters with the occurrence of Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa and Conocarpus erectus. The other two red mangrove species R. racemosa and R. harrisonii occur mostly in freshwater and oligohaline environments and were not included in this paper. It was measured all mangrove trees over 2.5 cm of DBH (Diameter at Breast Height), inside 26 plots of 30 x 30 m, in the right side of the bay. The sample sites were arbitrarily selected considering 3 mangrove types: fringe, riverine and basin mangroves. The results show high structural variability. Mangrove species may be present in homogeneous, monospecific stands or in mixed stands of 2 or 3 species. Tree height ranged from 2 to 20 m and DBH from 3 to 35 cm with estimated basal area ranging from 1 to 50 m2 /ha. Estimated tree density ranged from 200 to 2,000 trees/ha. The best developed stands were found in well flushed areas fringing the bay or along river margins. The less developed mangroves were found to be the basin type, in dried, sandy soils, in poorly flushed areas. The correlations between structural parameters were positive for tree height x DBH (r= 0.88), tree height x basal area (r= 0.87), and negative to tree density x DBH (r= -0.71) and tree height x tree density (r= -0.60). The most abundant and best developed species is A. germinans, followed by R. mangle. L. racemosa is less abundant as well less developed in structure than the others, independent of its location in fringe, basin or riverine stands. The high structural variability sets the fragility of mangrove ecosystems in Turiaçu Bay and the necessity of adjusting management techniques to achieve sustainable development.

Keywords: mangrove structure, mangrove landscape, Amazonian coast, coastal ecosystems.

Mangrove trees have been considered to possess a higher carbon fi xation capacity than terrestrial trees although a reliable method to estimate their CO 2 fi xation capacity has not been established. In this study, net CO 2 fi xation in above-ground of Rhizophora stylosa was estimated as the difference between photosynthetic absorption and respiratory emission of CO 2 . In order to estimate these parameters, photosynthetic rates of single-leaves in response to light and temperature and the respiratory rates of leaves and branches in response to temperature were measured. Furthermore, we established a model of diurnal change in temperature. Monthly averages of the diurnal temperature change were used for correcting the CO 2 absorption and emission. The effect of temperature modifi cation on the estimation of net CO 2 fi xation was examined, and the net CO 2 fi xation capacity estimated with and without temperature modifi cation was compared. Biomass accumulation estimated without temperature modifi cation (i.e. corrected only for the light intensity) was 6.1 tons ha -1 yr -1 , while that estimated with temperature modifi cation (i.e. corrected for both light intensity and temperature) was 13.0 tons ha -1 yr -1 . A doubling of the estimated values of net CO 2 fi xation as observed in this study was caused by the decrease in respiratory CO 2 emission by half, which results from temperature modifi cation. These fi ndings suggest that temperature modifi cation in gas exchange analysis could improve the accuracy of estimation of the net CO 2 fi xation capacity.

The Guyana Mangrove Restoration Project (GMRP) is a project co-funded by the Government of Guyana and the European Union under the Global Climate Change Alliance.  The overall objective of the program is to abate climate change (carbon sequestration through reforestation and forest preservation) and to mitigate its effects via sea defenses.

Mangrove restoration has been a major focus of the GMRP and project planting activity in 2010-2012 combined has enabled more than 330,000 Avicennia germinans seedlings to be planted across 5.59km of the coastline at ten locations, equating to approximately 35ha in area. Evaluation of field results indicates that where mangrove seedlings are planted in optimal environmental conditions, recovery of the coastal protective belt can be rapid.  These successful sites can be compared to neighbouring planting sites which have experienced near total mortality of seedlings during the same period. Evaluation of environmental conditions at the different field sites suggests that mud elevation and associated sediment condition and wave energy levels is the primary differentiating factor between these two groups of field sites, with positive correlations between survival and seedling growth rate observed at three field sites.

