Intellectual Property

This paper aims at investigating what happens on technology-driven markets when it is necessary to assess and evaluate information about the technology solutions before purchase. One of the major difficulties transaction participants face is that they are assessing not just technical properties but also intangible issues regarding the difference between technologies, the future performance of the technology, and other factors. Another major difficulty in the transactions on technology markets is managing the information flow. Here we can find a number of problems: how information about technical solutions is formed, gathered, processed, exchanged and understood from both parties in the transaction. This is where the theory of information asymmetry comes in place. Information asymmetry is the problem preventing communication processes to be effective. A possible mechanism to address the problems information asymmetry created on the technology markets is the intellectual property system in general and patent rights in particular. In this paper we will analyse the hypothesis of using a well developed, well organized in terms of institutions classical market-regulating mechanism such as the patent system. We propose a model for understanding and addressing information asymmetry on the technology markets, using one already existing legislative mechanism, namely patent rights. Our analyses are conducted using the technology markets in general and the software market in particular. These analyses are examined using theories of communication processes and theories of development of the patent system and its functions. The study resulted in the identification of information exchange pattern on the technology market and of the model of information asymmetry on that market. The paper ends by challenging the efficiency of patent rights, which though having the potential to address and solve the problem of information asymmetry on the technology markets, remains problematic and difficult to achieve.
Keywords: information asymmetry, technology markets, intellectual property rights, patents, software market

The purpose of this chapter is to identify and propose new pathways to reform legal issues affecting Indigenous people in the exercise of their traditional and revitalised rights and interests in water within national and state water regimes. I argue that the exercise of traditional and revitalised laws as expressed in Art 11 of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) should be incorporated into Australia’s water laws and policies, in addition to other articles of the Declaration, for example Art 20, for Indigenous peoples to develop economic opportunities in water. These and other relevant international instruments incorporated into Australian law would give expression to the exercise and enjoyment of traditional and revitalised rights to water, economic and cultural property rights and interests, to create substantive pathways for Indigenous First Peoples of Australia.

Estratto da F. Chrisam, Le licenze sugli user-generated content. Click-wrap agreement, big data e circolazione online del diritto d’autore, Aracne, 2016, 125-153. La ricerca ha ad oggetto i rapporti contrattuali tra provider e user nel contesto del cosiddetto «web 2.0»: tale espressione viene comunemente utilizzata per descrivere il passaggio dall’originaria dimensione statica del web ad una dinamico-partecipativa in cui gli utenti delle reti internet non sono più meri fruitori passivi di contenuti digitali bensì autori; spesso infatti sono oggetto di upload dati che soddisfano il requisito costitutivo del carattere creativo e risultano pertanto protetti dal diritto d’autore. E’ per tale ragione che i contratti di erogazione dei servizi online prevedono tipicamente clausole con cui l’utente concede al provider una licenza sugli user-generated content: i servizi in esame implicano infatti operazioni che si sostanziano in atti di riproduzione, modificazione e comunicazione al pubblico dei contenuti immessi dagli utenti e che costituirebbero pertanto contraffazione in assenza di autorizzazione da parte del titolare dei diritti. Meno evidente è la ragione che sottende l’adozione di licenze talmente ampie da costituire in taluni casi vere e proprie previsioni in bianco: la giustificazione che viene comunemente proposta ruota attorno alla complessità dei servizi erogati online e alla necessità di un livello sufficiente di flessibilità in ragione dell’avanzamento tecnologico continuo che caratterizza l’ambiente digitale; tuttavia questa tesi non convince pienamente poiché il medesimo risultato potrebbe essere agevolmente ottenuto anche in presenza di previsioni maggiormente determinate nel loro contenuto e vincolate espressamente alla fornitura di specifici servizi o categorie di servizi in luogo del mero richiamo nominale della piattaforma. La tendenza sembra piuttosto quella di attribuire al provider una licenza in bianco sui contenuti immessi dall’utente tale da consentirne il più ampio riutilizzo per finalità che vengono definite di volta in volta unilateralmente dall’intermediario medesimo attraverso la modifica dell’architettura della piattaforma online.
Occorre allora chiedersi quale sia il ruolo effettivamente giocato da tali licenze nell’economia dei contratti di erogazione dei servizi online e se sia possibile individuarne dei limiti al di là del mero dato testuale.
Il settimo capitolo tenta di sciogliere i nodi relativi ai limiti delle licenze ricostruendo il contratto alla luce della funzione economica unitariamente perseguita dalle parti; ma il ricorso ai soli criteri ermeneutici generali non consente di individuare una soluzione univoca lasciando il dubbio tra due schemi possibili: (i) quello per cui la licenza sugli user-generated content si inserirebbe nell’economia di uno scambio tra servizi e pubblicità mirata; (ii) quello per cui tale licenza costituirebbe di per sé la controprestazione dell’utente a fronte della fornitura solo apparentemente gratuita dei servizi.
Si procede allora alla lettura congiunta dei canoni generali di interpretazione del contratto e delle previsioni specificamente dettate dalla disciplina autorale: l’accento viene posto in particolare sul ruolo giocato dalla Zweckübertragungstheorie di cui si offre una rilettura critica alla luce del nuovo contesto della contrattazione di massa online.