To reduce the risk of planting at unsuitable planting sites, the project has developed  a comprehensive site selection processes prior to future planting involving assessments at different scales (1- macro scale, using Satellite imagery and Aerial photography from the GIS database to identify presence of mud banks and predict their movements) and 2) Micro scale at each potential planting site to assess suitability of different locations within planting sites in terms of known tolerance limits of mangroves to variation in mud elevation, soil conditions and wave action.

The project has also adopted a new approach and is trialling ecological natural restoration methods as an alternative/complementary initiative to mangrove planting as a way of increasing the recovery of the mangroves along the Guyanese coast at a faster rate and at lower cost.
Techniques being trialed include:
• planting of coastal grasses (e.g. Spartina) to facilitate stabilisation of sediments in areas subject to heavier wave energy, as well as natural recruitment of mangrove seedlings through entrapment of propagules,
• fencing to enable natural recruitment by naturally available mangrove seeds without pressure from grazing animals,
• trials of techniques to restore natural hydrological processes in degraded mangrove forest areas  to again allow for natural recovery of these mangrove areas and
• establishment of coastal engineering structures such as geotextile breakwaters and low cost Brushwood dams to reduce wave energy and facilitate accretion of sediments prior to mangrove planting.

It is very uncommon for thousands of
dead honey bees to wash up on beaches
(Taylor Jr, 1977). As a result of this, little is
known on the mortality of flying insects
along shorelines (Schaefer et al., 1987).
On 14th July 2019, I visited Maracas
beach (10°75′87′′ N, 61°43′95′′ W); a
crescent embayment of the Caribbean Sea,
located on the North coast of Trinidad. I
immediately noticed numerous dead bees
along the shoreline and became interested
in investigating further. At present, there
are few anecdotal records of one-off
occurrences where large masses of dead
bees were found along beaches in Florida
(Fox News, 2017; Scott, 2002) and there
don’t appear to be any published records
of this phenomenon on islands.

Mangroves in the Arabian Gulf are under pressure from land use change, leading to compensatory planting at sites without natural mangroves. In this study, we examine the potential long-term success of this form of afforestation of mangroves as a conservation measure supporting biodiversity. We compared the community of benthic macrofauna (in total 13,522 individuals from 75 species) and physical parameters at 15 sampling points in five afforested mangrove communities and 19 stations in four natural mangrove communities in Qatar. Three decades after afforestation, there were no significant differences between the benthic macrofauna in natural and afforested mangroves as regards total abundance, species richness, Shannon’s diversity, effective number of species, or evenness. Only species richness of Crustacea was significantly higher in natural mangroves. Total organic carbon (TOC), sand, and clay content did not differ. This contradicts findings at the same locations 10 years after afforestation, when benthic macrofauna diversity, TOC, and clay content were lower at afforested sites than at natural mangrove sites. Our results suggest that compensatory planting of mangroves in areas without previous natural occurrence can potentially compensate for loss of biodiversity due to coastal development and that physical parameters may become more similar in afforested mangroves and natural mangroves over time. Furthermore, the increase in TOC in sediments in afforested mangroves over time can help mitigation of climate change. Importantly, the results highlight the need for long-term studies and perspectives when evaluating conservation practices.

The similarity of δ13C and δ15N patterns in hairs of different individuals from the Tsavo East orphaned elephant herd indicates that a single hair represents the dietary preferences and behavior of the entire group. Multiple tail hairs from the same individual collected at different times allows a chronology to be established because of the overlap in isotope patterns in hair, and there is a very high correlation between hair from different individuals in the same group. Forward modeling using a three-component isotope turnover model for hair allows a precise estimate of diet of these elephants over a 2-year interval. Elephants from Tsavo East National Park in Kenya feed predominantly on C3 leaves, although they have a significant fraction of C4 grass in their diet for a short time at the beginning of the rainy season. The overall integrated diet for the elephants studied is between 10% and 15% C4 grass, although it reaches up to 60% for short intervals.Stable carbon isotope analyses of elephant tooth enamel show that the average integrated dietary preference of elephants in Tsavo National Park remained less than 25% grass between 1940 and the present.