"The increasing sensibility regarding intangible cultural heritage provides momentum to better define a legal framework for the protection of these peculiar immaterial goods. This article questions whether the current intellectual property rights (IPRs) regime represents an adequate model of protection vis-à-vis intangible cultural heritage. A plethora of caveats must be taken into consideration, starting with the desirability of the commodification of intangible cultural heritage, i.e. its exploitation and commercialization through the IPRs regime, but also including the outlining of the legal instruments needed for guaranteeing adequate advantages for the countries and communities representing the sources of origin of the intangible goods. 
After framing the crucial issues detected in literature regarding intangible cultural heritage, the article investigates the ways in which the actual IPRs regime grants protection to intangible goods. Our evaluation supports the idea that, without a many-faceted remodeling, current intellectual property laws represent an unsatisfactory mechanism for protecting intangible cultural heritage. This inadequacy is rooted in the inefficacy of IPRs under the patent and copyright regimes in ensuring the protection of cultural heritage, while also falling short of fostering an appropriate comprehensive social policy."

In this article, I will present and examine personality-based, rule-utilitarian, and Lockean justifications for intellectual property. Care is needed so that we do not confuse moral claims with legal ones. The brief sketch of Anglo-American and Continental systems of intellectual property below, focuses on legal conceptions and rights while the arguments that follow—personality based, utilitarian, and Lockean— are essentially moral. I will argue that there are justified moral claims to intellectual works—claims that are strong enough to warrant legal protection.

This essay expands upon an earlier work (Grodzinsky and Tavani, 2005) in which we analyzed the implications of the Verizon v RIAA case for P2P Networks vis-à-vis concerns affecting personal privacy and intellectual property. In the present essay we revisit some of the concerns surrounding this case by analyzing the intellectual property and privacy issues that emerged in the MGM Studios v. Grokster case. These two cases illustrate some of the key tensions that exist between privacy and property interests in cyberspace. In our analysis, we contrast Digital Rights Management (DRM) and Interoperability and we examine some newer distribution models of sharing over P2P networks. We also analyze some privacy implications in the two cases in light of the theory of privacy as contextual integrity (Nissenbaum, 2004).

The software market is a market in which the primary market value of the goods results from the information the goods contain. Given the intangible nature of software it is important on the one hand property to be established on it and on the other consumers to be able to recognize an opportunity to satisfy their needs with a particular software solution. Users can not assess the usefulness of software before actually consuming it. Consumers rely more on critical analysis and evaluation from third parties and other secondary sources of information in forming their decision for purchase rather than on information from the manufacturer himself. The intellectual property (IP) system offers protection of software and in terms of property rights it provides software developers with a wide range of possibilities of usage and excluding third parties from using the software without permission granted. The IP system also requires a commitment by the developers to reveal in depth the characteristics of the solution, in order that this solution to be used as prior art, and for the creation of new and better software, when software is protected by a patent in particular. Access to this information is free and users can benefit from it fully at any time – understanding software functionality and deciding if it can satisfy their needs or not. The intellectual property system is supposed to balance the interests of different stakeholders – developers and users. However we consider that there is serious misbalance of interests that leads to various problems, one of the most serious of which is the information asymmetry on the software market. Information asymmetry is an intrinsic characteristic of the software market and is present in every type of transaction. The problems of the existence of asymmetric information in the market of software, respectively of the fact that software manufacturers have product information, which buyers do not have, can be viewed in several ways:
• this is a prerequisite to purchase a lower quality product by the consumer;
• this is a prerequisite for the formation of prices of products that do not correspond to their value and are much higher. Usually the software pricing policies are unclear to users and they are unable to determine why the price they are offered is such. Similar software solutions are available in very large price range and the user has no real expectations how much to pay for certain types of software; it is difficult to determine whether a price is high or low;
• this is a prerequisite for software manufacturers to bear a higher risk of developing software products since imperfections and errors in software can easily be attributed to bad faith use by the user.

The trade mark is often the first thing that a consumer would notice when getting in touch with a new brand and usually the last thing that will forget about an old one. The trade mark’s unique feature to distinguish between different products and services has an enormous social and economic value which is further strengthened by today’s ever raising global consumerism. Trade marks enable people to attach particular associations to particular brands like, among many other things - quality, origin and publicity.1 All these important trade mark’s features inevitably lead to aggressive practices of corporations to win and secure bigger shares of the market and to promote their products more successively.

The entry into force of the World Trade Organization (WTO) TRIPS Agreement in 1995 transformed the international intellectual property system. The harmonization of basic intellectual property standards has operated to protect investment in innovation, limiting risks from unjustified ‘free riding’. Yet these same harmonized IP standards sharply curtailed the traditional capacity of suppliers of public goods, such as health care and nutrition, to address priority needs of less affluent members of society, particularly in (but not limited to) developing countries. In the Doha Declaration, the Waiver Decision of 30 August 2003 and the Article 31bis Protocol of Amendment, stakeholders concerned with re-opening policy space for the supply of newer pharmaceutical products pushed back against restrictive elements of the TRIPS Agreement.Governments around the world are in the process of deciding whether to ratify and accept the Article 31bis Amendment. Based on their Study for the Internatio...

"The Piracy Crusade examines the music industry’s overreaction to the threat of digital piracy, and the resulting damage done to our economy, culture and society. It challenges the commonly-accepted myth that piracy is killing the music industry, exploring the unheralded benefits of digital sharing, and the “perfect storm” of economic factors – many of them self-inflicted – that burst the industry’s bubble.

The book critiques the premise of digital piracy itself, arguing that today’s file sharers, music bloggers and mashup artists are simply making use of new technologies to recuperate music from its 20th Century status as an entertainment commodity, and returning it to its original role as a medium for interpersonal and group communication.

Finally, The Piracy Crusade reveals how a flood of new laws and policies enacted in the name of combating piracy have undermined free speech, privacy and cultural innovation – all for the sake of protecting an outmoded media cartel."

Bu kitap; duygusal ve davranışsal bozukluklara sahip öğrenciler hakkında bilgi sahibi olmak isteyen sınıf öğretmenleri, özel eğitim öğretmenleri ve alanda çalışan uzmanlar için hazırlanmış giriş niteliğinde bir uygulama kitabıdır. Her bir bozukluğun nedeni, tanımlanması, güncel araştırmalar ışığında verilmeye çalışılmış ve okul ortamındaki pratik uygulamalarla da anlatım zenginleştirilmiştir. Bunlara ek olarak belirli bir bozukluğun tüm yönlerine ilişkin temel yaklaşımla birlikte bilimsel olarak geliştirilmiş müdahele yöntemleri de verilmeye çalışılmıştır.

Bu kitabın alanda yeni çalışmaya başlayan öğretmenler kadar güncel verilerle desteklenen tanı koyma ve müdahele stratejilrine önem vermesi nedeniyle alanda uzun süredir çalışmakta olan öğretmenlere ve uzmanlara da yararlı olacağını düşünmekteyiz.