Structural analysis of mangrove forests was carried out in Turiaçu Bay during 1997 and 1998. The study area is influenced by brackish to saline waters with the occurrence of Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa and Conocarpus erectus. The other two red mangrove species R. racemosa and R. harrisonii occur mostly in freshwater and oligohaline environments and were not included in this paper. It was measured all mangrove trees over 2.5 cm of DBH (Diameter at Breast Height), inside 26 plots of 30 x 30 m, in the right side of the bay. The sample sites were arbitrarily selected considering 3 mangrove types: fringe, riverine and basin mangroves. The results show high structural variability. Mangrove species may be present in homogeneous, monospecific stands or in mixed stands of 2 or 3 species. Tree height ranged from 2 to 20 m and DBH from 3 to 35 cm with estimated basal area ranging from 1 to 50 m2 /ha. Estimated tree density ranged from 200 to 2,000 trees/ha. The best developed stands were found in well flushed areas fringing the bay or along river margins. The less developed mangroves were found to be the basin type, in dried, sandy soils, in poorly flushed areas. The correlations between structural parameters were positive for tree height x DBH (r= 0.88), tree height x basal area (r= 0.87), and negative to tree density x DBH (r= -0.71) and tree height x tree density (r= -0.60). The most abundant and best developed species is A. germinans, followed by R. mangle. L. racemosa is less abundant as well less developed in structure than the others, independent of its location in fringe, basin or riverine stands. The high structural variability sets the fragility of mangrove ecosystems in Turiaçu Bay and the necessity of adjusting management techniques to achieve sustainable development. Keywords: mangrove structure, mangrove landscape, Amazonian coast, coastal ecosystems.

INTRODUCCIÓN Los manglares son un tipo de vegetación arbórea o arbustiva que se desarrolla en las costas tropicales e intertropicales del mundo en áreas salobres con inundación temporal o permanente y forman una zona de transición o ecotono entre los ambientes marinos y terrestres (Kathiresan y Bingham 2001). Ocupan zonas bien definidas en estuarios, esteros y lagunas costeras en donde la salinidad del agua puede variar entre 2.5 y 80% (Twilley 1998). Las principales variables que regulan el desarro-llo del ecosistema de manglar son la salinidad, que está asociada a la mezcla regular de agua marina y continental, y el hidroperiodo, esto es, la frecuencia de la inundación del suelo que depende del relieve y su relación con el ciclo de mareas y los aportes esta-cionales de agua de lluvia y escorrentía. Las variacio-nes de estos factores controlan la presencia y patrón de distribución de cada especie en el manglar. Hay también diferencias en la estructura de los manglares que dependen de la ubicación del manglar en las vertientes costeras y en relación con variaciones latitudinales a las que se asocian cambios en temperatura, y en la precipitación y distribución continental de agua (Méndez Alonzo et al., 2008).

Despite all efforts and massive investments, the restoration of mangroves has not always been successful. One critical reason for this failure is the vulnerability of young mangroves, which cannot grow because of hydrodynamic disturbances in the shallow coastal water. For a comprehensive study bridging ecological and engineering principles, a portable community-based reef is proposed to shield mangroves from waves during the early stages of their growth. A series of field observations were conducted on Amami Oshima Island (Japan), to observe the growth of young mangroves and their survival rate under moderate wave conditions. The evolution of young mangroves was also observed in the laboratory under a controlled indoor environment. At the research site, it was confirmed that, after six months of germination, young mangroves could withstand normal high waves. Laboratory-grown plants were lower in height and had fewer leaves compared with the native mangroves on Amami. Based on these results, an economical reef system was designed. For this purpose, the Ahrens formula for the design of a low-crested reef breakwater was revisited. The results showed that a 50-cm-high reef constructed with 15-kg stones can protect mangroves that are a few months old and effectively promote early mangrove growth.