Book Description The Routledge Handbook on the Sciences in Islamicate Societies provides a comprehensive survey on science in the Islamic world from the 8th to the 19th century. Across six sections, a collection of subject experts discuss and analyse scientific practices across a wide range of Islamicate societies. The authors take into consideration several contexts in which "science" was practiced, ranging from intellectual traditions and persuasions, to institutions such as courts, schools, hospitals, and observatories, to the materiality of scientific practices, including the arts and craftsmanship. Chapter also devote attention to scientific practices of minority communities in Muslim majority societies, and Muslim minority groups in societies outside the Islamicate world, thereby allowing readers to better understand the opportunities and constraints of scientific practices under varying local conditions. Through replacing Islam with Islamicate societies, the book opens up ways to explain similarities and differences between diverse societies ruled by Muslim dynasties. This handbook will be an invaluable resource for both established academics and students looking for an introduction for the field. It will appeal to those involved in the study of the History of Science, the History of Ideas, Islamic studies, Middle East studies, and Middle Eastern history.

About a decade ago intellectual property started getting systematically treated as a national security threat to the United States. The scope of the threat is broadly conceived to include hacking, trade secrets theft, file sharing, and even foreign students enrolling in American universities. In each case, the national security of the United States is claimed to be at risk, not just its economic competitiveness. This article traces the U.S. government's efforts to establish and articulate intellectual property theft as a national security issue. It traces the discourse on intellectual property as a security threat and its place within the larger security dialogue of cyberwar and cybersecurity. It argues that the focus on the theft of intellectual property as a security issue helps justify enhanced surveillance and control over the Internet and its future development.

207. “Desenvolvimento Tecnológico e Integração Regional”
Montevidéu, 20 junho 1991, 19 p.
Publicado, em forma resumida, em Conexión: Revista Latinoamericana de Integración (Montevidéu: ano I, n. 1, setembro 1991, p. 113-115).
Publicado, em versão completa e sob o título de “Propriedade Intelectual: os novos desafios para a América Latina”, na revista Estudos Avançados (São Paulo: IEA-USP, vol. 5, n. 12, maio-agosto de 1991, ISSN: 0103-4014, p. 187-203; links: https://www.scielo.br/pdf/ea/v5n12/v5n12a12.pdf e http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&pid=S0103-40141991000200012&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=pt).
Relação de Publicados n. 067 e 068.

A reestruturação, no âmbito da Rodada Uruguai do GATT, das regras multilaterais que regulam o comércio internacional, inclusive no que concerne aos novos temas da propriedade intelectual, dos investimentos e dos serviços, encontra a América Latina numa fase singular de sua história econômica. Quando a Rodada foi lançada, em 1986, em Punta del Este, o Continente estava entregue a uma onda generalizada de pessimismo declinista, iniciado com o problema da divida externa e logo prolongado pela mais profunda crise econômica que a América Latina conheceu desde os anos 30. Mas ela coincidiu, igualmente, com a conscientização da necessidade de mudanças radicais no funcionamento dos aparelhos produtivos das economias nacionais e na forma de sua inserção no sistema econômico internacional, oferecendo, como tal, uma oportunidade ímpar para se repensar o modelo tradicional de modernização tecnológica. Com efeito, a transição dos anos 80 para os 90 foi caracterizada por grandes mudanças na economia mundial, que operou uma transição acelerada para o que já foi chamado de novo paradigma tecnológico, ou seja, um modelo produtivo não mais tipicamente tayloriano e fordista, mas um tipo de organização social da produção identificado com a science-based industry. A magnitude do choque representado pela Rodada Uruguai, especialmente no que concerne aos fluxos de alta tecnologia, não deve ser minimizada, quaisquer que venham a ser os resultados efetivos do novo contrato mundial que emergirá no GATT. Ele deve assegurar as bases de um novo regime relativo à proteção da propriedade intelectual e, como tal, criar regras multilaterais aplicadas ao comércio de tecnologia muito mais restritas que as atualmente existentes. Muito embora seus contornos ainda não estejam desenhados em todos os detalhes, desde já três coisas precisam ficar claras em relação a seus potenciais efeitos para países importadores de tecnologia como os da América Latina.
(...)

In the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors (BASCA) and others v Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills case, the High Court of Justice in matter of private copy exception provides the twofold prime opportunity to shed light on the state of the art of copyright in the UK and to flesh out the idea of 'legal hysteresis’. I support the reintroduction of the private copy exception, possibly in a less narrow fashion, and I explain the reasons why I am confident that my expectations will be fulfilled.

"Περιγραφή
Το παρόν σύγγραμμα εξετάζει το φαινόμενο των Νέων Μέσων και της δημοσιογραφίας των πολιτών ταυτόχρονα από τη σκοπιά της ηθικής, της επικοινωνίας, αλλά και του δικαίου της επικοινωνίας. Απευθύνεται σε όλους όσοι ασχολούνται σε επίπεδο θεωρίας ή πράξης με τα Νέα Μέσα και το Δίκαιο της Επικοινωνίας και, δεδομένου ότι η γλώσσα γραφής του είναι απλή και κατανοητή, μπορεί να αποτελέσει σημαντικό βοήθημα όχι μόνο για τους νομικούς, αλλά και για κάθε πολίτη-χρήστη των Νέων Μέσων.
Εξετάζονται ειδικότερα:
• Η επικοινωνιακή διάσταση των Νέων Μέσων, τα χαρακτηριστικά τους, οι θεωρίες που διέπουν τη λειτουργία τους, το κίνημα της δημοσιογραφίας των πολιτών στα Νέα Μέσα και οι αξίες του,
• ζητήματα σχετικά με την εφαρμογή της ελευθερίας της έκφρασης και του Τύπου στα Νέα Μέσα, τον περιορισμό των ελευθεριών, την ευθύνη που επισύρει η παραβίασή τους, σε συνάρτηση και με τη δυνατότητα για ανώνυμη έκφραση που παρέχουν τα Μέσα αυτά,
• ζητήματα ιδιωτικού διεθνούς δικαίου στα Νέα Μέσα,
• ζητήματα πνευματικής ιδιοκτησίας στα Νέα Μέσα, σε συνάφεια με τις αλλαγές που συντελούνται στο πεδίο της οικονομικής ανάπτυξης και εκδηλώνονται με την παγκόσμια κρίση,
• σκέψεις για τη ρύθμιση του κυβερνοχώρου.
"

A Lei de Defesa da Concorrência de 2011 inseriu dentre as hipóteses de ato de concentração sujeitas ao controle de estruturas os chamados “contratos associativos”. Por se tratar de categoria que carecia de definição legal, essa previsão ensejou debate a respeito de quais modalidades contratuais deveriam ser notificadas previamente ao Conselho Administrativo de Defesa Econômica – CADE, o que motivou a edição de duas resoluções por esta autarquia para disciplinar a matéria. Nesse contexto, o presente trabalho almeja discutir o enquadramento de contratos envolvendo direitos de propriedade intelectual como associativos e, consequentemente, a obrigatoriedade de notificação dessas operações ao CADE, além da adequação da regulamentação brasileira à prática internacional antitruste relativamente a esses contratos. Para alcançar esses desígnios, verificamos a legislação internacional pertinente, a literatura brasileira e realizamos uma pesquisa jurisprudencial junto ao CADE. Concluímos que, embora o Brasil preveja uma categoria de ato de concentração que não encontra paralelo nos Estados Unidos e na União Europeia, os atuais critérios de notificação dos contratos associativos afastam os contratos de licenciamento não exclusivo de propriedade intelectual da incidência do controle preventivo, o que deixa o ordenamento jurídico brasileiro em linha com esse benchmark internacional.

598 DEPAUL LAW REVIEW [Vol. 50:597 oped in analog environments, we have found this thesis perhaps even more pertinent in digital contexts. In The Cultural Life of Intellectual Properties,2 Rosemary Coombe explored mass commercial culture and popular cultural ...