In many coastal areas of SouthEast Asia, attempts have been made to revive coastal ecosystem by initiating projects that encourage planting of mangrove trees. Compared to the terrestrial trees, mangrove trees possess a higher carbon fixation capacity. It becomes a very significant option for clean development mechanism (CDM) program. However, a reliable method to estimate CO 2 fixation capacity of mangrove trees has not been established. Acknowledging the above fact, we decided to set up an estimation method for the CDM program, using gas exchange analysis to estimate mangrove productivity, we put into consideration the net CO 2 fixation of reforested Kandelia candel (5-, 10-, and 15-yearold stand). This was estimated by gas exchange analysis and growth curve analysis. In growth curve analysis, we drew a growth curve of a single stand using data of above-and below-ground biomass. In the gas exchange analysis, we calculated CO 2 fixation capacity by (1) measuring respiration rate of each organ of stand and calculating respiratory CO 2 emission from above-to below-ground biomass. (2) Measuring the single-leaf photosynthetic rate in response to light intensity and calculating the photosynthetic CO 2 absorption. (3) We also developed a model for the diurnal changes in temperature, and monthly averages based on one-day estimation of CO 2 absorption and emission, which we corrected by this model in order to estimate the net CO 2 fixation capacity in response to temperature. Comparing the biomass accumulation of the two methods constructed for the same forest, the above-ground biomass accumulation of 10-year-old forest (34.3 ton ha-1 yr-1) estimated by gas exchange analysis was closely compared to those of growth curve analysis (26.6 ton ha-1 yr-1), suggesting that the gas exchange analysis was capable of estimating mangrove productivity. The validity of the estimated CO 2 fixation capacity by the gas exchange analysis and the growth curve analysis was also discussed.

Mangroves are making the headlines again in the continuous conflict between development and the preservation of nature. The survival of a stretch of mangroves and mudflats near Penaga and Kuala Muda is under threat by the proposal from the Penang Aquaculture Industrial Zone. In neighbouring Kedah, the mangroves of Sungai Merbok are declining fast, due to the clearing of mangrove forests to make way for shrimp farming, housing and other developments. Bear in mind, these were the worst-impacted sites in Peninsular Malaysia during the Boxing Day tsunami that happened exactly 15 years ago. The scars of the natural disaster can still be seen and the emotions are still felt by the locals, but sadly, we never learn. The mangroves of Penaga and Kuala Muda have played an instrumental role in protecting the coastline and the surrounding communities from the immediate effects of winds and waves from the Straits of Malacca. Besides, both these areas are primary stopovers for seasonal migratory birds and are home to a large diversity of plants and marine fauna. The fishing villages there are the main attractions for locals and foreigners, who crave seafood. A large portion of Sungai Merbok’s mangroves, on the other hand, has been protected as a permanent forest reserve since 1951 for biodiversity conservation, fisheries resources, coastal and estuarine protection, flood mitigation, carbon sink and many other ecosystem services, benefiting the local communities who have lived there for generations. Sungai Merbok is gaining attention from tourists following the establishment of the Jerai Geopark. Sungai Merbok has been a haunt of historians, scientists and nature enthusiasts for a long time because of its rich natural and cultural history and heritage. It is the location of the ancient civilisation of Kedah, which had flourished to become one of the most advanced in the region. Like many other past civilisations, it began in major river valleys and deltas. Mesopotamia, for example, was located at the confluence of the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. In addition to the archaeological evidence, it is also important to note the fascinating dynamics of the coastal landscapes of Merbok. In recent geologic past, the peak of Gunung Jerai, Bukit Meriam and Bukit Peteri were islands fronting an area used to be known as the Kedah Bay. As sea levels dropped during the Late Holocene, the foot of Gunung Jerai and the land extending towards Tanjung Dawai were exposed. On the southern side, the land area of Sungai Petani appeared to be extending to Pantai Merdeka. A new fertile estuarine delta was then formed on both sides as can be seen today. The morphology change of the Merbok estuary and delta was sporadically depicted in the Kedah Annals (Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa), which proved to be an important reference for historians and scientists. The mangroves and the coastal habitats forming the facade of this estuary are still undergoing a natural dynamic process. Now, however, as we are entering the Anthropocene epoch, natural environments are heavily influenced by anthropogenic forces, and this is clearly witnessed in this site. In my current analyses, I discovered a dramatic decline in the mangrove area in this site since the 1960s. It is devastating to see even more land-use change occurring right after the 2004 tsunami and continuing until today. As mentioned earlier, we definitely haven’t learnt from the past catastrophe how vulnerable our coastline is, and how important it is to protect mangroves and the coastal habitats. The question is, who should regulate this? The answer is simple. The power lies in the hands of the landowner, that is, the state government. As we all know in Malaysia, land is a state matter. A strong consideration of the integrity of the natural environment and resources must be a priority before any decision is made to de-gazette a mangrove forest reserve, or convert it for other land use. The forests and estuaries took thousands of years to shape and develop, but we take hours and just days to clear and convert them. Imagine the sudden loss of habitat for the plants and animals, and the lost opportunity for carbon absorption, with the carbon being released due to forest cutting and land clearing. A developed state does not necessarily need extensive physical structures or a surplus in houses and business areas. What is paramount is ensuring a balance — that the basic needs and welfare of society are well taken care of and the environment is protected and preserved. We must learn to appreciate and understand the tolerable threshold of the natural environment so that we can manage and promote sustainable development, such as lowering the risks and hazards from natural and anthropogenic disturbances. We must also take into account the “real” need for physical development, and reflect on all the abandoned, failed and unnecessary development. Let us be proud of our diverse tropical heritage and grow to become a developed country surrounded by these beautiful and precious resources. We must be firm and resolute in adopting the principle of wise use and sustainable development. Learn from past mistakes, and change we must to ensure the survival of our future generations. The writer, a Malaysian Mangrove Research Alliance and Network coordinator, is a senior lecturer and research fellow at the Institute for Environment and Development, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

MANGROVES and seagrasses possess distinctive characteristics with remarkable adaptation features, allowing them to naturally occupy Malaysia’s fragile tropical coastlines. Their presence is significant in terms of providing multiple benefits and ecosystem services to the nation, particularly for coastal protection against oceanic and climatic catastrophes, and securing the livelihoods of coastal communities. Mangroves are a natural habitat for a diverse type of plant and are home to myriads of animals and marine fauna. They are the breeding and spawning grounds for marine and coral fishes, a sanctuary for over a thousand known species of molluscs, bivalves, reptiles, amphibians, fish, birds and mammals. This includes dolphins, otters, crocodiles and mudskippers. Malaysia’s mangroves store 90 per cent of all known and described Indo-West Pacific’s mangrove plant species, making it the third largest mangrove-holding nation in the world. Adjacent to the mangroves, particularly on the eastern and southern coasts of Peninsular Malaysia, as well as on the coasts of Sabah and Sarawak, lie numerous beds and meadows of seagrasses. All 14 species of seagrasses found in Malaysia are well-adapted to highly saline conditions and they are the specific grazing grounds for dugongs and other marine mammals and creatures. Seagrasses provide the ecological link and habitat connectivity, particularly on nutrient exchange and dynamics with the neighbouring mangroves and coral reefs. One important thing in common for both mangroves and seagrasses is that they are identified as an efficient carbon sequester. Hence, together with saltmarshes (commonly found in subtropical coastlines), mangroves and seagrasses are known as the blue carbon ecosystems. Particularly for mangroves, they are found to be four-times a better carbon storage compared to their terrestrial counterparts. Through photosynthesis (a process in which plant uses light, water and carbon dioxide to generate food and energy for growth, releasing oxygen as a waste product), mangroves and seagrasses fix a significant amount of atmospheric carbon by storing it in their above-ground bodies, and in their roots and soil underneath. This process of carbon sequestration is vital to assist in our combat against climate change. Considering all of the benefits and services provided by these ecosystems, it is unfortunate to note that mangroves and seagrasses are not legally protected. They fall in the loopholes of natural resource governance, partly due to their habitat locations, and partly due to our ignorance in recognising their ecological importance. The National Forestry Act provides protection for mangroves within the gazetted forest reserves. However, approximately 1,000 sq km of mangroves are not (yet) gazetted and are put solely under the jurisdiction of the state governments. Similarly, the National Fisheries Act does not include mangroves in the protection and enforcement, although it is a known fact that fish and seafood resources are highly dependent on mangroves for their survival. Seagrasses, on the other hand, are totally not covered by the two important legal tools, except for the ones located within the boundaries of the marine parks, in which coral reefs are the main emphasis. This is a worrying scenario. In the nation’s plight to protect our coasts from being eroded due to obvious climatic factors, human development continues to encroach on these habitats without careful consideration. Land reclamation, urban expansion and coastal development are identified as the primary anthropogenic factors contributing to the loss and the degradation of our mangroves and seagrasses. Coupled with the extreme climatic conditions, the future of Malaysia’s mangroves and seagrasses seems vague. It is hoped that the ongoing formulation of the National Wetlands Policy would address and solve these issues. The conservation of mangroves and seagrasses has already been mentioned in the National Policy on Biological Diversity, but, again, without a strong supporting enforcement tool like an act or a regulation, mangroves and seagrasses may still not be efficiently protected. The Environmental Quality Act does have a provision to regulate this through the implementation of the Environmental Impact Assessment by the Department of Environment. However, many destructive coastal development went on without solid mitigation measures and monitoring. Strict enforcement of rules and regulations should control anthropogenic disturbances on these habitats. The Forestry Department, The Department of Marine Park and The Department of Environment are already placed under the same roof, that is the Natural Resources and the Environment Ministry. Therefore, it is hoped that the ministry is able to strengthen smart partnerships and collaborations, and to allow for flexible enforcement mechanisms in between departments in order to protect these important intertidal habitats — our mangroves and seagrasses and all their ecological significance. The writer is senior lecturer and research fellow at the Institute for Environment and Development (Lestari), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, and coordinator of the Malaysian Mangrove Research Alliance and Network (MyMangrove).