Although the Internet is valued by many of its supporters particularly because it both defies and defeats physical borders, these important attributes are now being exposed to attempts by both governments and private entities to impose territorial limits through blocking or permitting access to content by Internet users based on their geographical location — a territorial partitioning of the Internet. One of these attempts, for example, is the recent Stop Online Piracy Act (“SOPA”) proposal in the United States. This article, as opposed to earlier literature on the topic discussing the possible virtues and methods of raising borders in cyberspace, focuses on an Internet activity that is designed to bypass the territorial partitioning of cyberspace and render any partitioning attempts ineffective. The activity — cybertravel — permits users to access content on the Internet that is normally not available when they connect to the Internet from their geographical location. By utilizing ...

Part of the Business Administration, Management, and Operations Commons This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the College of Business at Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Department of Management, Marketing & Operations-Daytona Beach by an authorized administrator of Scholarly Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected].

Molecular Pharming, the production of recombinant pharmaceuticals through plant biotechnology, has the potential to transform the biologics sector of the pharmaceutical industry. More fascinating however, is how it might be used to improve access to modern medicines, and improve health of the poor in developing countries and emerging economies. Although improving global health through molecular pharming has been discussed for at least two decades, little progress has actually been made. In this manuscript, a four point plan is described to maximise the opportunity for molecular pharming to provide solutions. These are (i) to identify and prioritise important drug targets that are relevant to the poor; (ii) to support research and development partners in low to middle income countries to develop local expertise, transfer technology and build capacity; (iii) to increase collaboration between regulatory bodies to enable national regulatory frameworks to be developed in low to middle income countries; and (iv) to promote intellectual property management approaches that include socially responsible licensing. An existing case study is described to illustrate how this might be achieved. 2013) Realising the value of plant molecular pharming to benefit the poor in developing countries and emerging economies. Plant Biotechnol. J.,

The production of raspberries is an important and highly valuable part of the agroindustry, which provides direct use of fruits and their application in the food processing and confectionery industry. Acceptance of plant intellectual property protection additionally influences the introduction of new development programs in this field and expansion of new products. Two approaches in plant intellectual property protection have been developed on a global level: the American approach that allows patentability for plants and the European approach that includes an exemption in relation to the patentability of plant varieties. In both cases, the protection of new varieties is regulated by a special system of variety protection. This article presents a comparison of those two plant variety protection systems and the comparison between Serbian and US raspberry production and innovation in this field, since these countries are among the five major producers of raspberries and raspberry products in the world; therefore, intellectual property protection of raspberry varieties is an especially important issue to them. The area harvested with raspberries in the United States is over 3000 ha smaller than in Serbia, but the production of this fruit is significantly higher. The continuous development of new varieties, primarily adapted to the growing conditions in US regions, has strongly increased the yield of this fruit.

In recent years, intellectual property violation events have caused enterprise to respect digital content protection. Illegal copying digital content abuses become a serious problem. Because the mobile devices are more portable and individualized than personal computers, anyone can access the network resources at anytime from anywhere. However, valuable digital contents without proper protection make the content vulnerable to unauthorized copying, modification and redistribution , causing revenue losses to service providers. Thus, constructing an effective Digital Right Management (DRM) system has become an important issue. On the basis of the mobile device, we propose an efficient digital rights management protocol. We apply symmetrical cryptosystem, asymmetrical cryptosystem, digital signature and one-way hash function mechanisms in our scheme. To overcome * Corresponding author.

One of the main features of the technology is saving the personal information and the many ways to access this information and build many reports to use it to help the organizations to take the right decisions. The personal information may contain sensitive information, and that may lead to abuse of using this information due to another purpose such protecting the others or due to losing to control for the people who have access to this information. McFarland, M. (2012). Al-Khouri, A. (2012). Explains that multiple owner can own the personal information as the below Figure and when the user registers their information they give them the authority to use this data and using this information depend on the ethical of the organizations and to the country laws. The organizations must consider the human rights of using the personal information and Erm.ecs.soton.ac.uk, (2015). Explains that the information must use it without harm the others maintain their privacy by taking the required pe...