El Parque Nacional Laguna de la Restinga (PNLR) fue creado el 6 de febrero de 1974, se encuentra ubicado en la Isla de Margarita, incluye una variedad de ecosistemas y especies endémicas, que le atribuye un valor impresionante que a su vez lo hace presa de ataques o victima de la desidia.
Sufre de amenazas tan directas como la cacería y la pesca ilegal, donde tenemos que personas responsables entran al Parque y violentan la belleza del mismo, hasta factores indirectos como crisis y debilidades en sus responsables (INPARQUES) y habitantes, incluso riesgos regionales, de contaminación y eliminación de la barra arenosa y el cambio climático, que no se limitan a lo que sucede dentro del Parque sino en las zonas vecinas, de influencia, o a nivel global.
Como parte de muchas iniciativas, la siguiente se enfoca en rescatar el valor del PNLR e incentivar la protección del mismo desde los habitantes, visitantes y responsables hasta instituciones nacionales e internacionales. Para esto se pretende invocar a miembros de la comunidad interna y vecinas, realizar talleres, e incluirlos en actividades para la conservación, desde el voluntario, hasta el educador, para así generar una mayor concientización de las acciones dentro del Parque y hasta generar una mayor articulación del mismo con otras comunidades e instituciones.

Inundation associated with flooding and sea level rise is predicted to have major impacts on survival , growth and productivity of mangroves. A manipulative mesocosm experiment was conducted to assess whether nutrient enrichment enhances growth and photosynthesis of waterlogged and salinity stressed seedlings of the mangrove Heritiera littoralis Dryand. Seedlings were fertilized with a three-component granular farm NPK (Nitrogen-Phosphorous-Potassium, 20:20:20) at varied loads under waterlogging with four levels of salinity. Growth was assessed through bio-mass accumulation, and photosynthesis through photosynthetic quantum yield and leaf Chl content. When seedlings were exposed to both nutrient enrichment and increased salinity, a significant shift of biomass to roots was observed. Seedlings had low value of Chl a/b ratio and photo-synthetic distraction resulting in mortality was high in the highest salinity and nutrient levels. These results are useful in explaining failure of regeneration in natural stands of riverine and freshwater bound mangroves following unprecedented flooding events that accrue land based nutrient loads into estuaries and deltas.

In Kampot Province, Cambodia, the mangrove species Rhizophora apiculata is afforested on a salt flat near to the eco-community of Trapaing Saingke. At the planting site there are four age classes, 16, 31, 36 and 71 months, and nearby there is old growth natural forest of approximately 180 months. This study took girth at breast height (GBH) measurements for all age classes, and leaf length, width, total number of leaves, total number of damaged leaves and total number of yellow leaves for each tree. This study found hindered leaf growth at 16 months, with this age class being statistically not different from 3 months for leaf length (p=0.946) and leaf width (p=1.000). Using the GBH measurements in conjunction with a range of predictive formulas from the literature this study found a relationship between age and combined trunk, canopy, stilt root and leaf biomass (R2 - 0.9998). With a ratio of above-ground biomass to root biomass of between 1:1.4 to 1:1.9. This study employed local stakeholder knowledge to assess the perceived importance of mangroves to the community. It was found that they are most important with regard to income from tourism and recreation and education and learning. This study sed the estimated biomass values to generate standing carbon biomass and equivalent carbon credit value. This study also combined the results of quantitative and qualitative data to enhance stakeholder engagement in the form of an info-graphic for in-field biomass and carbon credit value estimations.

Mangrove communities are tropical systems which have fewer species than tropical forests, especially in Latin America and display a single architecture, usually lacking the various strata commonly found in other forest ecosystems. The identification of mangrove communities by orbital data is not a difficult task but the most interesting challenge is to identify themselves by the dominant species. The first step toward that floristic identification is the spectral characterization of detached leaves. Leaves from four species of mangrove trees were spectrally characterized considering the Directional Hemispherical Reflectance Factor (DHRF) determined through radiometric measurements using an integrating sphere LICOR 1800 attached to a spectroradiometer SPECTRON SE-590. In the visible bands (0.45-0.69 µm) the button-shaped mangrove Conocarpus erectus was brighter and the red mangrove Rhizophora mangle was darker than the other two species which shows very close DHRF values. Otherwise the black mangrove Avicennia germinans and the white mangrove Laguncularia racemosa can be distinguished from one another in the Near Infra Red (NIR) region (0.76-0.90 µm and in this region of the spectrum the DHRF of C. erectus and R. mangle become very close.

In many coastal areas of South-East Asia, attempts have been made to revive coastal ecosystem by initiating projects that encourage planting of mangrove trees. Compared to the terrestrial trees, mangrove trees possess a higher carbon fixation capacity. It becomes a very significant option for clean development mechanism (CDM) program. However, a reliable method to estimate CO 2 fixation capacity of mangrove trees has not been established. Acknowledging the above fact, we decided to set up an estimation method for the CDM program, using gas exchange analysis to estimate mangrove productivity, we put into consideration the net CO 2 fixation of reforested Kandelia candel (5-, 10-, and 15-yearold stand). This was estimated by gas exchange analysis and growth curve analysis. In growth curve analysis, we drew a growth curve of a single stand using data of above-and below-ground biomass. In the gas exchange analysis, we calculated CO 2 fixation capacity by (1) measuring respiration rate of each organ of stand and calculating respiratory CO 2 emission from above-to below-ground biomass. (2) Measuring the single-leaf photosynthetic rate in response to light intensity and calculating the photosynthetic CO 2 absorption. We also developed a model for the diurnal changes in temperature, and monthly averages based on one-day estimation of CO 2 absorption and emission, which we corrected by this model in order to estimate the net CO 2 fixation capacity in response to temperature. Comparing the biomass accumulation of the two methods constructed for the same forest, the above-ground biomass accumulation of 10-year-old forest (34.3 ton ha -1 yr -1 ) estimated by gas exchange analysis was closely compared to those of growth curve analysis (26.6 ton ha -1 yr -1 ), suggesting that the gas exchange analysis was capable of estimating mangrove productivity. The validity of the estimated CO 2 fixation capacity by the gas exchange analysis and the growth curve analysis was also discussed.