In the last 10 years a new dimension of branding was developed: national branding. The concept is as controversial as the concept of globalization; specialist either embraced or criticized it. But more and more countries hire specialist in order to shape a national brand, attractive for other individuals, residents in foreign countries. The concept is meant to create or emphasize national identity in a globalised world. But the national brand is not just a concept, some fliers and maybe a video or two. The national brand is influenced by the country’s economy, and the intellectual property rights made representative for that state. New patented inventions, new successful brands, the promotion of traditional knowledge can help enhance the international image of a nation. The paper explores the structure of the national brand meaning the elements that put together form the image of a nation and how intellectual property (IP) aspects can be found or not in these elements. The goal is t...

The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.

Resumen: En su reciente sentencia en el asunto UsedSoft c. Oracle International, el Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea ha declarado el agotamiento del derecho del autor del programa de ordenador para oponerse a la sucesiva reventa de copias de su programa que hubieran sido adquiridas a cambio de un precio y por un período ilimitado en el tiempo, con independencia de que exista una copia física o fuera descargado de una página web y aun cuando se hubiera pacta-do alguna cláusula contractual a contrario. Mientras que esta decisión será bien recibida por los licenciatarios y las empresas de reventa de software, no puede decirse lo mismo de las compañías que diseñan y comercializan programas de ordenador. ¿Pero realmente esto es así? Las caracte-rísticas del mercado emergente permiten dar una respuesta negativa, dado que las compañías de software presumiblemente centrarán su atención en la inserción de nuevas medidas tecnológicas de control del acceso y el uso del programa y en el desarrollo de sistemas de cloud-computing. Palabras clave: reventa de licencias de uso de programas de ordenador, agotamiento del derecho de distribución, descarga del software. Abstract: In its recent judgment in the case UsedSoft v. Oracle International,

The effectiveness of patent is mostly determined by its width, length and height. Each of these dimensions is a subject of analysis in this paper. These three dimensions, together determine “the strength of a patent”. Such perspective allows us to form a fundamental assumption that a given strength of a patent could be achieved as a result of many different combinations of those three factors, differing in terms of efficiency from the social perspective. This is the main hypothesis of this text. On this ground a key question is formulated – i.e. which combination of patent structural features is the most efficient to create the given (present) strength of a patent.

Web archives preserve the history of born-digital content and oer great potential for sociologists, business analysts, and legal experts on intellectual property and compliance issues. Data quality is crucial for these purposes. Ideally, crawlers should gather sharp captures of entire Web sites, but the politeness etiquette and completeness requirement mandate very slow, long-duration crawling while Web sites undergo changes. This

The first question that will be examined in this paper is whether IP addresses should be considered personal data. Even if many jurisdictions accept IP addresses as personal data, not every legal system takes this stance. Secondly as a result of the technical process in peer-to-peer (P2P) networks users' IP addresses are visible to others users while downloading/uploading files. One could then be tempted to argue that internet users make this data (their IP addresses) publicly available when they access (P2P) networks.  However, how consciously the peers reveal their IP addresses is a question that needs to be answered more categorically. Secondly, this paper will evaluate whether copyright holders’ obvious legitimate interest in enforcing copyright claims against infringers can overweight the privacy of the data subject. Overall, this paper will examine which criterion can be taken into account, in today’s digital age, when assessing the lawfulness of IP addresses processing in P2P networks. In this respect, the paper examines the 95/46/EC Directive, German Law and Swiss Law in a comparative perspective.

Arguments for intellectual property rights have generally taken one of three forms. Personality theorists maintain that intellectual property is an extension of individual personality. Rule-utilitarians ground intellectual property rights in social progress and incentives to innovate. Lockeans argue that rights are justified in relation to labor and merit. While each of these strands of justification has weaknesses there are also strengths. In this article, I will present and examine personality-based, rule-utilitarian, and Lockean justifications for intellectual property. Care is needed so that we do not confuse moral claims with legal ones. The brief sketch of Anglo-American and Continental systems of intellectual property below, focuses on legal conceptions and rights while the arguments that follow-personality based, utilitarian, and Lockeanare essentially moral. I will argue that there are justified moral claims to intellectual works-claims that are strong enough to warrant legal protection. 5.1.1 What Is Intellectual Property? 1 Intellectual property is generally characterized as nonphysical property that is the product of cognitive processes and whose value is based upon some idea or collection